Chapter 3: Pressure, Winds, & Currents

Page 64-80 in textbook

A haboob (dust storm) in Phoenix, AZ

Wind Essentials

 Air flows from one region to another

because of differences in air pressure
(caused by uneven heating).
 Heating imbalance between the equator
(more insolation) and poles (less
insolation) creates atmospheric, oceanic,
and weather circulation patterns. Carries
heat poleward.
 Local circulation patterns also exist, for
example on and off shore flow of wind due
to day/night heating differences of the land
and ocean and fronts.
 To the right, satellite image of the Pacific
Ocean showing hurricanes Kilo, Ignacio,
and Jimena on 9/1/2015. First time there
were 3 powerful hurricanes in a single
basin at one time, but this has been more
common since.
 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-
weather-gang/wp/2018/01/30/harvey-irma-and-
maria-now-in-the-top-5-costliest-hurricanes-on-
record-noaa-says/
Harvey, Irma and Maria 9/8/2017
NOAA GOES 16 satellite image
from 9/4/2019 shows: Hurricane
Juliette (Pacific), Tropical Storm
Fernand, Hurricane Dorian, and
Tropical Storm Gabrielle.
NOAA GOES 16 satellite
image of category 5 Dorian
with 185 mph sustained
winds and gusts up to 220
mph.
Air Pressure and Its Measurement
 Air pressure: force exerted on a surface by air
molecules due to collision of molecules or gravity.
Pressure decreases with altitude, highest at the surface
because of the weight of the overlying atmosphere.
 Pressure depends on temperature and density
 Cooling air: molecules slow, less collisions, more
dense.
 Warming air: molecules have more energy and speed
up, more collisions, less dense.
 Air molecules exert more force (higher pressure) when
they are closer together (more dense) and less force
when they are farther apart (less dense).
 Book says: “Air molecules exert more force when they
are closer together (true), as at the Earth’s surface
(true), or when the temperature is higher and they are
moving more quickly (misleading)” Depends on
density, in the atmosphere warm air expands decreasing
density, less collisions occur, pressure decreases.
 Mercury barometer: 1 meter glass tube filled with
mercury 760 mm (29.92 inches) 1013.2 mb (m)
 Aneroid barometer: Contains a sealed chamber
partially emptied of air that expands & contracts with
changes in pressure that moves the needle.
Air Pressure

 Normal sea level pressure is

1013.2 mb (millibar).
 Normal surface range 980 mb
to 1050 mb
Wind
 Wind: horizontal motion of air caused by differences in pressure.
 Flows from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure.
 Turbulence causes air to move vertically in updrafts and downdrafts
 Properties measured are direction and speed = velocity
 Anemometer: measures speed: kmph, mph or knots (kt).
 Knot: nautical mile per hour = 1.85 kmph, 1.15 mph, distance = 1
minute of longitude at the equator.
 Beaufort wind scale: descriptive scale based on simple observations
 Wind vane: determines wind direction
 Usually measured at 10 m (33 ft) to reduce surface effects.
Forces that Drive the Wind

Four forces affect wind velocity

 Gravitational Force: Gravity pulls air molecules

toward the center of the Earth compressing air and
increasing density. Pressure is greatest at Earth’s
surface and decreases with altitude.

 Pressure Gradient: difference in air pressure

between two points on Earth’s surface.

 Pressure Gradient Force: force created by

differences in air pressure that creates wind. Drives
air from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure. No difference in air pressure = no wind.

 Cold, dense air exerts greater pressure than warm,

less dense air.

 Isobar is an isoline that connects areas of equal

pressure. Closely spaced isobars lead to faster wind.
Farther spaced isobars lead to slower wind.
Four Forces Drive the Wind

 Coriolis Force: Fluids and airborne objects

appear to be deflected in relation to Earth’s
rotating surface. To the right in the Northern
Hemisphere & to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere. Zero effect along the equator,
maximum at the poles. The greater the
distance, the greater the deflection.
Hurricane winds rotate because of the
Coriolis force.
 Friction Force: moving fluids or airborne
objects near the surface are slowed down
due to friction, also reduces the Coriolis
effect close to the surface (to a height of
about 500 m). Rougher surfaces produce
more friction. Causes winds to move across
isobars at an angle (20°-45°)
 See Dorian’s winds spiral from the
international space station here:
https://www.inverse.com/article/58984-iss-s
hows-hurricane-dorian-from-space
Effects of Forces on Winds
 High pressure descending and diverging air (anticyclone)
air spirals outward at the surface
 Low pressure ascending and converging air (cyclone) air
spirals into the low at the surface. Hurricanes are extremely
low pressure systems.
 Above 500 m, no friction = geostrophic winds (winds flow
parallel to isobars) hurricane winds up to 500 m flow
counterclockwise, at the top (outflow) they reverse and flow
clockwise.
 In the southern hemisphere directions reverse.
Global Patterns of
Pressure and Motion

 Atmospheric circulation
driven by energy
surplus at equator and
deficits at poles which
creates a global pattern
of high and low
pressure.
 Energy is transferred
from tropics to poles.
 The atmosphere
transfers most of the
energy from 35° to the
poles, the ocean from 0°
to 17°.
 3 scales of atmospheric
circulation: primary:
global, secondary:
continental, and tertiary:
local
Primary High and Low Pressure Areas

 Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ):

low pressure region where warm, moist,
less dense air rises along the equator
creating a band of precipitation.
 Polar high pressure cells: cold, dense,
dry air, sinks at the poles creating weak
high pressure areas.
 Subtropical high pressure cells: dense,
dry air sinking over the tropics create high
pressure areas.
 Subpolar low pressure cells: warm air
moving from the tropics to the poles create
areas of low pressure
ITCZ (Intertropical convergence zone)

 ITCZ: Warm, moist air converges at the

equator where the trade winds of the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres come together, rises,
cools, releases latent heat, and produces
condensation and rainfall.
 Seasonal shifts in the ITCZ due to the migration
of the subsolar point, creates wet and dry
seasons for nations along its extent. The ITCZ
produces intense rainfall.
 Not a straight line that follows parallels, it
follows where the most intense heating occurs
which is on land closest to the subsolar point.
 Winds are calm and mildly variable. This is
known by sailors as the doldrums where wind
driven ships often stalled.
 Around 20° N and S, air descends, forming high
pressure cells in the subtropics: Hadley Cells
 Hadley Cells: are two high pressure circulation
cells on either side of the equator
 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/doldrums.ht
ml
“This image is a combination of cloud data from NOAA’s newest Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
(GOES-11) and color land cover classification data. The ITCZ is the band of bright white clouds that cuts across the
center of the image.” https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/703/the-intertropical-convergence-zone
Subtropical High Pressure Cells
 Between 20° and 35° N and S are high pressure zones consisting of warm, dry
air. The skies are normally clear & cloudless.
 Deserts are typical in these regions: Sahara, Arabian, Gobi, American deserts
 Descending air in the Hadley cell meets descending air in the Ferrel cell.
 This air is pushed downward and warmed through compression, becomes dry
due to warming air and lowering relative humidity and much of the moisture
was lost at the ITCZ.
 Air sinking hits the surface and spreads out in either direction.
 Air flowing toward the equator forms the northeast trade winds in the Northern
Hemisphere and the southeast trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Air flowing toward the midlatitudes is deflected by the Coriolis force to form
the westerlies. http://geophile.net/Lessons/atmosphere/atm_circulation_04.html
Subtropical High Pressure Cells
 Shifting pressure cells
 Bermuda and Azores high in the
Atlantic, it’s called the Bermuda
high when farther west, and the
Azores when farther East.
Influences hurricane formation
and track.
 Pacific (or Hawaiian) high, blocks
storms coming from the west and
deflects poleward during the
summer. Moves southward during
the winter allowing storms on the
west coast.
 Southern hemisphere highs
migrate with the subsolar point.
 High pressure cell’s eastern sides
produce dry summer conditions &
influence climate in the subtropics
and midlatitudes= world’s deserts,
cooler ocean currents
Subpolar Low Pressure Cells
along the Polar Front

 In January, two low pressure

cyclonic cells exist over the
oceans around 60° N.: North
Pacific Aleutian low & North
Atlantic Icelandic low
 These disappear or weaken in
summer
 The area of contrast between
cold, dry air from the polar
regions and warm, moist air
brought by the westerlies forms
the polar front.
 Here, air with different
characteristics battle and bring
storms and rain.
 The polar front circles Earth
producing large low pressure
cyclonic storms that bring rain
and cool and moist air to the mid-
latitude areas of North America
and Europe.
Polar High Pressure Cells
and Winds They Drive

 Weak due to lack of energy

from the Sun
 Cold, dry, weak winds
move away from the poles
in an anticyclonic direction
and diverge clockwise
(NH) and counterclockwise
(SH).
 These winds form the Polar
easterlies
 Antarctic high is stronger
and more persistent than
the Arctic high because it is
over land.
 Arctic high pressure tends
to locate over the colder
northern continental areas
in winter (rather than over
the ocean) such as Siberia
and Arctic regions of
Canada.
Upper Atmospheric Circulation

 Circulation in the mid and upper

troposphere are an important part
of the general circulation.
 Wind systems in the mid and
upper troposphere create weather
patterns and guide storms at the
surface.
 500 mb isobaric (isobaric =
pressure) surface shown at right,
the numbers are feet above sea
level.
 Areas of high pressure are ridges,
and areas of low pressure are
troughs.
 Help to sustain surface level
systems.
 Winds near ridges slow, converge,
and descend, create high pressure
at surface.
 Winds along troughs, speed up,
diverge, and create low pressure
at the surface.
Rossby Waves

 Form along the polar front

where the westerlies meet
the easterlies.
 Ripples along the polar
front increase in amplitude
to form waves.
 2014 “polar vortex”—
grew in size and traveled
farther south than usual.
 Winter storms in the
midlatitudes form along
the polar front.
Jet Streams
 Jet streams: migrating “rivers” of wind that
influence surface weather
 160-480 km (100-300 miles) wide & 900-2150
m (3000-7000 ft) thick, speed > 300kmph (190
mph), weak: summer, stronger: winter
 Polar jet stream: 30°-70° along polar front,
brings cold air masses south, ~25000-35000 ft
 Subtropical jet stream 20°-50°, can happen at
the same time as polar jet stream
Local and Regional
Winds

 Driven by temperature
and pressure differences
on a small scale
 Land and Sea Breezes:
formed from differences
in land and water
heating.
 Land warms faster
during the day, warm
less dense air above the
land rises, cool denser
air from over the ocean
flows on shore to
replace the uplifted air,
onshore breeze.
 Can cool the
temperature on the coast
by 2-10°C (3.6-18°F)
Land and Sea Breezes:

 At night, land cools

faster than water. The
low is now over the
water, the warmer less
dense air over the
water rises, and the
cooler denser air from
land flows out over
the ocean, offshore
breeze.
 Offshore breezes are
usually not as strong
as onshore breezes.
Mountain and Valley Breezes
 Mountain air cools rapidly at night, valley air heats during day.
 Warm air rises upslope during the day. Cooler air subsides
downslope at night.
 Santa Ana Winds: High pressure builds over the Great Basin,
low over ocean; strong, hot, dry, dusty winds flow across desert
toward Southern California coastal areas. Leads to dangerous
wildfires.
Katabatic Winds

 Stronger than local scale

winds, are regional scale
 Air at the surface cools,
becomes denser, flows
downslope from an elevated
platform or highland. Gravity
is the mechanism, not
specifically pressure.
 Antarctica, Tibetan Plateau,
and Greenland have katabatic
winds.

Katabatic Winds in Antarctica

https://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/katabatic-winds-of-antarctica/
Monsoon Winds
 Regional winds, secondary circulation system
 Monsoons: Seasonally shifting wind systems caused by the annual cycle of migrating ITCZ and pressures.
 Occur over the tropical regions of: SE Asia, Indonesia, India, N. Australia, and equatorial Africa, mild (mini) SW U.S. & S
America (Brazil)
 Ex. Winter: high pressure over central Asia, ITCZ over Indian Ocean (a). Cold dry winds over India & the Himalayas flow out
towards the ocean. Summer: low pressure (ITCZ) over India, onshore flow of warm moist air that is lifted by the Himalayas
often causing heavy precipitation and sometimes widespread flooding. Critical water source for South Asia.
Ocean Currents

 Play an important role in the

transfer of heat energy from
the equator.
 Surface currents are driven by
frictional drag of winds
flowing over the surface and
deflected by the Coriolis effect.
Also by density (geostrophic
currents) Gulf Stream.
 Gyres: large circular currents
driven by the subtropical high
pressure cells.
 Trade winds push water along
the equator causing Western
intensification: water piles up
on east coasts and forms
poleward moving currents:
Gulf stream.
 https://marine.coastal.edu/
gulfstream/p2.htm
Upwelling & Downwelling Flows

 Water moves vertically and horizontally due to winds and differences in temperature, salinity, and density
 Upwelling forms where water is pushed away from the coast & where water diverges due to winds like along the equator.
 Brings cooler, nutrient-rich water toward the surface, large fisheries
 Off Pacific coasts & west coast of Africa, and along the equator.
 Downwelling: occurs where winds make water converge and where colder water overlies warm water (arctic)
Thermohaline Circulation—Deep Currents

 Thermohaline circulation: deep currents caused by differences in density because of differences in temperature and salinity
 Move large amounts of water and heat, but slower than surface currents, whole circuit can take 1000 years.
 When salty water cools from the surface, it sinks and forms deep water currents.
 Climate change and large additions of fresh water in the Arctic ocean can affect the thermohaline circulation.
Natural Oscillations in
Global Circulation

 El Niño Southern Oscillation

(ENSO): occurs in the Pacific
Ocean, stages are based on the
spatial extent of the Pacific
Warm Pool and how it affects
the Walker Circulation (high
and low pressure systems in
the Pacific Ocean).
 Causes greatest year-to-year
variability of temperature and
precipitation on a global scale.
 Can occur as early as spring
and summer and persist
throughout the year or more
than a year.
 Warm pool is extended in an
El Nino and retracted in an La
Nina.
 Normally, cool water upwells
along west coast of S. America
El Niño: Warm Phase
 Warm pool extends towards S.
America, cold tongue missing.
(up to 8°C/14°F warmer)
 Air pressures & trade winds
shift & upwelling is blocked.
Plankton, fish & seals die.
 Higher pressure than normal
over the western Pacific and
lower pressure than normal
over the eastern Pacific.
 Trade winds weaken or reverse.
 Changes wind flow direction
over Atlantic and can cause
stronger wind shear reducing
formation of Atlantic
hurricanes. (book wrong)
 Stronger hurricanes in the
eastern Pacific; droughts in
South Africa, India, Australia,
& the Philippines, increased
rainfall across southern US and
in Peru sometimes causing
floods and landslides.
La Niña: Cool phase
 Warm pool retracted close to
Australia’s coast
 Stronger upwelling, extended cold
tongue off the shore of S. America
that continues farther along the
equator than normal.
 Stronger trade winds
 Change in pressure cells, low is
closer to Indonesia, high pressure
along most of the equator.
 Less wind shear over Atlantic,
favorable conditions for Atlantic
hurricanes. (book wrong)
 Wetter conditions throughout
Indonesia, the South Pacific, and
Brazil; U.S. winter temperatures
are warmer than normal in the
Southeast, cooler than normal in
the Northwest
 https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/elnino/
what-is-el-nino
 https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/elnino/
what-is-la-nina
Currently in a
normal phase
could be
heading into a
La Nina
Complete Homework
& quiz. Next week
Chapter 4.