ES3B5 Engines and

Heat Pumps
Week 7 – Lecture 1
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines

Dr Steven Metcalf
Week 7 Office Hours: Mon 13:00-14:00, Thur 15:00-16:00
 Weeks 7-9 Content
Week 7
Idealised IC Engine cycles
• Spark Ignition (Otto cycle)
• Compression Ignition (Diesel)
Week 8
Combustion
• Air-Fuel ratio
• Enthalpy of formation and combustion
• Combustion process in IC engines
Week 9
Real engine performance
• Idealized vs actual performance
• Recent developments in IC engines
Lecture Content

• What is an Internal Combustion (IC) Engine?

• Why should we study them?
• Application areas
• Reciprocating engine terminology
• Operating principles and cycles
• 2-stroke vs. 4-stroke
• Spark ignition (SI) and Compression ignition (CI)
• Introduction to idealised cycles
 What is an Internal Combustion Engine?

• The first heat

engines used steam
as the working fluid
• Heat was transferred
from the products of
combustion to the
working fluid without
mixing of the two
• Thus, combustion
was external to the
working fluid
 What is an Internal Combustion Engine?

• In an Internal Combustion (IC)

Engine, the combustion of the fuel
takes place inside the working
fluid circuit
• The oxidizer is usually air, which is
then also the working fluid
• Gas turbines, jet engines and
most rocket engines are
technically IC engines, but the
term is usually reserved for
engines with intermittent
combustion
 What is an Internal Combustion Engine?
Intermittent combustion engine types

Pistonless rotary type

engines are rare
• Tend to suffer from
rotor tip wear
• Often poor fuel
consumption and Mazda RX8 – 2002-2012
emissions
• Mazda are one of the
few companies to
persevere with the
type
Pistonless rotary
Mazda 787B – 1991 Le Mans Winner
 What is an Internal Combustion Engine?
Intermittent combustion engine types

Pistonless rotary type

engines are rare
• Tend to suffer from
rotor tip wear Reciprocating engines are
• Often poor fuel
consumption and predominant and will be the
emissions focus of this part of the
• Mazda are one of the
few companies to module
persevere with the
type
Pistonless rotary Reciprocating, piston-cylinder type
Why should we study them?

Are IC engines going to be replaced by batteries or fuel

cells and electric motors in the near future?
• Long-term aim of most governments is to make
electricity supply 100% renewable and electrify
transport
• EVs make most sense if the electricity supply to
charge them is renewable. If the electricity is
generated by fossil fuels, then once transmission
losses and battery charging losses are accounted for,
the CO2 emissions would be similar to a hybrid ICE
vehicle
 Why should we study them?
The main advantage of combustible fuels is their high energy density,
which makes it likely that long-distance transport (e.g. shipping) and
aircraft will continue to use combustion engines for some time.

Diesel thermal energy density: 37 MJ litre -1

Lithium-ion battery energy density: 1.8 MJ litre -1 IC Engine thermal efficiency: 40-50%
Energy density, work output: 14.8 – 18.5 MJ litre -1
 Why should we study them?
• IC engines have been developed to run efficiently on a wide
range of liquid and gaseous combustible fuels, some of which
could be produced sustainably
Alcohols
Ammonia

Petrol Hydrogen

Methane Vegetable Oil

Diesel
 Why should we study them?
• IC engines are still undergoing improvement in the quest to
make them more efficient and reduce CO2 emissions
• Improvements have also been made, and more can still be done, in reducing
other pollutant emissions such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Mazda SkyActiv-X Toyota Atkinson cycle Nissan variable

lean-burn compression ratio

• An understanding of their theory and operation is required in order for

engineers to aid in this constant development
 Why should we study them?
• Lastly, the thermodynamics and analysis techniques can be
applied to other thermo-mechanical devices that operate with
a gaseous working fluid, and to other applications of
combustion

Expansion of air
cycle cooler
Stirling engine
 Application Areas

Main application is in transport

• Road vehicles
• Cars, buses, trucks, motorbikes, etc
• Ships/boats
 Application Areas

• Also used in stationary power generation applications

• And where portability is required

 Application Areas

Power outputs from 1 kW

(garden tools) to 85 MW
(ship engines) with
displacements from
0.025 to 25,000 litres

0.032 litres (32cc)

chainsaw engine
25,480 litres Sulzer RTA-96C
14 (Emma Maersk ship)
 Application Areas
Gas Turbine Materials
Reciprocating IC Engine Materials

HP Compressor blades - HP Turbine blades -

Titanium or nickel alloy Nickel alloy Cylinder liner - Piston – Aluminium,
Cast iron steel or cast iron

Cylinder block –
Aluminium or cast iron
Combustion chamber -
Nickel alloy

Connecting rod – Steel Crankshaft - Steel

 Application Areas

• Gas turbine, turbine inlet temperature:

Typical Maximum 1600°C
• Gasoline/petrol reciprocating engine
combustion temperature: +2000°C

Q. How is this possible if reciprocating engines use lower

melting point materials?

A. Gas turbine HP compressor blades, combustion chamber

and turbine blades are continuously at high temperature.
Whereas combustion in a reciprocating engine is
intermittent.
Application Areas
Gas Turbines Reciprocating IC Engines

Efficiency typically 30-50% Efficiency typically 30 (small gasoline

engine) to 50% (large Diesel engine)
Efficiency drops significantly at part Efficiency drops less significantly at
load, making them unsuitable for road part load, making them suited to road
transport. Used where part-load transport
efficiency less important, e.g. aircraft

Require exotic materials to withstand Require no exotic materials

high temperatures

Mostly in the 1-600 MW range where Limited to ~85 MW, as their size
their high specific output (power to becomes impractical. Used in
weight and size) makes them container ships at this output where
significantly more compact than a their size can be accommodated (to a
reciprocating engine large extent due to their ability to run
on low-cost fuel oil)
Reciprocating Engine Terminology

Camshafts

Valves

Cylinder head Camshaft belt

Piston Cylinder block

Connecting rod

Flywheel Crankshaft
Reciprocating Engine Terminology
Inlet port
Exhaust port

Exhaust valve Inlet valve

Cylinder block Piston

Cylinder bore
Connecting rod
Crankcase (con rod)

Crankshaft
Reciprocating Engine Terminology

Cylinder head

Inlet cam
Exhaust cam

Valve springs

Exhaust port Inlet port

Exhaust valve Inlet valve

Spark plug
Reciprocating Engine Terminology

Geometry

Bore

Crank throw
Reciprocating Engine Terminology

Top Dead Centre (TDC)

• Piston at the ‘top’ of its Clearance

stroke and connecting rod volume
and crank aligned with
the cylinder centreline
• Cylinder volume at a
minimum - the clearance
volume
Reciprocating Engine Terminology

Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)

• Piston at the ‘bottom’ of

its stroke and connecting
rod and crank aligned
with the cylinder
centreline
• Cylinder volume at a
maximum
Reciprocating Engine Terminology Displacement is sometimes termed
‘swept volume’ or ‘capacity’. The
displacement of an engine is the
cylinder displacement multiplied by the
total number of cylinders.
Displacement, Vd = BDC Volume – TDC Volume

𝜋𝐵 2
= 𝑆 Stroke, S
4
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝐶 Bore, B
Compression ratio, 𝑟𝑐 = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇𝐷𝐶

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉max
If 𝑟𝑐 = , then 𝑉min =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟c
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 Stroke (S) = 2 ✕ Crank throw (C)
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
𝑟𝑐

Therefore:
𝑽𝒅 𝒓𝐜 Crank throw, C
𝑽𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
(𝒓𝐜 − 𝟏)
Operating cycles

Spark Ignition Compression Ignition

(Petrol/Gasoline) (Diesel)

- 4 Strokes/ 2 Revolutions - 4 Strokes/ 2 Revolutions

per cycle per cycle
4-Stroke
- Fuel-Air mixture ignited by - Fuel-Air mixture ignited by
spark compression

- 2 Strokes/ 1 Revolution per - 2 Strokes/ 1 Revolution per

cycle cycle
2-Stroke
- Fuel-Air mixture ignited by - Fuel-Air mixture ignited by
spark compression
Operating cycles

Spark Ignition Compression Ignition

(Petrol/Gasoline) (Diesel)

4-Stroke

2-Stroke
Operating cycles –
4-Stroke Spark Ignition

1. Inlet / Induction Stroke Fuel-Air Mixture

Inlet valve opens and piston moves

from TDC to BDC, drawing in a
mixture of air and fuel
Operating cycles –
4-Stroke Spark Ignition

2. Compression Stroke

Inlet valve closes and piston moves

from BDC to TDC compressing the
fuel-air mixture, increasing its pressure
and temperature
Operating cycles –
4-Stroke Spark Ignition

3. Power/Expansion Stroke

Spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture,

causing a near instantaneous increase
in pressure and temperature

Piston moves from TDC to BDC,

expanding the combustion products
and producing useful work output
Operating cycles –
4-Stroke Spark Ignition

Exhaust gases
4. Exhaust Stroke

Exhaust valve opens, causing sudden

decrease in pressure

Piston moves from BDC to TDC,

expelling the combustion products
from the cylinder

Exhaust valve closes at TDC

Transparent cylinder engine

youtube.com/c/TROdesigns
Transparent cylinder engine

youtube.com/c/TROdesigns
Transparent cylinder engine
Transparent cylinder engine
Cycle p-V diagram

Engine rotated to
align the stroke with
the x-axis on the p-V
diagram

p
Heat input from Power stroke
combustion

Idealised p-V plot

Compression stroke Exhaust ‘blowdown’
patmos

Vclearance Vmax
V
Idealised Spark Ignition p-V diagram

p
Heat input from 3. Power stroke
combustion

2. Compression Exhaust ‘blowdown’

stroke
patmos

Vclearance Vmax
V
1. Induction stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
Air Standard Cycle

• The 4-stroke spark ignition cycle is an open thermo-mechanical cycle. A mixture of fuel and
air is inducted into the cylinder, is compressed and then combusted, forming a mixture of
mainly CO2, water vapour, nitrogen and any excess oxygen not required for combustion.
• It is then expanded to produce useful work output before undergoing an irreversible
expansion (on exhaust valve opening). The remaining combustion products are then pushed
from the cylinder on the exhaust stroke before inducting a fresh mix of fuel and air on the
next intake stroke.
• In order to analyse the system as a thermodynamic cycle, we need to make some further
assumptions.

Thermodynamic cycle: any closed system (only heat and/or work cross the
system boundary) that undergoes various changes in state variables such as
temperature, pressure, and volume, but where the final and initial states are equal.
Air Standard Cycles

The air standard cycle assumptions are:

• Closed system where only heat and work cross the

system boundary
• All processes are internally reversible
• The working fluid is dry air only for the complete cycle

We will see later that in reciprocating internal combustion engines, the mass ratio of air to
fuel is usually ≥14:1. Additionally, air is approximately 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by
mass. Only the oxygen takes part in the combustion and therefore the atmospheric
nitrogen, the major component, is unchanged by the combustion process. These two
factors make the air standard assumptions not unreasonable, at least as a first
approximation in the analysis of engine efficiency.
Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
The air standard cycle for spark
ignition engines is known as the
Otto or constant volume cycle.
It consists of: p 3

1→2 Isentropic compression Qin Wout

2→3 Heat addition at constant

2
volume 4
3→4 Isentropic expansion Qout
Win 1
4→1 Heat rejection at constant
volume Vmin Vmax
V
Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle

In the Ideal Air Standard Cycle, it is further assumed that the air
behaves as an ideal (perfect) gas. This is sometimes termed the
Cold Air Standard Cycle, as the properties of air (R, cp, cv, γ) are
taken at a standard temperature of 25°C and are assumed to not
vary with temperature.

The cycle can therefore be analysed using the ideal gas property
relationships for isentropic and constant volume processes. These
can be found in the Engineering Databook, or in the Internal
Combustion Engines Datasheet on Moodle.

Chapter 6.6: Engineering Databook

 Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
Net work output 𝑤net
Engine Thermal Efficiency, η = = (1)
Heat input 𝑞
in

First law for a closed cycle:

ΣQ= ΣW (2)
p 3

Therefore: Qin Wout

qin – qout = wout – win = wnet (3)

2
4
→ Engine Thermal Efficiency, η = net = 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑤
𝑞 −𝑞 𝑞
(4)
𝑞 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛
in Qout
Win 1
Processes 2→3 and 4 → 1 are at constant volume. For an ideal gas:
Vmin Vmax
qin = cv(T3 - T2) (5) V
qout = cv(T4 - T1) (6)

𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 −𝑇1 𝑇4 −𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇4 Τ𝑇1 −1

→ 𝜂𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 − =1− =1− =1− . (7)
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇3 Τ𝑇2 −1
Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
Processes 1→2 and 3→4 are isentropic, for which 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant.
Therefore:
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1
= (8)
𝑇1 𝑉2
p 3
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1
= (9)
𝑇4 𝑉3 Qin Wout

But:
2
𝑉1 𝑉4 4
= = 𝑟c (the compression ratio) (10)
𝑉2 𝑉3 Qout
Win 1
Therefore:
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝛾−1
= = 𝑟c (11) Vmin Vmax
V
𝑇1 𝑇4
Rearranging (11) gives:
𝑇3 𝑇4
= (12)
𝑇2 𝑇1
Ideal Air Standard Cycle
Substituting (11) and (12) into (7) yields:

𝑇1 𝑇4 Τ𝑇1 − 1 𝑇1 1−𝛾
𝜂𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 =1− . = 1 − = 1 − 𝑟𝑐 (13)
p 3
𝑇2 𝑇3 Τ𝑇2 − 1 𝑇2
Qin Wout
This should be familiar to you from ES190 where it was briefly
introduced.
2
The result is that the efficiency of the Otto/Constant Volume cycle 4
under Air Standard assumptions is a function of only the Qout
compression ratio (assuming γ is constant), a factor based on Win 1
engine geometry alone.
Vmin Vmax
V
 Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
1
Mechanical
efficiency
1−𝛾
0.8 𝜂𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 − 𝑟𝑐
𝛾air = 1.40
Ideal Otto cycle

0.6 • Ideal efficiency begins

Efficiency, η

Combined
to plateau above
compression ratios of
~20:1
0.4
• The mechanical
efficiency reduces with
increased compression
0.2 ratio (increased
pressure resulting in
higher loads and
0 increased friction)
5 10 15 20 • Compression ratio of
~15:1 usually optimal
Compression ratio, rc
 Autoignition (‘Knock’)
800

700 In practice, compression ratios in

modern spark ignition engines are
600 usually between 10 and 13:1
Higher compression ratios can result in
500
auto-ignition, often termed ‘knock’
T2 (°C)

400 At high compression ratios, the fuel-air

mixture will reach a higher temperature
300 at the end of compression, T2, with a
resultant increase in the temperature at
200
Temperature at end of the end of combustion, T3.
compression, T2, with varied
100 Some of the fuel-air mixture may reach
compression ratio for T1=25°C
its auto-ignition temperature and
0 spontaneously combust before the
5 10 15 20 spark-initiated flame front reaches it
Compression ratio, rc
 Autoignition (‘Knock’)

Autoignition causes a rapid pressure rise that can result in engine damage

Auto-ignition / Knock

Spark-initiated
flame front

Knock related
piston damage
Octane rating

Fuel for spark ignition engines is rated for knock

resistance with an ‘Octane Number’
The fuel’s rating is determined in a test engine and
compared against a mixture of heptane (a low
knock resistance fuel) and iso-octane (a high
knock resistance fuel)
The octane number is the volume percentage of
octane in a heptane-octane mix that has the same
knock resistance as the fuel. E.g. a 90 octane fuel
has the same knock resistance as a mix of 90%
octane and 10% heptane.
Higher Octane number→Higher knock resistance
Octane rating
Most modern spark ignition engines have knock
sensors bolted to their cylinder block or cylinder head
to detect knock. They are essentially microphones that
can detect the resulting vibrations and adjust the
ignition timing to prevent knock and enable the engine
to run as efficiently as possible on whatever octane
rating of fuel is supplied

Recommended and minimum octane ratings

Engines have a minimum acceptable octane

rating, which to a large extent will depend on
their compression ratio, but also other
factors such as turbocharging (covered
further later)
Knock sensor
Operating cycles

Spark Ignition Compression Ignition

(Petrol/Gasoline) (Diesel)

4-Stroke
✓
2-Stroke
 Operating cycles – 4 stroke compression ignition (Diesel)

4-stroke compression ignition engines have the same four

strokes as 4-stroke spark ignition engines (Induction,
Compression, Power & Exhaust), but differ in the following
ways:

• In the Induction stroke, only air is drawn into the cylinder

(no fuel)
• The fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke
• The fuel auto-ignites from the high temperature of the air in
in the cylinder as a result of the compression process (no
spark plug).

Diesel fuel injector

4-stroke Diesel

1. Inlet / Induction Stroke

As spark ignition, except air only is Air

induced (no fuel)
4-stroke Diesel

2. Compression Stroke

As spark ignition, except air only is

compresssed (no fuel)
4-stroke Diesel

3. Power Stroke

Fuel injection begins at TDC

Fuel spontaneously ignites as it is

injected due to the high temperature of
the compressed air

Fuel injection occurs during the top

part of the stroke only

4. Exhaust Stroke

Exhaust stroke is identical to spark

ignition (not shown again here)
Compression Ignition
Demonstration of compression ignition!

Piston

Cylinder

Cotton wool
Compression Ignition
Adiabatic compression
 p

patmos

Vclearance Vmax
V
Idealised Diesel p-V diagram
Fuel injection at
constant pressure

p
Expansion
Compression
stroke
Exhaust
blowdown

patmos

Vclearance Vmax

Induction stroke Exhaust stroke

Idealised Diesel p-V diagram
• Fuel is injected at a rate that maintains a
constant pressure.
p
• Pressure is limited by the maximum pressure
capability of the engine. As we shall see later,
the compression ratio and maximum pressure
in a Diesel/compression ignition engine is
much higher than in a spark ignition engine.
patmos
• The duration of the fuel injection is varied
depending on the engine load. This
Vclearance Vcut-off Vmax
introduces a new variable, the cut-off volume. V

• The ratio of the cut-off volume to the 𝑉

cut−off
Cut-off ratio, 𝑟𝑐𝑜 =
clearance volume is termed the cut-off ratio. 𝑉
clearance
Air Standard Diesel Cycle

The air standard cycle for Diesel/compression ignition

engines consists of: p
1→2 Isentropic compression 2 3
2→3 Heat addition at constant pressure
3→4 Isentropic expansion
4→1 Heat rejection at constant volume 4

The only difference to the spark ignition air standard 1

cycle is that the heat addition is at constant pressure
rather than constant volume. There is work output V
during the heat addition phase in the compression
ignition cycle, since the gas is expanding against the
piston from 2→3.
Air Standard Diesel Cycle

p
2 3

V
The ideal Diesel cycle has processes at constant
volume, pressure and entropy, so requires 3 sets
of property relations for its analysis
Chapter 6.6: Engineering Databook
Air Standard Diesel Cycle
For the isentropic process 1→2 (𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant)
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝛾−1 1 𝛾−1 1−𝛾
= = = 𝑟𝑐 (14)
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑟𝑐
For the isentropic process 3→4 p
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑉3 𝛾−1 2 3
𝑇3
= 𝑉4
= 𝑉1
(15)
But:
𝑉1 𝑉3
𝑉
= 𝑟𝑐 and 𝑉
= 𝑟𝑐𝑜 4
2 2
𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉1 𝑟𝑐𝑜
∴ = ൘ =
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑟𝑐 1
𝑇4 𝑟𝑐𝑜 𝛾−1
→ 𝑇3
= 𝑟𝑐
(16) V
For the constant pressure process (V/T=constant) 2→3:
𝑇3 𝑉3
𝑇
= 𝑉
= 𝑟𝑐𝑜 (17)
2 2
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 (18)
Air Standard Diesel Cycle
For the constant volume process 4→1:
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 (19)
And by combining (14), (16) and (17):
𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑟𝑐𝑜 𝛾−1 p
𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑐𝑜 𝛾
= = = 𝑟𝑐𝑜 (20) 2 3
𝑇1 1−𝛾
𝑇1 𝑟𝑐
𝑇2
Returning to Equation 4 for a closed cycle heat engine:
𝑤 𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 4
η = net = =1−
𝑞in 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛
For the ideal Diesel cycle:
𝑞out 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 1
𝜂Diesel = 1 − =1−
𝑞in 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑐𝑝 V
But =𝛾
𝑐𝑣
𝑇
𝑇1 𝑇4−1 We have developed expressions for T1/T2 (14), T4/T1
𝑇4 −𝑇1 1 (20), and T3/T2 (17) that can be substituted in
𝜂Diesel = 1 − = 𝑇 (21)
𝛾 𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝛾𝑇2 𝑇3−1
2
Air Standard Diesel Cycle
Substituting (14), (17) and (20) into (21):
𝑇
𝑇1 4 − 1 1−𝛾 𝛾
𝑟𝑐 (𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1) (22)
𝑇1
𝜂Diesel = 1 − =1−
𝑇3 𝛾(𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1)
𝛾𝑇2 −1
𝑇2
0.7

0.6 rco→1 = Otto

The efficiency is a function of
0.5 compression ratio and cut-off ratio. In
2
a real engine the cut-off ratio depends
Efficiency, η

3 rco
0.4 4 on the duration of combustion, which
0.3
5 in turn will depend on the duration of
fuel injection and the time required for
0.2 combustion to complete after fuel
0.1
injection has stopped.

0
0 5 10 15 20
Compression ratio, rc
 Air Standard Diesel Cycle
0.7

0.6 The efficiency tends to the Otto

Otto cycle efficiency as the cut-off
0.5 2 ratio →1.
3 rco
Efficiency, η

0.4
4 Since the cut-off ratio depends
5 on the duration of combustion,
0.3 it relates to the quantity of fuel
injected and the power output
0.2 of the engine.
0.1
At higher engine loads,
efficiency is therefore reduced
0
0 5 10 15 20
and at low load tends to the
Compression ratio, rc
Otto cycle efficiency
Spark Ignition vs Diesel Engine Efficiency
If Diesel engine efficiency tends to Otto cycle efficiency only as the cut-
off ratio tends to 1, i.e. as the power output tends to zero, why are
Diesel engines generally more efficient than petrol/gasoline engines?

Spark ignition engine compression ratios: 10-13 Diesel engine compression ratios: 16-20
Spark Ignition Engines Diesel Engines

Engine Compression ratio Engine Compression ratio

Ford Ecoboost 1.0 10 Ford 1.5 TDCi 1.5 16

VW 1.4 TSI 10 VW 2.0 TDI 16.2

Ferrari 458 12.5 Scania DC16 086A (Truck) 16.7

Honda S2000 11 Sulzer RTA96 (Marine) 20

Spark Ignition vs Diesel Engine Efficiency

• In a Diesel engine there is no danger of knock, as only air only is

drawn into the cylinder during the intake stroke and compressed.
The fuel is only injected during the power stroke where it auto-
ignites.
• Diesel engines can therefore have higher compression ratios.
• The measure of a Diesel fuels ability to self-ignite under high
pressure and temperature is the cetane number. This is to
compression engine fuels as octane number is to spark ignition
engine fuels. It is measured from a comparison of the ignition
delay of a mix of cetane and iso-cetane. 90 cetane fuel has the
same ignition delay as a mixture of 90% cetane / 10% iso-
cetane.
Spark Ignition vs Diesel Engine Efficiency
0.7
Spark Ignition Diesel

0.6
Otto

0.5 2
3
Efficiency, η

rco
0.4
4
5
0.3

The higher compression ratio of Diesel engines wholly or partly

0.2
makes up for the lower cycle efficiency at the same compression
ratio. It will be shown later that Diesel engines also tend to have
0.1 higher ‘part-load’ efficiency, which is one of the main reasons for
their higher efficiency in road vehicles.
0
0 5 10 15 20
Compression ratio, rc
Octane vs Cetane Number
110

100

90
• Fuels that easily auto-ignite
80
have a high cetane number
70 and are suitable for
Octane number

60
compression ignition engines.

50 • This ability to easily auto-ignite

40 would cause knock in a spark
ignition engine though - fuels
30
with a high cetane number
20 generally have a low octane
number, and vice-versa.
10

0 • This is why the two types of

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ignition require different fuels.
Cetane number

Typical octane vs cetane numbers for crude oil products

Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition Fuels

Lower molecular weight

Higher volatility
Lower flash point
Higher autoignition temperature

Higher molecular weight

Lower volatility
Higher flash point
Lower autoignition temperature
Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition Fuels

Spark Ignition Compression Ignition

Petrol/Gasoline Diesel

LPG Heavy fuel oil

Alcohols Bio-diesel (e.g. vegetable

(Ethanol/Methanol) oil derived)

Ammonia Vegetable oil

Methane Ammonia, Methane, LPG

with Dual-Fuel operation
Summary
• Four-stroke cycles consist of:
1. Inlet 2. Compression
3. Power 4. Exhaust
p 3

• Spark ignition engines

• Intake a mixture of fuel and air 2
4
• Ignite the mixture with a spark plug
1
• Can be approximated as constant volume heat input
V
p
• Compression ignition engines 2 3

• Intake air only

4
• Inject fuel during the power stroke
• Can be approximated as constant pressure heat input 1
 Thanks 😀

See you tomorrow for 2-stroke cycles