2/3/2014

Engine general working principle

Pressure Piston
force connected
to load

• Pressure force pushes a load

– Expansion process; the higher the
expansion, the more work is produced
• Pressure created by combustion
• End pressure limited by ability to exhaust
– Need compression process to generate high
combustion pressure for large expansion

Engines used in transportation

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Reciprocating engines
Gas Turbine engines • Intermittent operation
• Continuous operation • Good fuel economy
• High rotating speed • Moderate rotating speed
• High power density • Mostly for ground and
• Mostly for aircraft application sea automotive
applications 2

Otto and Langen free-piston engine

(from Lichty, Internal-Combustion Engines, 6th ed., 1951, McCraw-Hill)

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Notes:
Lecture 1: Introduction to ICE

Vocabulary
Engine: Device to convert fuel energy to mechanical energy
― Fuel energy to thermal energy by combustion
― Thermal energy to mechanical energy by expansion

Internal combustion: combustion takes place in working fluid

External combustion: combustion occurs externally; energy coupled to working fluid by heat transfer device
Open cycle: working fluid discharged to atmosphere; e.g. all ICE
Close cycle: working fluid recycled through engine; e.g. steam engine with condenser

ICE

Size: displacement volume 1cc to 1m3 per cylinder; comment on why it is difficult to build engine outside this
range.
Power: 10 W to 108 W per cylinder
Applications: Automotive, marine, power generation, mechanical devices
Classification:
― by application: Car, Truck, Marine, Rail, Stationary generation, …
― by basic engine design: reciprocating, rotary, in-line block, V-block, radial, oppose piston, pre-/open chamber
― by working cycle: 2-stroke, 4-stroke, naturally aspirated , turbo-charged, super-charged, turbo-compound
― by fuel: gasoline, diesel, alcohol, natural gas, …
― by mixture preparation: carbureted, fuel injection
― by ignition: spark ignited, compression ignited

History

Circa Event People and key concept

1860 Rudimentary ICE Jean J. Lenoir.
― Key concept: Combustion increases temperature and gas
expands. Expanding gas drives piston to produce mechanical
energy.
― Modified steam energy; no compression
― Operated at 10 cycles/min; efficiency <5% because of low
effective compression ratio
Sold 500 of them
1867 Atmospheric free piston engine Nicolaus Otto and Eugene Langen
― Key concept: still no compression, but use the inertia of a
heavy piston to over-expand the combustion gas to below
atmosphere, thereby increasing the expansion ratio. Output
mechanical work stored as gravitational potential energy in
heavy piston first, and then extracted by clutching piston to
fly wheel on downward stroke.
― Larger expansion ratio: efficiency increased to 11%
― Operate at 28 cycles/minute
― Used a flame ignitor through a sliding window
Sold 5000, dominated market for 10 years until introduction of
the 4-stroke engine
1876 4-stroke engine Nicolaus Otto
1878 2-stroke engine Dougald Clerk
1892 Compression Ignition 4-stroke Rudolf Diesel
― Key concepts: prevent the very rapid and high pressure heat

2
 process via introducing fuel late in the cycle; compression
ignition
― Concept developed by the company MAN
― Diesel was in heavy debt, and jumped off a ship.
1870’s Development of the Petroleum
Industry
1900’s Spark plug dominated the market of Spark plug was invented by Edmond Berger in 1839. Albert
ignition devices Champion was the most successful manufacturer.
1920’s ICE dominated the market of Main reason for not using the steam engine for vehicles was that
automotive power plant too much water was needed.
1920’s Tetra-ethyl lead as anti-knock agent Thomas Midgley, under the direction of Carles Kettering at GM
found the compound to suppress knock after extensive search.
With leaded gasoline, maximum compression ratio was raised
from 5 to 9, and engine efficiency increased substantially
1920- Steady development
1960
1960’s Vehicle emissions became an issue Smog mechanism was discovered by Haagen Smit
1970’s Oil embargo; energy crisis
1980’s Start of global competition
1980’s Catalytic converter and unleaded The 3 way catalyst reduced emissions of CO, HC and NOx by
gasoline more than an order of magnitude, and was the enabler for the
vehicles to meet emissions regulations
1990’s Recognition of importance of green
house gas
2000’s Towards sustainable transportation

Gas exchange process of 4- and 2-stroke engines

See figures 1-2 and 1-3.

― 2-stroke engine theoretically has twice the power density of 2-stroke engine; in practice, the ratio is about 1.4
(value larger for low speed turbo-charger engines) because of incompleteness of scavenging.
― For effective scavenging of the 2-stroke, there will be excess air in the exhaust, and the 3-way catalyst would
not work. Therefore 2-stroke SI engine would not be able to meet the stringent emission regulations

Engine pressure traces

See Fig. 1.8 and 1.15 for SI and Compression Ignition engines
― Pressure measurement is an important diagnostic because it is directly related to the mechanical energy output
of the engine (Torque = P dV/d, where  is the crank angle); furthermore, interpretation of pressure is
unambiguous since it is uniform in the cylinder (except in knocking), whereas temperature is not.
― Empirically for most efficient operation, peak pressure for SI engine is at 14-17o CA-ATC; for diesel is at 7-10o
CA-ATC.
― The very rapid pressure rise in the beginning of diesel combustion is the cause of the diesel noise.

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 Vehicle Road Load Requirement
1
Pb  ( FR  FD  Fa  FC ) S V
T
Pb = Required engine brake power output
T = Transmission efficiency
FR = Rolling frictional force ( = CR Mg cos() ; CR ~ 0.015)
FD = Aerodynamic drag force ( = 0.5 a Sv2 CD Av ; CD ~ 0.3)
Fa = Force to provide acceleration (= Ma)
FC = Force for climbing incline = (Mg sin() ) ; negative for downhill
Sv = Vehicle speed

Sv

Mg

1
 Truck Road Load Requirement

800
20,000 lb truck
700
Power required (kW)

600
1/10 grade power required
500
Hill climbing
400 Level road power
required
300 Aerodynamic
drag
200

100
Rolling friction
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
MPH

2
Vehicle Road Load Requirement
Vehicle speed and engine rpm are related
N d
S v  G.R.
Sv = Vehicle speed
N = Engine revolution per second ( = RPM / 60)
G.R. = Overall gear ratio
d = External diameter of tire

BMEP of engine
Pb
BMEP 
VDN / nR
VD = Engine displacement
R = 1 for two-stroke engine; 2 for four-stroke engine

3
 Passenger car SI engine map
12
5th gear
11 5% incline 5th gear,
flat road
10
4th gear
9 4th gear, 5% incline
Relative flat road
8 efficiency = 1
BMEP (bar)

252 g/KW-hr =0.88

6

5
=0.78 =0.70
4 288 =0.64
3rd gear,
3 flat road
324 =0.58
360 =0.54
2
=0.50
1
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed (rpm) Data from SAE 910676;
5th gear; 35 mph; 70 mph
Saturn I4 engine
3rd gear; 70 mph
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 Engine Cycles

Figure 1-8
Sequence of events in four-stroke spark-ignition engine operating cycle.
Cylinder pressure p (solid line, firing cycle; dashed line, motored cycle),
cylinder volume V/Vmax, and mass fraction burned xb are plotted against
crank angle.

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1
 Pressure-volume diagram
Peak pressure at 14-17o atdc for MBT

Optimal spark timing

is a function of
operating condition

Fig. 5-1 Pressure-volume diagram of firing SI engine; compression ratio=8.4, 3500 rpm,
intake pressure = 0.4 bar, Net IMEP = 2.9 bar

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Ideal models of engine processes

Table 5.1

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2
 Different ideal cycles
Unthrottled Unthrottled Super-charged
constant volume limited- pressure constant volume
combustion combustion combustion

Unthrottled
Throttled
constant pressure
constant volume
combustion
combustion

Fig 5.2 Pressure-volume diagrams of ideal cycles

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Ideal constant volume combustion cycle

fuel conversion efficiency

Ideal efficiency
1
f,ig  1 
rc 1

= specific heat ratio

Fig. 5-5

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3
 Comparison
of fuel
conversion
efficiency

p3/p1=

Fig. 5-7 Fuel conversion

efficiency as a function
of compression ratio for
constant-volume,
constant-pressure, and
limited pressure ideal
gas cycles.

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Factors affecting fuel conversion efficiency

These ideal engine cycle analysis results show that expansion

ratio rc and gas composition (through  the ratio of specific
heats) both affect the cycle’s fuel conversion efficiency because:

1. The expansion ratio (which may or may not equal to the

compression ratio) determines how much work is
extracted over the expansion stroke.
2. The higher the value of  the more the temperature falls
during expansion, the larger the energy change and hence
the larger the expansion stroke work.
3. The compression stroke work is of order one-sixth of the
expansion stroke work so expansion stroke work effects
dominate.

4
 Miller cycle
• Late intake valve closing
– Effective compression ratio is less than
expansion ratio
• Advantages
– Lower compression
temperature
 Better knock
tolerance
 Lower NOx
emission
• Drawback
– Reduced trapped charge mass: loss in max power
– Compensated for by turbo-charging or hybrid operation

Effects of compression ratio

• Theoretical efficiency f increases with CR
• SI engine CR limited by knocking to 12 (13 with direct
injection
• Practical f values decreases at high CR
– Heat transfer effect
– Crevice effect
– Dissociation effect
– Friction
• Other considerations for diesel engines
– Peak pressure
– NOx emissions
– Startability
Practical diesel engines have CR between 14 and 22

5
 Effect of compression ratio
on fuel conversion efficiency

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 2/24/2015

Combustion Stoichiometry
Air: Oxygen 21%, Nitrogen (nitrogen + argon) 79%
Fuel: Hydrocarbons (CaHb), oxygenates (CaHbOc)

Examples: LHV
Gasoline CnH1.87n 44 MJ/kg
Diesel fuel CnH1.75n 43 MJ/kg
Natural gas (mostly methane) CH3.8 45 MJ/kg
Coal CnH0.8n 30 MJ/kg
Methanol CH 3OH 20 MJ/kg
Ethanol C2H5OH 26 MJ/Kg
(LHV = Energy released per unit mass of fuel without recovery of the
heat of vaporization of the water vapor in the combustion products)
Stoichiometric Combustion
1 b 
CaHb Oc   2a   c   O2  3.773 N2 
2 2 
b 1 b 
 aCO2  H2 O   2a   c  x3.773 N2
2 2 2 
For typical petroleum based fuel (c=0):

(A/F) stoich ~ 14.6 (range 14.2 to 15)

Stoichiometric requirement for different fuels

18 Gasoline with 11% MTBE

Gasoline
16
O/C = 0

14
(A/F)stoiciometric

12 Gasoline with 10% Ethanol

Ethanol
10 E85
O/C = 0.5
8
O/C = 1
6
Methanol
4

2
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Fuel H to C ratio

1
 2/24/2015

Lean and rich combustion

Fuel-lean combustion
– major products: CO2, H2O, O2, N2
– minor products: HC, CO, H2, NO
Fuel-rich combustion
– major products: CO2, H2O, CO, H2, N2
– minor products: HC, O2, NO
Equivalence ratio: Normalized A/F or F/A ratios:
Fuel-air equivalence ratio,  Relative air-fuel ratio 
F/ A A /F
 
F / A stoichiometric (A / F)stoichiometric
1



Exhaust composition (fuel CH 1.85)

0.14

0.12
Exhaust Mole fractions

CO2
0.1

H2O
0.08

0.06
O2
CO
0.04

H2
0.02

0 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2



2
 2/24/2015

Figure 4-20 Spark-ignition engine exhaust gas composition data in mole fractions as a function of
fuel/air equivalence ratio. Fuels: gasoline and isooctane, H/C 2 To 2.25. (From D’Alleva and Lovell,24
Stivender,25 Harrington and Shishu,26 Spindt,27 and data from the author’s laboratory at MIT.)

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Figure 4-22
Exhaust gas composition from several diesel engines in mole fractions on a dry
basis as a function of fuel/air equivalence ratio.31

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 2/24/2015

 dependence of exhaust major species

Diesel Spark Ignition

Superposition of Figures 4-20 and 4-22

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0.20
Gasoline fuel-rich
0.15 combustion
Mole fraction

CO
CO2

0.10 H2

For fuel rich combustion,

0.05 empirically

[H2O][CO]
0.00  3.5 to 3.7
[H2 ][CO2 ]
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

or relative energy released

1.0
where [ ] denotes molar
Combustion efficiency

concentration
0.8
Relative energy
released
0.6 Value corresponds to
Combustion
efficiency equilibrium composition
0.4 of water-shift reaction at
~ 1740oK
0.2
Fixed amount of air
H2O + CO  H2 + CO2
0.0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0


4
 2/24/2015

Equilibrium combustion products:

Dissociation effects
P=30 atmospheres

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 2/26/2014

Equilibrium combustion products:

Dissociation effects
P=30 atmospheres

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Thermodynamic model of engine charge

for heat release process

• Unburned gas
– Ideal gas of frozen composition
• Burned gas
– At high temperature (T>1740K), as
equilibrium mixture
– At low temperature (T< 1740K), as frozen
mixture

1
 2/26/2014

Unburned gas properties for gasoline (CH1.85)/air

1.36
45
= 1.34
0.8
cp
1.0
40
cp or cv (J/mole-K)

1.2 1.32

gamma
1.3
35

1.28
30 cv
=
1.26 =0.8
0.8 1.0
25 1.0
1.2
1.24 1.2

20 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1.22
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
T(K)
T(K)

Burned gas properties for gasoline (CH1.85)/air

1.4

45

= cp 1.35
40 0.8
gamma
cp or cv (J/mole-K)

1.0
1.2
35
1.3
cv =0.8
=
30 0.8 1.0
1.0 1.2
1.2
1.25200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
25
T(K)

20
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
T(K)

Composition frozen at 1740K

2
 2/26/2014

Fuel-air cycle results

In the Fuel-Air Cycle, the engine processes are still modeled as ideal
but the properties of the working fluid (fuel/air/residual gas mixture
before combustion, and burned gases in chemical equilibrium after
combustion) are described accurately.
The results from this improved cycle analysis model are useful for
estimating, approximately, the effects of compression ratio, fuel/air
equivalence ratio, and mixture inlet conditions on engine efficiency and
performance. The following approximate relationships are useful.

1. The maximum indicated fuel conversion efficiency of an actual engine is

about 0.85 times the efficiency of the equivalent fuel-air cycle.

2. Results from change of engine operating condition can be interpreted in

terms of percentage change in output values

Computer codes which accurately simulate the real engine cycle have
now been developed and are widely used.

Fuel-air cycle results: f,i

Fuel: octene; p1 = 1 atm, T1=388 K, xr=0.05 (Fig. 5.9)

A=SI engine at stoichiometric with rc=10; C=Diesel at A/F=36 (=0.4) with rc=15

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Real Cycle Effects

1. Combustion efficiency c  1 exhaust chemical energy as CO,H2,HC, soot
chemcial energy in inducted fuel

2. Heat loss, finite combustion time,

actual valve timing
SI engine:
H2 and CO ~ 1 to 2% of fuel energy
HC ~ 1% of fuel energy
c ~ 97-98%
Diesel engine
Very little unburned gas
c ~ 99%

Fig. 5-18
Pressure-volume diagram for
actual SI engine compared
with that for equivalent fuel-
air cycle; rc = 11.

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Deconstruction of cycle losses

SAE 2009-01-1907

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 SI Engine Mixture Preparation

1. Requirements
2. Fuel metering systems
3. Fuel transport phenomena
4. Mixture preparation during engine transients
5. The Gasoline Direct Injection engine

MIXTURE PREPARATION

Fuel Air
Metering Metering
Fuel Air
EGR
Mixing Control
EGR

Combustible
Mixture

Engine

1
 MIXTURE PREPARATION

Parameters Impact

-Fuel Properties - Driveability

-Air/Fuel Ratio - Emissions
-Residual/Exhaust - Fuel Economy
Gas Fraction

Other issues: Knock, exhaust temperature, starting and

warm-up, acceleration/ deceleration transients

Fuel properties (Table D4 of text book)

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2
 Gasoline evaporative characteristics
Distillation curve (ASTM D86) of UTG91 (a calibration gasoline)
200 Cumene
(Methyl-ethyl benzene)
Temperature (C)

160 (NBP 152.4oC)

Toluene
120 (NBP 110oC)
Iso-octane
80 (NBP 99.2oC)
Iso-hexane
40 (NBP 60.3oC)

0 20 40 60 80 100
% distilled
• Reid Vapor pressure (ASTM D323):
– equilibrium pressure of fuel and air of 4 x liquid fuel volume at 37.8oC
• T10, T50, T90
– Temperature at 10, 50 and 90% distillation points
• Driveability Index (DI)
– For hydrocarbon fuels: DI = 1.5 T10 + 3 T50 + T90 (T in oF)
RVP: winter gasoline ~ 11 psi (0.75 bar); Summer gasoline ~ 9 psi (0.61 bar); California Phase 2 fuel = 7 psi (0.48 bar)
DI: range from 1100 to 1300; Phase II calibration gasoline has DI=1115; High DI calibration fuel has DI 1275.

Equivalence ratio and EGR strategies

(No emissions constrain)

Enrichment to Enrichment to prevent

 improve idle stability knocking at high load

Rich
=1

Lean Lean for good fuel economy

Load

EGR to decrease
NO emission and
EGR pumping loss
No EGR to
No EGR to maximize air
improve idle
flow for power
stability

Load

3
 Requirement for the 3-way catalyst

Catalyst efficiency %

Fig 11-57
Rich Lean
Air/fuel ratio

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FUEL METERING

• Carburetor
– A/F not easily controlled
• Fuel Injection
– Electronically controlled fuel metering
Throttle body injection
Port fuel injection
Direct injection

4
 Injectors

PFI injectors
• Single 2-, 4-,…, up to 12-holes
• Injection pressure 3 to 7 bar
• Droplet size:
– Normal injectors: 200 to 80 m
– Flash Boiling Injectors: down to 20 m
– Air-assist injectors: down to 20 m

GDI injectors
• Shaped-spray
• Injection pressure 50 to 250 bar
• Drop size: 10 to 50 m

PFI Injector targeting

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5
 INTAKE PORT THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
140

120
Temperature (deg C) Tvalve
100

80

60
Tport
40

20 Tcoolant

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210

Time (sec)

Engine
management
system

From Bosch Automotive

Handbook

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6
 Fuel Metering
• A/F ratio measured by  sensor (closed loop operation)
– feedback on fuel amount to keep =1
• Feed-forward control (transients):
– To meter the correct fuel flow for the targeted A/F target, need to
know the air flow
• Determination of air flow (need transient correction)
– Air flow sensor (hot film sensor)
– Speed density method
 Determine air flow rate from MAP (P) and ambient temperature
(Ta) using volumetric efficiency (v) calibration

 a  VD N v (N,)
m
2 Displacement vol. VD,
rev. per second N,
 P gas constant R
RTa

FEATURES OF ELECTRONICALLY
CONTROLLED FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
• Sensors
– Air temperature
– Engine Speed
– Manifold air pressure (MAP) / air flow rate
– Exhaust air/ fuel equivalence ratio (): EGO (and UEGO)
– Coolant temperature
– Throttle position and throttle movement rate
– Crank and cam positions
• Controls
– Injection duration
– Spark timing
– Other functions
 Idle air, carbon canister venting, cold start management,
transient compensation, ….

7
 ENGINE EVENTS DIAGRAM
Intake Exhaust Injection
BC TC BC TC BC TC BC TC BC
Ign Ign

Cyl.#4
TC BC TC BC TC BC TC BC TC
Ign Ign

Cyl.#3
TC BC TC BC TC BC TC BC TC
Ign Ign

Cyl.#2
BC TC BC TC BC TC BC TC BC
Ign Ign

Cyl.#1

0 180 360 540 720 900 1080 1260 1440

Cyl. #1 CA (0 o is BDC compression)

Effect of Injection
Timing on HC
Emissions
SAE Paper 972981
Stache and Alkidas

Engine at 1300 rpm

275 kPa BMEP

Injection
timing refers
to start of
injection

8
 Mixture Preparation in PFI engine

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Intake flow phenomena in mixture preparation

(At low to moderate speed and load range)

Reverse Blow-down Flow

• IVO to EVC:
– Burned gas flows from exhaust port because Pe>Pi
• EVC to Pc = Pi:
– Burned gas flows from cylinder into intake system until cylinder and
intake pressure equalize
Forward Flow
• Pc = Pi to BC:
– Forward flow from intake system to cylinder induced by downward piston
motion
Reverse Displacement Flow
• BC to IVC:
– Fuel, air and residual gas mixture flows from cylinder into intake due to
upward piston motion
Note that the reverse flow affects the mixture preparation
process in engines with port fuel injection

9
 Mixture Preparation in Engine Transients

Engine Transients
• Throttle Transients
– Accelerations and decelerations
• Starting and warm-up behaviors
– Engine under cold conditions
Transients need special compensations
because:
• Sensors do not follow actual air delivery into cylinder
• Fuel injected for a cycle is not what constitutes the
combustible mixture for that cycle

Manifold pressure charging in throttle transient

Vm

v Vd/cyl Nfire

Aquino, SAE Paper 810484

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10
 Fuel-Lag in Throttle Transient

The x- Model

dMf  f  Mf
 xm
dt 

 f  Mf
 c  (1- x)m
m


 f  Injected fuel flow rate

m
 c  Fuel delivery rate
m
to cylinder
Mf  Fuel mass in puddle

Fuel transient in throttle opening

 air
m
c
m

Model prediction Observed results

Fig 7-28
Uncompensated A/F behavior in throttle transient

11
 1st peak 2nd peak
Integrated HC emissions: 16 mg 55 mg Total: 71 mg (SULEV:
FTP total is < 110 mg)
4
2 x104 ppm C1 Pre-cat HC
0
4
2 x104 ppm C1 Post-cat HC
0 Engine start
2 Pintake (bar) (e) (f) up behavior
x1000 RPM
0
2.4 L, 4-cylinder
60
(c) engine
(a)
50 (d) Cylinder 4 pressure
(b) Engine starts
with Cyl#2
40 piston in mid
signal

stroke of
Ign 2&3
30 compression
Ign 1&4
20 Inj 3 Firing order
1-3-4-2
Inj 1
10
Inj 4
Inj 2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
time(s)

Engine start up behavior

time(s)
0 2 4 6 8 10
3
MAP(bar), 
or RPM/100

2 RPM

1 
MAP
0
Engine gradual warm up
Crank
start Speed decay
Speed Flare
Speed run up
1st round of firing

12
 Pertinent Features of DISI Engines

1. Precise metering of fuel into cylinder

– Engine calibration benefit: better driveability and
emissions
2. Opportunity of running stratified lean at part load
– Fuel economy benefit (reduced pumping work; lower
charge temperature, lower heat transfer; better
thermodynamic efficiency)
3. Charge cooling by fuel evaporation
– Gain in volumetric efficiency
– Gain in knock margin (could then raise compression
ratio for better fuel economy)
– Both factors increase engine output

DISI technology penetration

• Significant market 40%

penetration of DISI 2013
– Homogeneous 2008
Production Share

30%
charge
configuration
20%
– As enabler of the
boosted-
downsizing 10%
strategy
0%
DISI Boosted

13
 Toyota DISI Engine (SAE Paper 970540)
Straight port

Output torque
High pressure
injector
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed (rpm)

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Mitsubishi DISI
Engine

Spherical piston cavity End of

injection

Piston

Fuel spray
impingement

Vaporization
and transport
Reverse tumble Swirling spray to spark plug

(SAE 960600)

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14
 Wall-guided versus spray-guided injection

Wall-guided injection Spray-guided injection

(injector relatively distant (injector relatively close to spark plug)
from spark plug)

SAE 970543 (Ricardo) SAE 970624 (Mercedes-Benz)

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Charge cooling by in-air fuel evaporation

Charge cooling effect Lowering of intake volume

Temperature difference (oC)

Intake air temperature (oC) Intake air temperature (oC)

Anderson, Yang, Brehob, Vallance, and Whiteabker, SAE Paper 962018

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15
 Full load performance benefit
Full load Full load

Torque

SAE 970541 (Mitsubishi)

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Part load fuel economy gain

SAE Paper 960600 (Mitsubishi)

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16
 DISI Challenges

1. High cost
2. With the part-load stratified-charge concept :
– High hydrocarbon emissions at light load
– Significant NOx emission, and lean exhaust not amenable to
3-way catalyst operation
3. Particulate emissions at high load
4. Liquid gasoline impinging on combustion chamber walls
– Hydrocarbon source
– Lubrication problem
5. Injector deposit
– Special fuel additive needed for injector cleaning
6. Cold start behavior
– Insufficient fuel injection pressure
– Wall wetting

Comparison of cold start HC emissions

(Koga, Miyashita, Takeda, and Imatake, SAE Paper 2001-01-0969)

Cumulative engine out HC in the first 10 seconds of cold-start

Relative

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17
 Significant particle numbers in cold start

SAE 2011-01-1219

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18
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

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 Gas exchange Processes

To move working fluid in and out of engine

• Engine performance is air limited
• Engines are usually optimized for maximum
power at high speed
Considerations
• 4-stroke engine: volumetric efficiency
• 2-stroke engine: scavenging/ trapping efficiency
• Charge motion control; tuning; noise

Typical valve timing diagram

IVO
• Early EVO
EVC
(-15 to 0o atdc) (0 to 15o atdc)
– Facilitates exhaust gas
outflow via blow down
– Incomplete expansion
• Late IVC
– High speed: ram effect
augments induction
– Low speed: air loss by
displacement flow
– Lower effective
IVC EVO compression ratio
(30 to 50o abdc) (30 to 50o bbdc)

Note that for typical passenger car engine, max piston speed is at ~70o from TDC

1
 VVT technology –cam shifter
Toyota VVT-i
(SAE Paper 960579)

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Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects

• Residual gas
– Affected by:
Compression ratio
Exhaust gas temperature
Exhaust to intake pressure ratio
– Impact:
Volumetric efficiency
Charge composition
Charge temperature

2
 Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects
(cont.)

• Evaporative cooling effect

– Higher charge density increases volumetric
efficiency
– Adiabatic evaporation in air to form =1
mixture:
Iso-octane: T = -19oC
From both higher latent heat,
Ethanol: T = -80oC lower LHV, and lower
Methanol: T = -128oC stoichiometric air/fuel ratio

– In practice, most heat from the wall unless

direct injection is used

Volumetric efficiency: quasi-static effects

(cont.)

• Air displacement by fuel and water vapor

Vi is volume inducted
Pi is intake pressure
 PV 
ma   i i  x a Wa
‫ݔ‬෤௔ =  RT 
x a  x f  x w  1
1
x a 
x f x w
1 
x a x a
1

mf Wa x w
Dry air 1 
ma Wf x a

Fig. 6.3

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3
 Volumetric Efficiency: dynamic effects

Friction
– Component i pressure drop due to
friction:
Vi = Fluid velocity
 i = Loss coefficient
2
Pi  v
i i

Scaling :
AP 
v i  SP ; i 
Ai Di
1 1
Pi ~ S2P 2.5
or  S2P 5
Ai Di

Flow loss in gas exchange process

Exhaust flow loss

Throttle loss

Intake flow loss

Fig. 13-15

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4
 Volumetric Efficiency: dynamic effects
cont.
Ram effect
– Due to fluid inertia
– Intake and exhaust flow both exhibit effect
du
P  p2  p1     d
dt
S  AP 
 P  
1  Aint ake 
1
2N
2  AP  
 SP2  
 Aint ake  L
SP Mean piston speed
 Runner length
L Stroke

Volumetric Efficiency: dynamic effects

cont.
Tuning
– Helmholtz frequency N  a A
2 V 

– a sound velocity
–  runner length
– V volume V
• Application:
– V taken as Vt/2
– Correction factor k=2

a A 1
N
2 V K

5
 Volumetric Efficiency: dynamic effects
cont.
Choking effect
– Velocity becomes sonic at “throat”

 1 2 1

 choked  A *P1   2 
m  
RT1    1 

m 
m
P1 P2

P2/P1
1
  1
 P2   2 
   
 P1 critical    1 
 0.528 for   1.4; increases with 

Volumetric Efficiency: dynamic effects

cont.
Overlap back flow
– Back flow of burned gas from
exhaust/cylinder to intake port
– Increases residual gas fraction
– Prominent at low speed and load
Heat transfer
– Loss in v because intake charge is heated
up by the hot walls
– Prominent at low speed because of longer
time (overrides lower rate)

6
 Volumetric efficiency: summary

Fig. 6.9

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2-Stroke engine gas exchange

Cross Loop Uniflow
scavenging scavenging scavenging

Fig. 6-23 & 24

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7
 Uniflow scavenging
process
Intake port area

Back flow leakage

Compressor pressure

Exhaust pressure

Exhaust valve lift

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2-Stroke engine gas exchange

Air mass delivered per cycle

Delivery ratio  
a,0 VD
Air mass retained
Trapping efficiency t 
Air mass delivered

Air mass retained

ma  a,0 VD t

Air mass retained

Scavenging ratio sc 
Trapped charge mass

1 – sc is the fraction of previous cycle charge that remains

8
 2-stroke engine
sc gas exchange
Perfect
1 displacement

Perfect mixing  sc  1  e 
Short circuit


t 1
Perfect t 
displacement  Good Typical values
 ~ 1.2 to 1.4
1 Perfect mixing Bad sc ~ 0.7 to 0.85
1
t  (1  e   )

Short circuit Worst

9
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

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 SI engine combustion 

SI – engine combustion:
How to “burn” things?
Reactants  Products
Premixed
• Homogeneous reaction
– Not limited by transport process
– Fast/slow reactions compared with other time scale of interest
• Premixed flame
– Examples: gas grill, SI engine combustion
• Detonation
– Pressure wave driven reaction
Non-premixed
• Diffusion flame
– Examples: candle, diesel engine combustion

1
 SI ENGINE COMBUSTION

• Premixed flame
– Laminar flame speed

• Turbulent enhancement of combustion

– Wrinkled laminar flame

LAMINAR FLAME SPEEDS

For inert diluent

Fig. 9-26 Effect of burned gas mole fraction in

Fig. 9-25 Laminar burning velocity of unburned mixture on laminar burning velocity.
Fuel: gasoline.
several fuels as function of equivalence (Note that actual burned gas from non-stoichiometric
ratio, at 1 atm and 300 K. combustion would render the charge  different from
the metered .
4

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2
 Schematic of SI engine flame propagation
Heat transfer

Work
transfer

Fig. 9-4 Schematic of flame propagation in SI engine: unburned gas (U) to left of flame,
burned gas to right. A denotes adiabatic burned-gas core, BL denotes thermal
boundary layer in burned gas.
5

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Typical pressure
and mass fraction burned (xb) curves
P(bar); xb*10; d(xb)/d (% per CA-deg)

25
SI engine;1500 rpm, 0.38 bar intake pressure
Useful conversions:
20
P 1000 rpm:
6oCA/ms
15 mass fraction
burned xb 1200 rpm:
20 Hz
xb *10 (For 4 stroke engine
10 10 cycle/s
100 ms/cycle)
dxb/d
5

0
0 200 400 600
crank angle (deg) 6

3
 SI engine part-load operation
50
40 1500 rpm; 1
MAP=38kPa; =1;
Xb

P (bar)
30 ign @ 30oBTC

Xb
20 0.5
10
P

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
3000
Temperature (K)

2000 Tb

1000
Tu
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
cumulative flow (g)

0.6

0.4

0.2 mintake mexhaust

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Crank Angle, degree
7

SI engine part-load operation

4000
Burned gas
T(K)

2000
Unburned gas

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2
Laminar expansion velocity
m/s

1
Laminar flame speed

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(%/deg) and bar

20 Pressure
10 Mass burn rate
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
1
2*R/B
0.5 Vb/V

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mass fraction burned
8

4
Combustion produced pressure rise
Flame Flame
u u
b b

m m
time t time t + t

1. Pressure is uniform, changing with time

2. For mass m: hb = hu (because dm is allowed to expand against prevailing pressure)
3. T rise is a function of fuel heating value and mixture composition
 e.g. at  = 1, Tu ~ 700 K, Tb ~ 2800 K
4. Hence burned gas expands: b ~ ¼ u ; Vb ~ 4 Vu

Combustion produced pressure rise

5. Since total volume is constrained. The pressure must rise by p, and all the
gas in the cylinder is compressed.
6. Both the unburned gas ahead of flame and burned gas behind the flame move
away from the flame front
7. Both the unburned gas and burned gas temperatures rise due to the
compression by the newly burned gas
8. Unburned gas state: since heat transfer is relatively small, the temperature is
related to pressure by isentropic relationship
 Tu/Tu,0 = (p/p0)(u-1)/u
9. Burned gas state:

Early burned gas, higher

Later burned gas, lower Tb Tb

Flame
10

5
 Thermodynamic
state of charge

Fig. 9-5 Cylinder pressure,

mass fraction burned, and
gas temperatures as function
of crank angle during
combustion.

11

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Burn duration
• Burn duration as CA-deg. : measure of burn progress
in cycle
• For modern fast-burn engines under medium speed,
part load condition:
– 0-10% ~ 15o
– 0-50% ~ 25o
– 0-90% ~ 35o
• As engine speed increases,
burn duration as CA-deg. :
– Increases because there is less time per CA-deg.
– Decreases because combustion is faster due to
higher turbulence
 Net effect: increases approximately as rpm0.2

6
 Optimum Combustion Phasing

• Heat release schedule has to phase correctly with piston motion for
optimal work extraction
• In SI engines, combustion phasing controlled by spark
• Spark too late
– heat release occurs far into expansion and work cannot be fully
extracted
• Spark too early
– Effectively “lowers” compression ratio
– increased heat transfer losses
– Also likely to cause knock
• Optimal: Maximum Brake Torque (MBT) timing
– MBT spark timing depends on speed, load, EGR, , temperature,
charge motion, …
– Torque curve relatively flat: roughly 5 to 7oCA retard from MBT
results in 1% loss in torque

Spark timing effects

Fig. 9-3 (a) Cylinder pressure versus crank angle for overadvanced spark timing
(50o BTDC), MBT timing (30o BTDC), and retarded timing (10o BTDC). (b) Effect
of spark advance on brake torque at constant speed and A/F, at WOT

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7
 Control of spark timing
Borderline knock spk adv

WOT

Fig. 15-17

Fig. 15-3

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Obtaining combustion information from engine

cylinder pressure data
1. Cylinder pressure affected by:
a) Cylinder volume change
b) Fuel chemical energy release by combustion
c) Heat transfer to chamber walls
d) Crevice effects
e) Gas leakage
2. Obtaining accurate combustion rate information requires
a) Accurate pressure data (and crank angle indexing)
b) Models for phenomena a,c,d,e, above
c) Model for thermodynamic properties of cylinder contents
3. Available methods
a) Empirical methods (e.g. Rassweiler and Withrow SAE
800131)
b) Single-zone heat release or burn-rate model
c) Two-zone (burned/unburned) combustion model

8
 Typical
piezoelectric
pressure
transducer spec.

6.2mm

Kistler 6125

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Sensitivity of NIMEP to crank angle phase error

SI engine;1500 rpm, 0.38 bar intake pressure

Percent error in NIMEP

15

10

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-5
Crank angle phase error (deg)
-10

-15

9
 Cylinder pressure

Fig. 9-10 (a) Pressure-volume diagram; (b) log p-log(V/Vmax) plot; 1500 rpm, MBT
timing, IMEP = 5.1 bar,  = 0.8, rc = 8.7, propane fuel.
19

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• Advantage: simple
Burned mass analysis – Need only p(), p0, pf and n
Rassweiler and Winthrow xb always between 0 and 1
(SAE 800131) During combustion V = Vu  Vb
Unburned gas volume, back tracked
to spark (0)
Vu,0  Vu (p / p )1/n
0

pf
End of combustion Burned gas volume, forward tracked
p
|slope|=n to end of combustion (f)
p0
Vb,f  Vb (p / p f )1/n
Ignition Mass fraction bunred
Pressure, kPa

V V
xb  1  u,0  b,f
V0 Vf
Hence, after some algebra
p1/n V  p01/n V0
xb 
Fraction of maximum volume pf 1/n Vf  p01/n V0
20
(There are two procedures described in the paper; this is one of them)

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10
 Heat release analysis

Fig. 9-11 Open system

1 zone model boundary for heat-
release analysis

Energy balance:

Fuel chemical dQch/dt = dUs/dt Sensible energy change Net heat

energy release released
+ pdV/dt Work transfer
+ dQht/dt Heat loss to walls
+ h’ dmcr/dt Flow into crevice
- hinj dmf/dt Injected enthalpy

21

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Results of heat-release analysis

Pintake

Fig. 9-12 Results of heat-release analysis showing the combustion inefficiency

and the corrections due to heat transfer and crevice effect.
22

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11
 Flow and Combustion Process
in
Spark-Ignition Engine

A Color Schieren Movie

taken in a Special Visualization Engine

• Square piston engine

• Visualization by color-schlieren method
– Captures density gradients
• Note:
− Flame propagation process
− Outgasing from crevices

23

Square piston flow visualization engine

Bore 82.6 mm
Stroke 114.3 mm
Compression ratio 5.8

Operating condition
Speed 1400 rpm
 0.9
Fuel propane
Intake pressure 0.5 bar
Spark timing MBT

24

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12
 Flame Propagation (Fig 9-14)

1400 rpm
0.5 bar inlet pressure

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13
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

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 SI Engine Combustion 

Spark discharge
characteristics

Fig.9-39
Schematic of voltage and
current variation with
time for conventional coil
spark-ignition system.

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1
 Flame Kernel Development (SAE Paper 880518)

=1, spk= 40oBTC,

1400 rpm, vol. eff. = 0.29

Flame from 4 consecutive cycles at fixed

Single cycle flame sequence
time after spark

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Energy associated
with Spark Discharge,
Combustion and Heat
Loss

SAE Paper 880518

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2
 Ignition and Flame Development Process

1. Spark discharge creates a high temperature plasma kernel

which expands rapidly (1mm, 100 s).

2. The hot reactive gas at the outer edge of this kernel causes the
adjacent fuel-air mixture to ignite, creating an outward
propagating flame which is almost spherical.

3. As the flame grows larger, the flame surface is distorted by the

turbulence of the fluid motion. A wrinkled laminar flame results.

4. Because of the significant surface area enhancement by the

wrinkling, the locally laminar “turbulent” flame burns rapidly.

Schematic of entrainment-and-burn model

Fig. 14-12

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3
 SI engine flame propagation
Entrainment-and-burn model

Rate of entrainment:

GPH
 X $ I 6/   X $ I X7   H W  E
GW
Laminar diffusion Turbulent entrainment
through flame front
Rate at which mixture burns:

GPE P  PE 7
 X $ I 6/  H  E 
GW E 6/
Laminar frontal burning Conversion of entrained mass
into burned mass

Critical parameters: uT and T

SI Engine design and operating factors

affecting burn rate
 )ODPHJHRPHWU\
The frontal surface area of the flame directly affects the burn rate.
This flame area depends on flame size, combustion chamber shape,
spark plug location and piston position.

 ,QF\OLQGHUWXUEXOHQFHGXULQJFRPEXVWLRQ
The turbulence intensity and length scale control the wrinkling and
stretching of the flame front, and affect the effective burning area.
These parameters are determined largely by the intake generated
flow field and the way that flow changes during compression.

 0L[WXUHFRPSRVLWLRQDQGVWDWH
The local consumption of the fuel-air mixture at the flame front
depends on the laminar flame speed SL. The value of SL depends on
the fuel equivalence ratio, fraction of burned gases in the mixture
(residual plus EGR), and the mixture temperature and pressure.

4
 Cycle-to-cycle variations

Crank angle (o ATDC) Crank angle (o ATDC)

Fig. 9-31
Measured cylinder pressure and calculated gross heat-release rate for ten
cycles in a single-cylinder SI engine operating at 1500 rpm,  = 1.0, MAP = 0.7
bar, MBT timing 25oBTC

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Cycle-to-cycle change in combustion phasing

5
 SI ENGINE CYCLE-TO-CYCLE VARIATIONS

Phases of combustion
1. Early flame development
2. Flame propagation
3. Late stage of burning
Factors affecting SI engine cycle-to-cycle variations:
(a) Spark energy deposition in gas (1)
(b) Flame kernel motion (1)
(c) Heat losses from kernel to spark plug (1)
(d) Local turbulence characteristics near plug (1)
(e) Local mixture composition near plug (1)
(f) Overall charge components - air, fuel, residual (2, 3)
(g) Average turbulence in the combustion chamber (2, 3)
(h) Large scale features of the in-cylinder flow (3)
(i) Flame geometry interaction with the combustion chamber (3)

Cycle distributions
Fig. 9-36 (b)

Fig. 9-33 (b)

Charge variations

Charge and
combustion
duration
variations

Very Slow-burn cycles Partial burn – substantial combustion

inefficiency (10-70%)
Misfire – significant combustion
inefficiency (>70%)
(No definitive value for threshold)

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6
 Knock

Processes
• Auto-ignition
• Rapid heat release
• Pressure oscillation
Consequences
• Audible noise
• Damage to combustion chamber in severe
knock

13

How to “burn” things?

Reactants  Products

Premixed
• Premixed flame
– Examples: gas grill, SI engine combustion
• Homogeneous reaction
– Fast/slow reactions compared with other time
Knock scale of interest
– Not limited by transport process
• Detonation
– Pressure wave driven reaction

Non-premixed
• Diffusion flame
– Examples: candle, diesel engine combustion 14

7
 SI engine Combustion
Normal combustion
• Spark initiated premixed flame
Abnormal combustion
• Pre-ignition (“diesel”)
– Ignition by hot surfaces or other
means
• End gas knock (“spark knock”)
– Compression ignition of the not-
yet-burned mixture (end gas)
– Affected by spark timing

15

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Heat release rate and pressure wave

• When acoustic expansion is not fast enough

to alleviate local pressure buildup due to heat
release, pressure wave develops

q  H e a t re le a s e p e r u n it v o lu m e
R
o v e r s p h e re o f ra d iu s R
a = S ound speed
C ritirio n fo r s e ttin g u p p re s s u re w a v e :
3 ap
q 
 1 R

16

8
 Pressure oscillations observed in engine knock

Fig. 9-59
Single cylinder engine, 381 cc displacement; 4000 rpm, WOT
17

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Acoustic modes

Spectrogram
of 4 valve
engine knock
pressure data

(2L I-4 engine;

CR=9.6)

Calculated
acoustic
frequency
of modes
by FEM

SAE Paper 980893

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9
 Steps to Audible Knock

Pressure Auto-ignition

Pressure
oscillation
Accelerometer

Block
vibration

Microphone
Audible
noise

19

Heavy Knock/ detonation

• Rapid combustion of stoichiometric mixture at

compressed condition
– Approximately constant volume
– Local P ~ 100 to 150 bar
– Local T > 2800oK
• High pressure and high temperature lead to
structural damage of combustion chamber

20

10
 Knock damaged pistons

From Lichty, Internal Combustion Engines From Lawrence Livermore website

21

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is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more National Laboratory.
information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Knock Fundamentals

Knock originates in the extremely rapid release of much of the fuel

chemical energy contained in the end-gas of the propagating
turbulent flame, resulting in high local pressures. The non-
uniform pressure distribution causes strong pressure waves or
shock waves to propagate across and excites the acoustic modes
of the combustion chamber.

When the fuel-air mixture in the end-gas region is compressed to

sufficiently high pressures and temperatures, the fuel oxidation
process ― starting with the pre-flame chemistry and ending with
rapid heat release ― can occur spontaneously in parts or all of the
end-gas region.

Most evidence indicates that knock originates with the auto-

ignition of one or more local regions within the end-gas.
Additional regions then ignite until the end-gas is essentially fully
reacted. The sequence of processes occur extremely rapidly.

11
 Knock chemical mechanism

CHAIN BRANCHING EXPLOSION

Chemical reactions lead to increasing number of radicals,
which leads to rapidly increasing reaction rates

Formation of Branching Agents

Chain Initiation
  RH  ROOH  R
RO
 2
RH  O  R  HO
2 2   RCHO  RO

RO 2
Chain Propagation
Degenerate Branching
 , etc.
R  O 2  RO   OH

2 ROOH  RO
RCHO  O  RCO  HO

2 2

Ignition delay for primary reference fuels

o
1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 T( K)

10 P = 40 bar
Range of interest
Ign delay (ms)

100

1 90
80
60
ON=0
(Adapted from data of
0.1 Fieweger et al, C&F 109)

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

1000/T[k]
24

12
 Ignition delay kinetics

Propagation Degenerate
 
R  O2  R O2
Branching
   
Low R O2  R OOH (Isomerization) O=ROOH  O=R O OH
temperature  
R OOH  O2  OOROOH
  NTC regime
Initiation OOROOH  O=ROOH  OH Temperature high
RH  O2 Branching agent (hydroperoxyl carbonyl species) enough to shift
formation of RO2 to
 
 R  HO2 H2O2, but not high
Degenerate enough for H2O2
Propagation Branching decomposition
   
RH  HO2  R  H2O2 H2O2  M  OH  OH  M
High  
temperature HO2  HO2  M  H2O2  M

Branching agent (hydrogen peroxide)

Livengood and Wu integral

tign
dt
1 
p(t),T(t)

5th Combustion Symposium, 1954 26

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13
 FUEL FACTORS

• The auto-ignition process depends on the fuel

chemistry.

• Practical fuels are blends of a large number

of individual hydrocarbon compounds, each
of which has its own chemical behavior.

• A practical measure of a fuel’s resistance to

knock is the octane number. High octane
number fuels are more resistant to knock.

Types of hydrocarbons
(See text section 3.3)

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14
 Knock tendency of
individual
hydrocarbons
Critical compression ratio

Fig 9-69
Critical compression ratio for
incipient knock at 600 rpm and
450 K coolant temperature for
hydrocarbons

Number of C atoms

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Fuel anti-knock rating

(See table 9.6 for details)
• Blend primary reference fuels (iso-octane and normal heptane) so
its knock characteristics matches those of the actual fuel.
• Octane no. = % by vol. of iso-octane
• Two different test conditions:
– Research method: 52oC (125oF) inlet temperature, 600 rpm
– Motor method: 149oC (300oF) inlet temperature, 900 rpm
ON
Road ON = (RON+MON) /2
Research ON
Sensitivity
Motor ON

Engine
severity
Less severe test condition scale More severe test condition

15
 Octane requirement
Cars on
Engine on test stand
the road

Slope  5

From Balckmore and Thomas, Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine, Wiley 1977.

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Octane Requirement Increase

No additive (ORI = 15)

Test 1 (no additive)
Octane Requirement increase (ORI)

Test 2 (with additive)

Test 3 (with additive)

Deposit removal

Deposit controlling
additive (ORI = 10)

Clean combustion
chamber only

0 Clean combustion chamber

and intake valves

Hours of operation
ACS Vol. 36, #1, 1991

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16
 ONR with change of engine parameters

From SAE Paper 2012-01-1143

33

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Knock control strategies

1. Provide adequate cooling to the engine

2. Use intercooler on turbo-charged engines
3. Use high octane gasoline
4. Anti-knock gasoline additives
5. Fuel enrichment under severe condition
6. Use knock sensor to control spark retard so as to
operate close to engine knock limit
7. Fast burn system
8. Gasoline direct injection

17
 Anti-knock Agents

Alcohols
Methanol CH3OH
Ethanol C2H5OH
TBA (Tertiary Butyl Alcohol) (CH3)3COH

Ethers
MTBE (Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether) (CH3)3COCH3
ETBE (Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether) (CH3)3COC2H5
TAME (Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether) (CH3)2(C2H5)COCH3

Adiabatic cooling of gasoline/ ethanol mixture

Preparing a stoichiometric mixture from air and liquid fuel

80
Temperature drop (oC)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ethanol liquid volume fraction

Note that Evaporation stops when temperature

36
drops to dew point of the fuel in vapor phase

18
 Sporadic Pre-ignition (super-knock)

2000 rpm
2 bar Boost

Normal cycle

• Phenomenon observed at very high load (18-25 bar bmep)

Knocking cycle
• Sporadic occurrence (one event every 10’s of thousands of Pre-ignited cycle
cycles)
• Each event may be one or more knocking cycles
37
• Mechanism not yet defined (oil, deposit, …?)

SI Engine Knock
1. Knock is most critical at WOT and at low speed because of its
persistence and potential for damage. Part-throttle knock is a
transient phenomenon and is a nuisance to the driver.

2. Whether or not knock occurs depends on engine/fuel/vehicle

factors and ambient conditions (temperature, humidity). This
makes it a complex phenomenon.

3. To avoid knock with gasoline, the engine compression ratio is

limited to approximately 12.5 in PFI engines and 13.5 in DISI
engines. Significant efficiency gains are possible if the
compression ratio could be raised. (Approximately, increasing
CR by 1 increases efficiency by one percentage point.)

4. Feedback control of spark timing using a knock sensor is used

so that SI engine can operate close to its knock limit.

19
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 Lectures 11 and 12

Air Pollution and SI Engine Emissions

Atmospheric Pollution
• SMOG O
||
O3 NO2 R-C-OONO2
– Ozone Nitrogen dioxide PAN(Peroxyacyl Nitrate)

• TOXICS
– CO, Benzene, 1-3 butadiene, POM (Polycyclic organic Matters),
Aldehydes

Primary Pollutants: Direct emissions from vehicles

 CO, HC, NOx, PM(Particulate matters), SOx, aldehydes
Secondary Pollutants: From interaction of emissions with
the atmosphere
 O3, PAN, NO2, Aldehydes

1
 Atmospheric Pollution

Smog formation: Acid rain:

1
NO  O2  NO2   HOSO
SO2  OH 
2 2
 
HOSO  O  HO  SO
NO2  h( 415 nm)  NO  O(3P) 2 2 2 3

O (3P) , HC, O 2 ,NO SO3  H2 O  H2 SO4

O
O3+ NO2 + || + RCHO+ …
1
R-C-OONO2 NO  O2  NO2
2
  HNO
NO2  OH 3

Emission requirements
(Gasoline engines)
1975
1975
1977
1 1977
NMOG (g/mile)

1
NOx(g/mile)

Euro 3 1981
1981 1994 US 1994 TLEV
Euro 4
1994 TLEV Euro 3
0.1 Euro 5 Euro 4
1997 TLEV 1997-2003 ULEV
0.1
Euro 5
1997-2003 ULEV

0.01 PZEV PZEV

0.01
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Starting year of implementation Starting year of implementation

Historic trend: Factor of 10 PZEV regulation

reduction every 15 years (120,000 miles guarantee):
NMOG 0.01 g/mile
At 28.5 miles per gallon, 100 g of fuel is burned per mile.
CO 1.0 g/mile
Emission of 0.01 g/mile means 10-4 g/g-of-fuel
NOx 0.02 g/mile

2
 EMISSIONS MECHANISMS

• CO emission
– Incomplete oxidation of fuel under fuel rich conditions
• NOx emisison
– Reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in the high temperature burned
gas regions
• Particulate matter (PM) emission (most significant in diesel engines;
there are significant PM emissions in SI engines in terms of number
density, especially in direct injection engines)
– Particulates formed by pyrolysis of fuel molecules in the locally fuel
rich region and incomplete oxidation of these particles
– Lubrication oil contribution
• Hydrocarbon emissions
– Fuel hydrocarbons escape oxidation (or only partially oxidized) via
various pathways

3
 Typical steady state SI engine-out
emissions

• NOx is a few thousand parts per million

• CO is around 0.5-1% for stoichiometric
operation
• HC is 500-2000 ppm for fully warm up engine
• PM very small by mass

CO Emissions Mechanism

• CO is the incomplete oxidation product of

the fuel carbon
• Significant amount in fuel rich condition
• Immediately following combustion, CO is in
chemical equilibrium with the burned gas
• During expansion, as the burned gas
temperature decreases, CO is ‘frozen’
– Empirical correlation
[CO][H2 O]
 3.7
[CO2 ][H2 ]

4
 CO is mostly an A/F equivalence ratio issue

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NO FORMATION CHEMISTRY
• Zeldovich Mechanism See table 11.1 for rates

N2 + O NO + N (1)
K +
1

K -
1

N + O2 NO + O (2)
K +
2

K -
2

N + OH NO + H (3)
K +
3

-
(extended Zeldovich Mechanism)
K 3

 NO formation is kinetically controlled

 Reactions involving N is fast; N is in steady
states (d[N]/dt  0)
 Very temperature sensitive
• At high temperature (1000K), equilibrium
favors NO versus NO2 formation
 Engine-out [NO2]/[NOx]  2%

5
dxNO
dt xNO 0 SI Engine NO formation d[NO]
(Zeldovich)
(s-1) dt
Adiabatic
Fig. 11-4 flame temperature,
 k1k 2 NO 
Kerosene combustion with 2
Dash line is 15 bar air
1  
700K,

 k1 k 2 N2 O2  
adiabatic flame
temperature for
 2k1 O N2 
 
 k1 NO
kerosene
combustion 
1 
2  2 

k O
with 700K 15 bar
air 
d[NO]
 2k1 ON2 
dt [NO] 0
 38000 
k1  7.6x1013 exp   
 T(K) 
• O, O2, N2 governed by major
heat release reaction
P=15 bar – In equilibrium in the hot
burned gas
• Very temperature sensitive
2000 2200 2400 2600
T (oK)

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Thermodynamic
state of charge
P (Mpa)

xb

Fig. 9-5 Cylinder pressure,

mass fraction burned, and
gas temperatures as function
of crank angle during
combustion.
Tb, Tu (K)

• NO formed in burned
gas
• Different “layers” of
burned gas have
substantially different
temperature, hence
different amount of NO
production
• In reality, there is
NO (ppm)

mixing between the

layers
• Rate is non-linear in
temperature 12
Crank angle (deg)

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6
 Engine-out NO emission as function of 

Fig. 11-9
SI engine, 1600 rpm,
MBT timing, v=50%

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In-cylinder NO control

MBT timing

1600 rpm; v=0.5

• Temperature is the
key
– Spark retard
– EGR (Exhaust
Gas Recirculation)

Fig. 11-13

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7
 NO control by EGR
• EGR is a dilution effect
– Reduce burned gas temperature via increase in
thermal inertia

1600 rpm; v=0.5;

MBT timing 1600 rpm; constant brake torque
MBT timing

Fig. 11-10 Fig. 11-11

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HC emissions
• Importance
– Photochemical smog (irritant; health effects)
– Significant loss of fuel energy
• Measurement
– Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
 Chemi-ionization process
 Signal proportional to C atom concentration

• Emissions regulation: NMOG as g/mile

– EPA definition of HC
 Normal gasoline CH1.85
 Reformulated gasoline CH1.92
 Compressed natural gas CH3.78
– Need speciation to detect CH4

8
 HC Impact on smog formation
• Species dependent
– Assessed as MIR of individual VOC
• VOC = volatile organic compounds
VOC reacted
Kinetic reactivity =
VOC input
Ozone formed
Mechanistic reactivity =
VOC input
Maximum Incremental Reactivity (MIR)
m  mozone,base case; max
MIR = ozone,test case; max
VOC increment to base case
EKMA (Empirical Kinetic Modeling Approach) methodology: follow air column (Lagrangian)
from 0800 using O3 as indicator. Maximum O3 formation occurs at about 1500-1700 hr.

Carter Index for

Ozone Forming
Potential
(CARB July, 1992)

Table from SAE

Paper 932718
(Tauchida et.al)

Methodology explained in SAE Paper 900710

(Lowi and Carter)

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9
 HC sources

• Non-combustion sources
– Fueling loss
– Diurnal emissions
– Running loss
– Hot soak
– Blow by
 A few L/min; depends on load and RPM
 At light load, 1500 rpm, blow by ~ 4L / min

HC sources (cont.)

• Combustion sources
– 300 to 3000 ppmC1 typical
Stoichiometric mixture is ~120,000 ppmC1
– Main combustion: very little HC except for
very lean/ dilute or very late combustion
(misfires/ partial burns)
 Various mechanisms for HC to escape from main
combustion
– Cold start emissions (wall film) especially
important

10
 SOURCES OF UNBURNED HC IN SI ENGINE

a) Crevices

b) Absorption and desorption in oil layers

c) Absorption and desorption in deposit

d) Quenching (bulk and wall layer)

e) Liquid fuel effects

f) Exhaust valve leakage

Crevice HC mechanism

11
 Absorption and desorption of fuel vapor
Absorption of
fuel vapor

Fuel/ air
mixture

Oil film
Compression stroke

Desorption of
fuel vapor

Burned
gas

Oil film
Ishizawa and Takagi (Nissan)
JSME Int. Jnl. 1987 Vol. 30 No. 260 pp. 310-317
Expansion stroke

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HC pathway

Fig. 11-31

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12
 Hydrocarbon Pathway - Steady State, cruise condition
Fuel (100%)
91% 9%

Flame converts fuel to HC Mechanisms

CO2, CO, H2O, H2 etc.

---------------- Fuel Only ---------------- --------------- Fuel- Air Mixture ---------------

Liq. Fuel Deposits Oil Layers Quenching Crevices Exh. Valve
1.2% (1%) (1%) (0.5%) (5.2%) Leakage (0.1%)

Crankcase (0.7%) 4.6%

Blow-by (0.6%)
- Recycled - - Recycled -
2.5% 5.1%
In-Cylinder Oxidation
1/3 Oxidized 2/3 Oxidized

1.7% 1.7%
Unburned HC in Residual
3.4%
(1.3%) - Recycled -
1/3
2.3%
Exhaust Oxidation (0.8%) 1/3 1.5%
Engine- out HC (1.6%)

Fully Burned Exhaust Tailpipe- out HC (0.1-0.4%) Catalyst

HC Sources: Magnitudes and

Percent of Total Engine-out Emissions*
(SAE Paper 932708)

Source % Fuel Escaping Fraction Emitted % Fuel as HC % of Total EOHC

Normal Combustion as EOHC Emissions Emissions
Crevices 5.2 0.15* 0.682* 42.6

Quench 0.5 0.15 0.074 4.6

Oil Layers 1.0 0.09** 0.090** 5.6

Deposits 1.0 0.30 0.300 18.7

Liquid Fuel 1.2 0.30 0.356 22.2

Valve Leakage 0.1 1.00 0.100 6.3

Total 9.0 1.60 100

*
Blowby (0.6%) subtracted
**
Amount to crank case (0.7%) subtracted

*steady state cruise condition (1500 rpm, 2.8 bar NIMEP)

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13
 HC control

• Reduce crevice volume

• Keep liner hot
• Spark retard
– Higher burned gas temperature in the later
part of expansion stroke and higher
exhaust temperature
• Comprehensive cold start strategy
– Retard timing, fuel rich followed by exhaust
air injection

14
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 SI Engine Catalyst

Requirement for the 3-way catalyst

Catalyst efficiency %

Modern catalyst
peak efficiency is
better than 97%

Fig 11-57
Rich Lean
Air/fuel ratio

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1
 EGO (exhaust gas oxygen) sensor

Nerst Eq.: Vo=(RT/4F)n(P’’O2/P’O2)

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UEGO sensor

SAE Paper 920234

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2
  control strategy
• Modulate A/F ratio around stoichiometric
(typically by +/- 2% at around 1 Hz)
– Enable EGO sensor to read average  value
– Make use of O2 storage capability of catalyst so that only
average  = 1 is needed

Engine F/A
modulation

Rich
Sensor
output Stoichiometric
Lean

Engine out and Tailpipe out

Cumulative HC emissions in FTP cycle

Chrysler Minivan with 3.8 L engine, 1995

3
 Monolithic reactors

7cm (Typical
14 cm 12cm dimensions
for a 2.4 L
engine)

Monolithic catalysts’ elements

Washcoat
Carrier of the catalytic species
Substrate
Structure of the monolith
Catalytic species

4
 Materials
• Substrate
– Synthetic cordierite (2MgO2Al2O35SiO2)
• Washcoat
– -alumina (- Al2O3)
• Active materials
– Platinum (~ 1-2 g/L)
– Palladium (~0.5-1 g/L; usually in front brick)
– Rhodium (~0.2 g/L; for NOx and HC
reduction)
– Ceria (for oxygen storage)
 Ce2O3 +1/2 O2  2CeO2

Cost of catalyst active material

2500
Platinum spot price
2000
$ per troy ounce

1500

1000

500

0
Jan-92
Jan-93
Jan-94
Jan-95
Jan-96
Jan-97
Jan-98
Jan-99
Jan-00
Jan-01
Jan-02
Jan-03
Jan-04
Jan-05
Jan-06
Jan-07
Jan-08
Jan-09
Jan-10
Jan-11
Jan-12
Jan-13
Jan-14

1 troy ounce = 31.1 g

5
 The washcoat

• Provides a high-surface area

support to carry the catalytic
species: 20 to 100 m2/g
12.5m
12.5 μm
0.2
0.2mm
mm • Increases the resistance of
the catalyst against
1.3 mm
1.3 mm
deactivation processes

125125
mμm
• Supports the catalytic
function of the catalytic
species

(Heck and Farrauto, Catalytic Air Pollution Control, Commercial Technology, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1999)

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The catalyst structure

150 m
100 m

1mm 1 m
20 m
15 nm
Washcoat
1 nm

150 m

20 m Ceramic Washcoat Washcoat

Monolith Secondary Macropore
Particle
10 nm Precious Metal Particles

Washcoat Meso
and Micropores
Washcoat Primary Particle
Washcoat secondary particle

(Lox and Engler, in Environmental Catalysis, Ed. by Ertl, Knozinger and Weitkamp, Wiley-VCH 1999)

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6
 The washcoat secondary particles

• Secondary
particle size
~ 2 to 30 m
• Macro-pore
dimensions
~ microns

Scanning electron microscope view of washcoat

(Lox and Engler, in Environmental Catalysis, Ed. by Ertl, Knozinger and Weitkamp, Wiley-VCH 1999

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Creative Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

The catalytic species on the

washcoat primary particles
• Primary washcoat particle size
~ 10-20 nm
• Typical size of active material
(e.g. Pt) on fresh catalysts
less than 50 angstroms,
(30 angstroms on the figure)
• Atomic spacing of Pt atom
2.8 angstroms
• Average distance between two
particles
o
65 angstroms 100A
• Micro-pore dimensions
Micro-pores
~ 10 to 100 nm

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7
 Transport time scale

h~1 5 m/s *
mm BULK GAS
*
• value for 2.0 L Engine at
1500 rpm, 0.4 bar intake
pressure.
L~15 cm • For Vcat = 1L space
T=900oK, p=1bar velocity is 1x105/hr

Mass diffusivity = 4x10-5 m2/s; mean free path = 200 nm;

molecular speed c = 450 m/s

External diffusion time ext = (h/2)2/D = 6 ms Transport time

Internal diffusion time: dominated by
Macro-pore (size  = 10 m; continuum limit) external
int, macro= 2/D = 2.5 s transport
Micro-pore (size ’ = 100 nm; Knudson limit)
int, micro= ’/c = 0.2 ns
Residence time L/U = 30 ms

Chemical time
Example: Catalytic CO oxidation
• O2 absorption 10
5

 O2 + 2 S  2 O*
• CO absorption
Overall time scale
Time scale (s)

 CO + S  CO* 10
1

• Surface oxidation and CO2 O2

release absorption Surface
 CO* + O*  CO2 -3
reaction
10

CO absorption
-7
Overall time scale dominated 10
200 400 600 800 1000
by surface reaction
Temperature (K)

8
 Limiting time scale

Conclusions: 100000

• For fully warm-up Chemical time

1000
catalyst, overall (From CO catalytic
oxidation)
reaction is rate

Time scale (s)

10
limited by Transport time
(external diffusion)
external diffusion 0.1

• At low
1E-3
temperatures,
surface chemistry 1E-5
is rate limiting 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature (K)

Catalyst deterioration
• Poisoning
– Lead
– Phosphorus (from oil additives)
– Sulfur (fuel S from 300 to 30 ppm)
effect reversible to a large extend
• Thermal degradation
– Sintering (T>1000oK)
Active ingredients: loss of reactive surface
-alumina: occluding the active ingredients
Oxidation of Rh
• Glazing ― lubrication oil covering catalyst
• Erosion

9
MIT OpenCourseWare
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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 Diesel Engine Combustion

1. Characteristics of diesel combustion

2. Different diesel combustion systems
3. Phenomenological model of diesel
combustion process
4. Movie of combustion in diesel systems
5. Combustion pictures and planar laser
sheet imaging

DIESEL COMBUSTION PROCESS

PROCESS
• Liquid fuel injected into compressed charge
• Fuel evaporates and mixes with the hot air
• Auto-ignition with the rapid burning of the fuel-
air that is “premixed” during the ignition delay
period
– Premixed burning is fuel rich
• As more fuel is injected, the combustion is
controlled by the rate of diffusion of air into the
flame

1
 DIESEL COMBUSTION PROCESS

NATURE OF DIESEL COMBUSTION

• Heterogeneous
– liquid, vapor and air
– spatially non-uniform
• turbulent
• diffusion flame
– High temperature and pressure
– Mixing limited

The Diesel Engine

• Intake air not throttled

– Load controlled by the amount of fuel injected
>A/F ratio: idle ~ 80
>Full load ~19 (less than overall stoichiometric)
• No “end-gas”; avoid the knock problem
– High compression ratio: better efficiency
• Combustion:
– Turbulent diffusion flame
– Overall lean

2
 Diesel as the Most Efficient Power Plant
• Theoretically, for the same CR, SI engine has higher f; but
diesel is not limited by knock, therefore it can operate at
higher CR and achieves higher f
• Not throttled - small pumping loss
• Overall lean - higher value of  - higher thermodynamic
efficiency
• Can operate at low rpm - applicable to very large engines
– slow speed, plenty of time for combustion
– small surface to volume ratio: lower percentage of parasitic
losses (heat transfer and friction)
• Opted for turbo-charging: higher energy density
– Reduced parasitic losses (friction and heat transfer) relative to output

Large Diesels: f~ 55%

~ 98% ideal efficiency !

Diesel Engine Characteristics

(compared to SI engines)

• Better fuel economy

– Overall lean, thermodynamically efficient
– Large displacement, low speed – lower FMEP
– Higher CR
> CR limited by peak pressure, NOx emissions, combustion and
heat transfer loss
– Turbo-charging not limited by knock: higher BMEP over domain of
operation, lower relative losses (friction and heat transfer)
• Lower Power density
– Overall lean: would lead to smaller BMEP
– Turbocharged: would lead to higher BMEP
> not knock limited, but NOx limited
> BMEP higher than naturally aspirated SI engine
– Lower speed: overall power density (P/VD) not as high as SI engines
• Emissions: more problematic than SI engine
– NOx: needs development of efficient catalyst
– PM: regenerative and continuous traps

3
 Typical SI and Diesel operating value comparisons

SI Diesel
• BMEP
– Naturally aspirated: 10-15 bar 10 bar
– Turbo: 15-25 bar 15-25 bar
• Power density
– Naturally aspirated: 50-70 KW/L 20 KW/L
– Turbo: 70-120 KW/L 40-70 KW/L
• Fuel
– H to C ratio CH1.87 CH1.80
– Stoichiometric A/F 14.6 14.5
– Density 0.75 g/cc 0.81 g/cc
– LHV (mass basis) 44 MJ/kg 43 MJ/kg
– LHV (volume basis) 3.30 MJ/L 3.48 MJ/L (5.5% higher)
– LHV (CO2 basis) 13.9 MJ/kgCO2 13.6 MJ/kgCO2 (2.2% lower)

Disadvantages of Diesel Engines

• Cold start difficulty

• Noisy - sharp pressure rise: cracking noise
• Inherently slower combustion
• Lower power to weight ratio
• Expensive components
• NOx and particulate matters emissions

4
 Market penetration

• Diesel driving fuel economy ~ 30% better than SI

 5% from fuel energy/volume
 15% from eliminating throttle loss
 10% from thermodynamics
 2nd law losses (friction and heat transfer)
 Higher compression ratio
 Higher specific heat ratio

Dominant world wide heavy duty applications

Dominant military applications
Significant market share in Europe
Tax structure for fuel and vehicle
Small passenger car market fraction in US and Japan
Fuel cost
Customer preference
Emissions requirement

Applications

• Small (7.5 to 10 cm bore; previously mainly IDI; new

ones are high speed DI)
– passenger cars
• Medium (10 to 20 cm bore; DI)
– trucks, trains
• Large (30 to 50 cm bore; DI)
– trains, ships
• Very Large (100 cm bore)
– stationary power plants, ships

5
 Common Direct-Injection Compression-Ignition Engines
(Fig. 10.1 of text)

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Quiescent chamber with multihole nozzle typical of larger engines

(b) Bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and multihole nozzle; medium to small size engines
(c) Bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and single-hole nozzle; medium to small size engines

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Common types of small Indirect-injection diesel engines

(Fig. 10.2 of text)

(a) Swirl prechamber (b) Turbulent prechamber

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6
 Common Diesel Combustion Systems (Table 10.1)

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Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Effect of Engine Size

Fuel Conversion Efficiency
(Values at best efficiency point of engine map)
0.6
DI Sulzer
RTA84
Brake-Fuel-Conv.-Eff.

Hino RTA58
0.5 RTA38
P11C, K13C
Audi
HSDI
IDI Isuzu 6HE1
0.4
Volvo TD70
SI
DI engines
0.3 IDI Engines
SI Engine

0.2
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Displacement (L/cyl) Displ./ cyl. (L)

7
 Typical Large Diesel Engine Performance Diagram
140
120 Max Pressure
100

(bar)
80
60 Compression
40 Pressure
Sulzer RLB 90 - MCR 1 20
2.5
Turbo-charged 2-stroke Diesel 2.0 Scavenge Air Pressure (gauge)
– 1.9 m stroke; 0.9 m bore

(bar)
1.5
1.0
Rating: 0.5
• Speed: 102 Rev/ min 0
500
– Piston speed 6.46 m/s 450 Exh. Temp, Turbine Inlet and Outlet
400

( oC)
• BMEP: 14.3 bar 350
300
Configurations 250
200
– 4 cyl: 11.8 MW (16000 bhp) 13
– 5 cyl: 14.7 MW (20000 bhp) 12

(kg/kWh)
Specific air quantity
11
– 6 cyl: 17.7 MW (24000 bhp) 10
9
– 7 cyl: 20.6 MW (28000 bhp) 8
7
– 8 cyl: 23.5 MW (32000 bhp) 210
– 9 cyl: 26.5 MW (36000 bhp) 205
(g/kWh)

200 Specific fuel consumption

– 10 cyl: 29.4 MW (40000 bhp) 195
190
– 12 cyl: 35.3 MW (48000 bhp) 185
180
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
BMEP (bar)
f,b=0.45 @ 185 g/kW-hr

Sulzer RTA96 engine

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8
 Diesel combustion process ― direct injection

1) Ignition delay ― no significant

heat release
2) “Premixed” rapid combustion
3) “Mixing controlled” phase of
combustion
4) “Late” combustion phase
Note:
(2) is too fast;
(4) is too slow

Rate of Heat Release in Diesel Combustion

(Fig. 10.8 of Text)

Fig. 10-9

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9
 A Simple Diesel Combustion Concept (Fig. 10-8)

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Visualization of Diesel Combustion

Bore 10.2 cm
Stroke 44.7 cm
Compression ratio 15.4

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10
 Images From Diesel Combustion

First occurrence of luminous flame (0.13 ms after ignition) (0.93 ms after ignition)
(1.0 ms after start of injection)

End of injection 5.33 ms after ignition

(1.87 ms after ignition)
(2.67 ms after ignition)

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FEATURES OF DIESEL COMBUSTION

• Ignition delay
– Auto-ignition in different parts of combustion chamber
• After ignition, fuel sprays into hot burned gas
– Then, evaporation process is fast
• Major part of combustion controlled by fuel air mixing process
– Mixing dominated by flow field formed by fuel jet interacting with
combustion chamber walls during injection
• Highly luminous flame:
– Substantial soot formation in the fuel rich zone by pyrolysis, followed
by substantial subsequent oxidation

11
 Imaging of Diesel Combustion by Laser Sheet Illumination

Rayleigh scattering Laser Induced Florescence

reflection from molecules (pump at) OH @284 nm
PAH @387 nm
NO @ 226 nm From J.Dec, SAE 970873

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Fuel Equivalence Ratio

• Obtained by Planar Rayleigh scattering
• Substantial reduction of fuel
equivalence ratio in the ‘premixed’
region indicates fuel-rich oxidation

(After Start of Injection) From J.Dec, SAE 970873

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12
 OH Image by PLIF
5.0o ASI 7.5o ASI
Oxidation occurs at the edge of the air
and fuel rich region

5.5o ASI 8.0o ASI

6.0o ASI 8.5o ASI

6.5o ASI 9.0o ASI

7.0o ASI 9.5o ASI

(Dash lines in the first two frames marks (After Start of Injection)
the vapor boundary of the fuel jet) From J.Dec, SAE 970873

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LII Elastic
scattering
Image of the Particulates
6.0o ASI 6.0o ASI
Laser Induced Incandescence
(signal ~ d3; observe small
particles )
6.5o ASI 6.5o ASI Elastic scattering
(signal ~ d6; observe large
particles)

7.0o ASI 7.0o ASI

7.5o ASI 7.5o ASI

8.0o ASI 8.0o ASI

8.5o ASI 8.5o ASI

From J.Dec, SAE 970873

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13
 Diesel Ignition, Premixed Burning and Transition into
Diffusion Burning
• Premixed burning
– Release of energy from fuel rich combustion
• Diffusion burning
– Oxidation of incomplete products of the rich
premixed combustion and fuel vapor at the
‘jet’/ air interface

Figures from J.Dec, SAE 970873

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14
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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 Diesel injection, ignition, and fuel air mixing

1. Fuel spray phenomena

2. Spontaneous ignition
3. Effects of fuel jet and charge motion on mixing-
controlled combustion
4. Fuel injection hardware
5. Challenges for diesel combustion

DIESEL FUEL INJECTION

The fuel spray serves multiple purposes:
• Atomization
• Fuel distribution
• Fuel/air mixing
Typical Diesel fuel injector
• Injection pressure: 1000 to 2200 bar
• 5 to 20 holes at ~ 0.12 - 0.2 mm diameter
• Drop size 0.1 to 10 m
• For best torque, injection starts at about 20o BTDC
Injection strategies for NOx control
• Late injection (inj. starts at around TDC)
• Other control strategies:
 Pilot and multiple injections, rate shaping, water emulsion

1
 Diesel Fuel Injection System
(A Major cost of the diesel engine)
• Performs fuel metering
• Provides high injection pressure
• Distributes fuel effectively
– Spray patterns, atomization etc.
• Provides fluid kinetic energy for charge mixing
Typical systems:
• Pump and distribution system (100 to 1500 bar)
• Common rail system (1000 to 1800 bar)
• Hydraulic pressure amplification
• Unit injectors (1000 to 2200 bar)
• Piezoelectric injectors (1800 bar)
• Electronically controlled

EXAMPLE OF DIESEL INJECTION

(Hino K13C, 6 cylinder, 12.9 L turbo-charged diesel

engine, rated at 294KW@2000 rpm)
• Injection pressure = 1400 bar; duration = 40oCA
• BSFC 200 g/KW-hr
• Fuel delivered per cylinder per injection at rated
condition
– 0.163 gm ~0.21 cc (210 mm3)
• Averaged fuel flow rate during injection
– 64 mm3/ms
• 8 nozzle holes, at 0.2 mm diameter
– Average exit velocity at nozzle ~253 m/s

2
 Typical physical quantities in nozzle flow

• Diesel fuel @ 100oC

– s.g. ~ 0.78, ~5x10-4 N-s/m2
L • Nozzle diameter ~0.2 mm
u • L/d ~ 5 to 10
• Reynolds No. ~ 105 (turbulent)
d • Pressure drop in nozzle
~30 bar << driving pressure
(~1000 bar)
• Injection velocity

2P
u  500 m/s @ P of 1000 bar
 fuel

Fuel Atomization Process

• Liquid break up governed by balance between

aerodynamic force and surface tension
 gas u 2 d
Webber Number (Wb ) 

• Critical Webber number: Wb,critical ~ 30; diesel fuel
surface tension ~ 2.5x10-2 N/m

• Typical Wb at nozzle outlet > Wb,critical; fuel shattered

into droplets within ~ one nozzle diameter

• Droplet size distribution in spray depends on further

droplet breakup, coalescence and evaporation

3
 Droplet size distribution
f(D) Size distribution:
f(D)dD = probability of finding
particle with diameter in
the range of (D, D + dD)

1   f(D)dD
D 0

Average diameter Volume distribution

 1 dV f(D) D3
D   f(D) D dD  
V dD
 f(D) D dD
0 3

Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) 

 f (D ) D
3
dD
D 32  0


 f (D ) D
2
dD
0

Droplet Size Distribution

Radial distance
from jet
centerline

Fig. 10.28 Droplet size distribution measured well downstream; numbers on the curves are
radial distances from jet axis. Nozzle opening pressure at 10 MPa; injection into air at 11 bar.

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4
 Droplet Behavior in Spray

• Small drops (~ micron size) follow gas stream;

large ones do not
– Relaxation time  d2
• Evaporation time  d2
– Evaporation time small once charge is ignited
• Spray angle depends on nozzle geometry and
gas density : tan(/2)  gasliquid
• Spray penetration depends on injection
momentum, mixing with charge air, and droplet
evaporation

Spray Penetration: vapor and liquid (Fig. 10-20)

0

Shadowgraph image
showing both liquid
and vapor penetration
mm

50

100
2 3 3.3 3.5 ms
0

Back-lit image
mm

showing liquid-
containing core
50

2 3 3.3 3.5 ms

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5
 Auto-ignition Process

PHYSICAL PROCESSES (Physical Delay)

 Drop atomization
 Evaporation
 Fuel vapor/air mixing

CHEMICAL PROCESSES (Chemical Delay)

 Chain initiation
 Chain propagation
 Branching reactions

CETANE IMPROVERS
 Alkyl Nitrates
– 0.5% by volume increases CN by ~10

Mixture cooling from heat of vaporization

125 Adiabatic, constant pressure evaporation

Dodecane in air
Initial condition:
Temperature drop (k)

Air at 800 K, 80 bar

100
Liq. dodecane at 350K, 80 bar

75

50

25

0
10-2 10-1 1
, Fuel equilvalence ratio of mixture

6
Ignition Mechanism: similar to SI engine knock

CHAIN BRANCHING EXPLOSION

Chemical reactions lead to increasing number of radicals,
which leads to rapidly increasing reaction rates

Formation of Branching Agents

Chain Initiation   RH  ROOH  R
RO 2
RH  O  R  HO    RCHO  RO

2 2 RO 2
Chain Propagation Degenerate Branching
 , etc.
R  O2  RO ROOH  RO   OH

2
RCHO  O  RCO  HO

2 2

Cetane Rating
(Procedure is similar to Octane Rating for SI Engine; for details,
see10.6.2 of text)

Primary Reference Fuels:

 Normal cetane (C16H34): CN = 100
 Hepta-Methyl-Nonane (HMN; C16H34): CN = 15
(2-2-4-4-6-8-8 Heptamethylnonane)

Rating:
 Operate CFR engine at 900 rpm with fuel
 Injection at 13o BTC
 Adjust compression ratio until ignition at TDC
 Replace fuel by reference fuel blend and change blend proportion to
get same ignition point
 CN = % n-cetane + 0.15 x % HMN

7
 Ignition Delay

Ignition delays measured in a

small four-stroke cycle DI
diesel engine with rc=16.5, as a
function of load at 1980 rpm, at
various cetane number

(Fig. 10-36)

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Fuel effects on Cetane Number (Fig. 10-40)

Adding
more stable
species

Adding less stable species

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8
 Ignition Delay Calculations
• Difficulty: do not know local conditions (species concentration
and temperature) to apply kinetics information

Two practical approaches:

• Use an “instantaneous” delay expression
(T,P) = P-nexp(-EA/ T)
and solve ignition delay (id) from
1
1   t si id dt
t si(T( t ),P( t ))
• Use empirical correlation of id based on T, P at an appropriate
charge condition; e.g. Eq. (10.37 of text)
 1 1 21.2 
id (CA)  (0.36  0.22Sp (m / s))exp E A ( ~  )( )0.63 
 RT(K) 17190) P(bar)  12.4 
EA (Joules per mole) = 618,840 / (CN+25)

Diesel Engine Combustion

Air Fuel Mixing Process

• Importance of air utilization

– Smoke-limit A/F ~ 20
• Fuel jet momentum / wall interaction has a larger influence
on the early part of the combustion process
• Charge motion impacts the later part of the combustion
process (after end-of-injection)

CHARGE MOTION CONTROL

• Intake created motion: swirl, etc.
– Not effective for low speed large engine
• Piston created motion - squish

9
 Interaction of fuel jet and the chamber wall

Sketches of outer vapor boundary

of diesel fuel spray from 12
successive frames (0.14 ms apart)
of high-speed shadowgraph
movie. Injection pressure at 60
MPa.

Fig. 10-21

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Interaction of fuel jet with air swirl

Schematic of fuel jet –

air swirl interaction; 
is the fuel equivalence
ratio distribution

Fig. 10-22

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10
 Rate of Heat Release in Diesel Combustion
(Fig. 10.8 of Text)

Part of combustion affected

most by the charge motion

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DIESEL FUEL INJECTION HARDWARE

• High pressure system

– precision parts for flow control
• Fast action
– high power movements

Expensive system

11
 FUEL METERING AND INJECTION SYSTEM -
CONCEPT

Plunger Process:
• Fill
• Pressurize
Fuel in Fuel spill
• Inject
• Spill

Fuel injection

Fuel Delivery Control

From Diesel Fuel

Injection, Robert
Bosch GmbH,
1994

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12
 Fuel Rack and In-line
Pump

From Diesel Fuel Injection,

Robert Bosch GmbH, 1994

Distributor pump

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Diesel Injector

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13
 Electronic Unit Injector

SAE Paper 891001

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Injection pressure

• Positive displacement injection system

– Injection pressure adjusted to accommodate plunger
motion
– Injection pressure  rpm2

• Injection characteristics speed dependent

– Injection pressure too high at high rpm
– Injection pressure too low at low rpm

14
 Common Rail Fuel Injection System

SAE Paper 1999-01-0833

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Common Rail Injector

Nozzle opening speed controlled by the

flow rate difference between the Bleed (6)
and Feed (7) orifices

From Bosch: Diesel Engine Management

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15
 Caterpillar Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injector (HEUI)

Fuel line: 200kPa; Low pressure oil: 300 kPa;

High pressure oil: up to 23 MPa;
Intensifier area ratio 7:1
Injection pressure up to 150 MPa

SAE Papers 930270, 930271

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Piezoelectric injectors

Piezo actuator module

Coupling module
Control valve
Nozzle module

• For both diesel and GDI applications

• Up to 180 MPa injection pressure
• 5 injections per cycle
• In vehicle production already
• Suppliers: Bosch; Delphi; Denso; Siemens; …

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16
 Split Injection (SAE Paper 940668)

50-50,3 stands for 50/50%

split of fuel injection, with 3o
CA spacing

1600 rpm, 184 KPa manifold

pressure, overall fuel
equivalence ratio = 0.45;

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Split injection cfd simulation

34

17
 CHALLENGES IN DIESEL COMBUSTION

Heavy Duty Diesel Engines

• NOx emission
• Particulate emission
• Power density
• Noise

High Speed Passenger Car Diesel Engines

• All of the above, plus
– Fast burn rate

Cavitation in Injection Nozzle

• Cavitation happens when local pressure is

lower than the fluid vapor pressure
• Effects
– Discharge rate
– Affects the spray angle
– Damage to the nozzle passage
• Factors affecting cavitation
– Combustion chamber pressure
– Local streamline curvature within the nozzle

18
 Flow process that leads to cavitation
Flow separation
(recirculation region)

Flow reattachment

u1 u2

Bernoulli drop
Pb = ½ f (u12-u22)
= ½ f u22 [ (A2/A1)2-1]
pressure  Pinj [ (A2/A1)2-1]

Pmin
 Pc-Pb+Pf further friction drop Pf

Cavitation
occurs if Combustion chamber pressure
Pmin  fuel Pc
saturation
pressure

19
MIT OpenCourseWare
https://ocw.mit.edu

2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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 Diesel Emissions and Control

• Diesel emissions
• Regulatory requirements
• Diesel emissions reduction
• Diesel exhaust gas after-treatment
systems
• Clean diesel fuels

Diesel Emissions
• CO – not significant until smoke-limit is reached
 Overall fuel lean
 higher CR favors oxidation
• HC – not significant in terms of mass emission
 Crevice gas mostly air
– Significant effects:
 Odor
 Toxics (HC absorbed in fine PM)
– Mechanisms:
 Over-mixing, especially during light load
 Sag volume effect
• NOx – very important
 No attractive lean NOx exhaust treatment yet
• PM – very important
 submicron particles health effects
2

1
 Demonstration of over-mixing effect
Diesel HC
emission
mechanisms

Fig. 11-35

Effect of nozzle sac vol. on HC emissions

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NOx mechanisms
• NO: Extended Zeldovich mechanism
N2 + O  NO + N
N + O2  NO + O
N + OH NO + H
– Very temperature sensitive: favored at high temperature
– Diffusion flame: locally high temperature
– More severe than SI case because of higher CR
• NO2 : high temperature equilibrium favors NO, but NO2 is
formed due to quenching of the formation of NO by mixing
with the excess air
NO + HO2  NO2 + OH
NO2 + O  NO + O2
– Gets 10-20% of NO2 in NOx 4

2
 NOx formation in Diesel engines

NO2

NO
Fig. 11-15 Fig. 11-16

()

Normalized NO concentration from

cylinder dumping experiment. NOx and NO emissions as a function of
Injection at 27o BTC. Note most of the overall equivalence ratio . Note that NO2
NO is formed in the diffusion phase of as a fraction of the NOx decreases with
burning increase of .
5

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Diesel combustion
Fuel rich Diffusion flame:
combustion Oxidation of
fuel, fuel rich
products and
particulates

Particles grow and agglomerate

Flynn et al, SAE990509 6
into bigger particles

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3
 Particulate Matter (PM)

• As exhaust emission:
– visible smoke
– collector of organic and inorganic materials
from engine
Partially oxidized fuel; e.g. Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Lubrication oil (has Zn, P, Cu etc. in it)
– Sulfates (fuel sulfur oxidized to SO2, and
then in atmosphere to SO3 which hydrates
to sulfuric acid (acid rain)
7

Particulate Matter

• In the combustion process, PM formed

initially as soot (mostly carbon)
– partially oxidized fuel and lub oil condense
on the particulates in the expansion,
exhaust processes and outside the engine
PM has effective absorption surface area of
200 m2/g
– Soluble Organic Fraction (SOF) 10-30%
(use dichloromethane as solvent)

4
 Elementary soot particle structure

10 - 50 nm

106 Carbon atoms

(See Fig. 11-38 and 11-40 for micro-image of soot particles)

9

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10

Image courtesy of EPA.

5
 PM formation processes
Dehydrogenation
Nucleation Oxidation

In-cylinder
Dehydrogenation
Surface growth
Time

Oxidation

Dehydrogenation
Agglomeration Oxidation

In atmosphere
Adsorption,
condensation

11

Diesel NOx/PM regulation

1
US
1990
EU

Euro II (1998) 1991-93

PM(g/bhp-hr)

Euro III(2000) 1994

0.1
1998
2004
Euro IV(2005)

Euro V(2008)
Euro VI (proposed-2013)
0.01
2007

0.1 1 10
NOx (g/bhp-hr)
12

(Note: Other countries regulations are originally in terms of g/KW-hr)

6
 US HD diesel regulation history
10

Emissions (g/bhp-hr) NOx

0.1
PM

0.01

0.001
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Starting year

Note: from 2004 on, NOx regulation is on NOx+NMHC 13

(Example: Operating points for particular truck)

14

7
European Stationary Cycle (ESC)

15

European Transient
Cycle (ETC)

EU HD Diesel emissions regulation

HD Diesel (Euro number denoted by roman-numerals)
Standard Year PM (g/KW- NOx (g/KW- HC (g/KW- CO(g/KW-
hr) hr) hr) hr)

Euro I (>85KW) 1992 0.36 8 1.1 4.5

Euro II (ESC) 1996 0.25 7 1.1 4
Euro II (ESC) 1998 0.15 7 1.1 4
Euro III (ESC) 2000 0.1 5 0.66 2.1
Euro IV (ESC) 2005 0.02 3.5 0.46 1.5
Euro V (ESC) 2008 0.02 2 0.46 1.5
Euro VI (ESC) -proposed 2013 0.01 0.4 0.13 1.5

Euro III (ETC) 2000 0.16 5 0.78 5.45

Euro III (ETC) 2005 0.03 3.5 0.55 4
Euro III (ETC) 2008 0.03 2 0.55 4
Euro VI (ETC) -proposed 2013 0.01 0.4 0.16 4

Change of test cycle from Euro III to include ETC

Values different for steady test (ESC) and transient test (ETC)

16

8
 Diesel Emissions Reduction
1. Fuel injection: higher injection pressure; multiple
pulses per cycle, injection rate shaping; improved
injection timing control
2. Combustion chamber geometry and air motion
optimization well matched to fuel injection system
3. Exhaust Gas Recycle (EGR) for NOx control
 Cooled for impact
4. Reduced oil consumption to reduce HC contribution
to particulates
5. Exhaust treatment technology: NOx, PM
6. Cleaner fuels
17

1500 rpm Effect of EGR

SOI
1.35 L single cylinder engine,
Direct Injection, 4-stroke
50 mg fuel/cycle

12 4
8

SAE Paper 930601

18

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9
 Effect of EGR
at different loads

19
SAE Paper 980174

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Combustion control of diesel emissions

High pressure small

hole injection

HCCI

SAE 2005-01-3837
The contour map is for soot formation for n-heptane at P=6MPa, time=2 ms, EGR=0. 20

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10
 Combustion control of diesel emissions

A Late injection,
moderate dilution
B Early injection,
high dilution
C Conventional
C diesel

21

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Diesel particulate filters use porous ceramics

and catalyst to collect and burn the soot
Trapped soot on inlet wall surface Cell Plugs

Place a catalyst in Exhaust (CO2, H2O)

Out
front of or within filter
to oxidize NO to NO2
Exhaust
(Soot, CO, HC)
Enter • Self regenerating
• Overall effect
neutral to NOx
• Need low sulfur
Ceramic Honeycomb fuel
Wall with Supported
22
Catalyst

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11
 Post injection filter regeneration

• Regeneration needs ~550oC

• Normal diesel exhaust under city
driving ~150-200oC
• Need oxidation catalyst (CeO2) to
lower light off temperature
• Control engine torque
• Minimized fuel penalty

Peugeot SAE 2000-01-0473

Increase exhaust gas temperature by injection of

additional fuel pulse late in cycle.
23

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Sulfur effect on PM filter performance

OICA cycle: International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers cycle

CDPF: Catalyzed diesel particulate filter 24
CR-DPF: Catalyzed regenerating diesel particulate filter
SAE Paper 2000-01-1879

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12
 Ash build up
Moderate ash build up

Heavy ash build up

From SAE 2008-01-1549 25

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Ash cleaning from DPF

Zeuna Stärker, SAE 2001-01-3199

Picture as per ADAC
website, Aug.28, 01
All fuel delivery trucks in the ARCO (BP) ECD
retrofit program went 150K miles before ash
Cleaning process: build-up became an issue. Some trucks went
250,000 miles.
1. Burn-off of soot with hot air
BP SAE 2002-01-0433
2. Cleaning with water and air under “high” pressure.
26
Slide courtesy of Tim Johnson, Corning

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13
 State-of-the Art SCR system has NO2 generation and
oxidation catalyst to eliminate ammonia slip

SCR Catalyst (S)

4NH3 + 4NO + O2  4N2 + 6H2O
Urea 2NH3 + NO + NO2  2N2 + 3H2O
(NH2)2CO 8NH3 + 6NO2  7N2 + 12H2O

Exhaust V H S O
Gas

Oxidation Catalyst (V)

2NO + O2  2NO2 Oxidation Catalyst (O)
4HC + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O 4NH3 + 3O2  2N2 + 6H2O
2CO + O2  2CO2

Hydrolysis Catalyst (H)

Schaefer-Sindlinger, (NH2)2CO + H2O  2NH3 + CO2 27
Degussa, 9-99

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NOx absorber

Lean Condition Rich Condition

NO + ½O2 CO2 O2
CO + HC + H2 NOx CO

NO2

P P
Pt R t
t Rh Rh
Ba(NO3)2 h
Ba(NO3)2
BaCO3
BaCO3
Al2O3 Al2O3 N2 + CO2

Lean condition: Store NOx as nitrate Rich condition: Store NOx as nitrate
2NO2 + BaO + 1/2O2 = Ba(NO3)2 Dissociate nitrate to NO2, which is
converted by the CO and H2

28

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14
 Integrated DPF and NOx trap

NO+1/2 O2  NO2
BaO+2NO2+1/2 O2 Ba(NO3)2

Better than 80% simultaneous

reduction in PM and NOx

From Toyota SAE Paper 2002-01-0957 29

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Clean Diesel Fuels

1. Lower sulfur levels

 350 ppm  15 ppm (to enable SCR
technology; enforced since 2006)
2. Lower percentage aromatics
3. Oxygenated fuels
4. Higher cetane number
5. Narrower distillation range

30

15
 Effects of Oxygenates on PM emission

AVL Publication (by Wofgang Cartellieri in JSME 1998 Conference in Toykyo)

31

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Diesel Emission Control

Summary
• Emission regulations present substantial
challenge to Diesel engine system
• Issues are:
– performance and sfc penalty
– cost
– reliability
– infra-structure support

32

16
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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 Engine Heat Transfer

1. Impact of heat transfer on engine operation

2. Heat transfer environment
3. Energy flow in an engine
4. Engine heat transfer
 Fundamentals
 Spark-ignition engine heat transfer
 Diesel engine heat transfer
5. Component temperature and heat flow
1

Engine Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer is a parasitic process that

contributes to a loss in fuel conversion
efficiency

• The process is a “surface” effect

• Relative importance reduces with:

– Larger engine displacement
– Higher load

1
 Engine Heat Transfer: Impact
• Efficiency and Power: Heat transfer in the inlet decrease volumetric
efficiency. In the cylinder, heat losses to the wall is a loss of
availability.

• Exhaust temperature: Heat losses to exhaust influence the

turbocharger performance. In- cylinder and exhaust system heat
transfer has impact on catalyst light up.

• Friction: Heat transfer governs liner, piston/ ring, and oil

temperatures. It also affects piston and bore distortion. All of these
effects influence friction. Thermal loading determined fan, oil and
water cooler capacities and pumping power.

• Component design: The operating temperatures of critical engine

components affects their durability; e.g. via mechanical stress,
lubricant behavior
3

Engine Heat Transfer: Impact

• Mixture preparation in SI engines: Heat transfer to the fuel

significantly affect fuel evaporation and cold start calibration

• Cold start of diesel engines: The compression ratio of diesel

engines are often governed by cold start requirement

• SI engine octane requirement: Heat transfer influences inlet

mixture temperature, chamber, cylinder head, liner, piston and
valve temperatures, and therefore end-gas temperatures, which
affect knock. Heat transfer also affects build up of in-cylinder
deposit which affects knock.

2
 Engine heat transfer environment
• Gas temperature: ~300 – 3000oK
• Heat flux to wall: Q /A <0 (during intake) to 10 MW/m2
• Materials limit:
– Cast iron ~ 400oC
– Aluminum ~ 300oC
– Liner (oil film) ~200oC
• Hottest components
– Spark plug > Exhaust valve > Piston crown > Head
– Liner is relatively cool because of limited exposure to burned gas
• Source
– Hot burned gas
– Radiation from particles in diesel engines

Energy flow diagram for an IC engine

Combustion
chamber wall
heat transfer To Coolant

Total Hot
fuel exhaust
energy
input Incomplete
combustion

Indicated output Misc. loss

Useful energy output
Piston friction
(Brake power)
Total
friction

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3
 Energy flow distribution for SI and Diesel

Update for modern engines:

SI engine in the low 30’s
Diesel in the low 40’s
7

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Energy distribution in SI engine

2000 rpm, water cooled SI engine
2L displacement 100
Fuel energy (%)

0 2 4 6 8 10
BMEP (bar)
“Heat Balance of Modern Passenger Car SI
Engines”,Gruden, Kuper and Porsche, in Fig. 12-4 SI engine energy distribution
Heat and Mass Transfer in Gasoline and under road load condition, 6 cylinder
Diesel Engines, ed. by Spalding and Afgan engine; SAE Paper 770221, 1977 8

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4
 Efficiency of Passenger Car SI Engines

Source: D. Gruden, P.F., and F. Porsche AG. R & D

Center Weissach, 1989.
7

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Heat transfer process in engines

• Areas where heat transfer is important
– Intake system: manifold, port, valves
– In-cylinder: cylinder head, piston, valves, liner
– Exhaust system: valves, port, manifold, exhaust pipe
– Coolant system: head, block, radiator
– Oil system: head, piston, crank, oil cooler, sump
• Information of interest
– Heat transfer per unit time (rate)
– Heat transfer per cycle (often normalized by fuel heating
value)
– Variation with time and location of heat flux (heat transfer
rate per unit area)

10

5
 Schematic of temperature distribution and heat flow across
the combustion chamber wall (Fig. 12-1)
Fraction of mm
~7 mm
(~2700oK)

Not to scale

(~480oK)

Tg(intake) (~360oK)
(~320oK)

11

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Combustion Chamber Heat Transfer

Turbulent convection: hot gas to wall
.
Q  Ah g (T g  Twg )
Conduction through wall
. 
Q  A (Twg  Twc )
tw
Turbulent convection: wall to coolant
.
Q  Ah c (Twc  T c )
Overall heat transfer
.
Q  Ah (T g  T c )
Overall thermal resistance: three resistance in series
1 1 tw 1
  
h hg  hc alum ~180 W/m-k
cast iron ~ 60 W/m-k
stainless steel ~18 W/m-k) 12

6
 Turbulent Convective Heat Transfer Correlation
Approach: Use Nusselt- Reynolds number correlations similar to
those for turbulent pipe or flat plate flows.
e.g. In-cylinder:
hL
Nu   a (Re) 0 .8

h = Heat transfer coefficient
L = Characteristic length (e.g. bore)
Re= Reynolds number, UL/
U = Characteristic gas velocity
 = Gas thermal conductivity
 = Gas viscosity
 = Gas density
a = Turbulent pipe flow correlation coefficient

13

Radiative Heat Transfer

• Important in diesels due to presence of hot
radiating particles (particulate matters) in the flame
• Radiation from hot gas relatively small

Q 4
rad      Tparticle

 = Stefan Boltzman Constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4)

 = Emissivity
where
Tcyl. ave < Tparticle < Tmax burned gas
• Radiation spectrum peaks at max
max T = constant (max = 3 m at 1000K)

Typically, in diesels: Qrad  0.2Qtotal (cycle cum)


Q 
 0.4Q (peak value)
rad, max total,max 14

7
 IC Engine heat transfer
• Heat transfer mostly from hot burned gas
– That from unburned gas is relatively small
– Flame geometry and charge motion/turbulence
level affects heat transfer rate
• Order of Magnitude
– SI engine peak heat flux ~ 1-3 MW/m2
– Diesel engine peak heat flux ~ 10 MW/m2
• For SI engine at part load, a reduction in heat losses
by 10% results in an improvement in fuel
consumption by 3%
– Effect substantially less at high load

15

SI Engine Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer dominated by that
from the hot burned gas
• Burned gas wetted area determine
by cylinder/ flame geometry
• Gas motion (swirl/ tumble) affects
heat transfer coefficient
Qb  ci,b b b w,i
  A h (T  T )
i

Heat transfer

by burned gas
 
Burned zone: sum over area “wetted” Q
b Ai
h (Tb  Tw,i )
ci,b b

Unburned zone: sum over area

“wetted” by unburned gas
u  ci,u u u w,i
  A h (T  T )
Q
i

Note: Burned zone heat flux >> unburned zone heat flux
16

8
 SI engine heat transfer environment
Heat transfer rate (s-1) normalized
by heating value of fuel per cycle

Fig. 14-9 5.7 L displacement, 8 cylinder engine at WOT, 2500 rpm; fuel equivalence
ratio 1.1; GIMEP 918 kPa; specific fuel consumption 24 g/kW-hr. 17

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SI engine heat flux

SAE Paper 880516

18

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9
 Heat transfer scaling

Heat transfer as %
Increase of BMEP

of fuel energy

Nu correlation: heat transfer rate  0.8N0.8

Time available (per cycle)  1/N
Fuel energy 
BMEP  Fig. 12-25

Thus Heat Transfer/Fuel energy  BMEP-0.2N-0.2 19

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Diesel engine heat transfer

Fig. 12-13 Measured surface heat fluxes at different locations in cylinder head and
liner of naturally aspirated 4-stroke DI diesel engine. Bore=stroke=114mm; 2000
rpm; overall fuel equivalence ratio = 0.45. 20

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10
 Diesel engine radiative heat transfer

Fig. 12-15
Radiant heat flux as
fraction of total heat flux
over the load range of
several different diesel
engines

21

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Heat transfer effect on component temperatures

Temperature distribution in head

Fig. 12-20 Variation of cylinder head temperature with measurement location n SI

engine operating at 2000 rpm, WOT, with coolant water at 95oC and 2 atmosphere.

22

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11
 Heat transfer paths from piston

Fig. 12-4 Heat outflow form various zones of piston as percentage of heat flow in
from combustion chamber. High-speed DI diesel engine, 125 mm bore, 110 mm
stroke, CR=17 23

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Piston Temperature Distribution

Figure 12-19
Isothermal contours (solid lines) and heat flow paths (dashed lines) determined from measured
temperature distribution in piston of high speed DI diesel engine. Bore 125 mm, stroke 110
mm, rc=17, 3000 rev/min, and full load
24

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12
 Thermal stress
Simple 1D example : column constrained at ends
T2>T1 induces
Stress-strain relationship compression
T1 stress
x=[x-(y+z)]/E + (T2-T1)

REAL APPLICATION - FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

• Complicated 3D geometry
• Solution to heat flow to get temperature distribution
• Compatibility condition for each element

25

Example of Thermal
Stress Analysis: Heat Transfer Analysis
Piston Design

Thermal-Stress-Only
Loading Structural Analysis

Power Cylinder Design

Variables and Their
Effects on Piston
Combustion Bowl Edge
Stresses
J. Castleman, SAE 932491 26

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13
 Heat Transfer Summary
1. Magnitude of heat transfer from the burned gas much greater than in
any phase of cycle
2. Heat transfer is a significant performance loss and affects engine
operation
 Loss of available energy
 Volumetric efficiency loss
 Effect on knock in SI engine
 Effect on mixture preparation in SI engine cold start
 Effect on diesel engine cold start
3. Convective heat transfer depends on gas temperature, heat transfer
coefficient, which depends on charge motion, and transfer area,
which depends on flame/combustion chamber geometry
4. Radiative heat transfer is smaller than convective one, and it is only
significant in diesel engines

27

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 Engine Friction and Lubrication

Engine friction
– terminology
– Pumping loss
– Rubbing friction loss

Engine Friction: terminology

• Pumping work: Wp
– Work per cycle to move the working fluid through the engine
• Rubbing friction work: Wrf
• Accessory work: Wa

Total Friction work: Wtf = Wp + Wrf + Wa

Normalized by cylinder displacement  MEP

– tfmep = pmep + rfmep + amep
Net output of engine
– bmep = imep(g) – tfmep
Mechanical efficiency
– m = bmep / imep(g)

1
 Friction components

1. Crankshaft friction
 Main bearings, front and rear bearing oil seals
2. Reciprocating friction
 Connecting rod bearings, piston assembly
3. Valve train
 Camshafts, cam followers, valve actuation mechanisms
4. Auxiliary components
 Oil, water and fuel pumps, alternator
5. Pumping loss
 Gas exchange system (air filter, intake, throttle, valves,
exhaust pipes, after-treatment device, muffler)
 Engine fluid flow* (coolant, oil)

*Have to be careful to avoid double-counting. The engine coolant and oil flow losses are provided
for by the oil and water pump. The nature of the loss is a pumping loss though.

SI engine
friction
(excluding pumping loss)

Front end
accessory
drives (FEAD)

Source: FEV Brochure

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2
 Engine Friction

Fig. 13-1
Comparison of major categories of
friction losess: fmep at different
loads and speeds for 1.6 L four-
cylinder overhead-cam automotive
Spark Ignition (SI) and
Compression-Ignition (CI) engines.

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Fuel energy
accounting for
SI engine

SAE Paper 2000-01-2902

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3
 Pumping loss

V / Vmin

Fig. 13-15 Puming loop diagram for SI engine under firing

conditions, showing throttling work Vd(pe-pi), and valve flow work

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SI Engine losses

0.4
Gross indicated
Fuel conversion efficiency

0.3
Pumping Brake
loss

0.2
Preferred
Rubbing operating range
loss
0.1
SI Engine; 2000 rpm

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100

% of brake load

4
 Sliding friction mechanism

Wear
particle

Energy dissipation processes:

• Detaching chemical binding between surfaces
• Breakage of mechanical interference (wear)

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Bearing Lubrication

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5
 Stribeck Diagram
for journal bearing

 = lubricant viscosity
N = shaft rotation speed
 = loading force / area

Fig 13.3

Sommerfeld No.=
Increasing load, Decreasing load,
Decreasing speed increasing speed

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Motoring break-down analysis

(a) (b)
Fig. 13-14
Motored fmep versus engine speed for engine breakdown tests.
(a) Four-cylinder SI engine.
(b) Average results for several four- and six-cylinder DI diesel engines

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6
 Breakdown of engine mechanical friction

1 F.A. Martin, “Friction in Internal Combustion

Engines,” I.Mech.E. Paper C67/85, Combustion
Engines – Friction and Wear, pp.1-17,1985.
T. Hisatomi and H. Iida, “Nissan Motor Company’s
New 2.0 L. Four-cylinder Gasoline Engine,” SAE
Trans. Vol. 91, pp. 369-383, 1982; 1st engine.
2nd engine.

M. Hoshi, “Reducing Friction Losses in Automobile

Engines,” Tribology International, Vol. 17, pp 185-
189, Aug. 1984.

J.T. Kovach, E.A. Tsakiris, and L.T. Wong, “Engine

Friction Reduction for Improved Fuel Economy,”
SAE Trans. Vol. 91, pp. 1-13, 1982

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Valve train friction

From
Bosch
Handbook

Valve train friction depends on:

• Total contact areas
• Stress on contact areas
Spring and inertia loads

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7
 Low friction valve train

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Valve train friction reduction

Engine speed (x1000 rpm)

“Friction loss reduction by new lighter valve train system,”

JSAE Review 18 (1977), Fukuoka, Hara, Mori, and Ohtsubo

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8
 Piston ring pack

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Piston ring-pack dimensions

(~6 mm height)

•Ring height 1.2-1.5 mm

•Ring gap ~ 0.2 mm

Source: MIT Sloan Automotive Laboratory.

9
 Hydrodynamic
lubrication of the
piston ring

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Friction force and associated power loss

10
 Piston slap

Change timing (earlier) of

transition so that the cylinder
pressure at transition is lower –
less force to accelerate piston

Transition is a “roll over” so

(by 1-2% of bore) that slap is less severe

Also the “slap” force is lower

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Bore distortion

4th order 2nd order 2nd order 3rd order

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11
 Lubricants

• Viscosity is a strong function of temperature

• Multi-grade oils (introduced in the 1950’s)
– Temperature sensitive polymers to stabilize
viscosity at high temperatures
Cold: polymers coiled and inactive
Hot: polymers uncoiled and tangle-up:
suppress high temperature thinning
• Stress sensitivity: viscosity is a function of
strain rate

Viscosity

10W30 refers to upper viscosity limit equal to single grade SAE 10 at 0 deg F (-18C)
and lower viscosity limit equal to SAE single grade 30 at 100 C.

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12
 Additive to lubricant

• VI Improvers
– To improve viscosity at high temperature
• High temperature stability
• Acid neutralization
• Detergents and dispersants
– To keep partial oxidation products and PM in
suspension and to prevent lacquer formation
• Anti-wear additives
– E.g. Zinc dialkyldithiophospate (ZDDP)
– Formation of anti-wear film

Modeling of engine friction

• Overall engine friction model:

– tfmep (bar) = fn (rpm, Vd, , B, S, ….)
– See text, Ch. 13, section 5; SAE Paper 900223, …
 For engine speed N:
 tfmep = a + bN + cN2

• Detailed model:
– see text Ch. 13, section 6; SAE Paper 890936

tfmep    fmep components

With detailed modeling of component friction as a function of rpm, load, …

13
 FMEP distribution

% of total FMEP MAP= MAP=

Engine speed (x1000 rpm) Engine speed (x1000 rpm)

Distribution of FMEP for a 2.0L I-4 engine; B/S = 1.0, SOHC-rocker arm, flat
follower, 9.0 compression ratio
C = crankshaft and seals
R = reciprocating components
V = valve train components
A = Auxiliary components
SAE 890836
P = Pumping loss

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 Engine Turbo/Super Charging

Super and Turbo-charging

Why super/ turbo-charging?

• Fuel burned per cycle in an IC engine is air limited
– (F/A)stoich = 1/14.6
f,v– fuel conversion and volumetric
f m f QHV efficiencies
mf – fuel mass per cycle
Torq  QHV– fuel heating value
2nR nR – 1 for 2-stroke, 2 for 4-stroke engine
N – revolution per second
Power  Torq  2N VD – engine displacement
a,0 – air density

 
m f  F  V a,0 VD
A

Super/turbo-charging: increase air density

1
 Super- and Turbo- Charging

Purpose: To increase the charge density

• Supercharge: compressor powered by engine output
– No turbo-lag
– Does not impact exhaust treatment
– Less efficient than turbo-charging
• Turbo-charge: compressor powered by exhaust turbine
– More directly utilize exhaust energy
– Turbo- lag problem
– Affects exhaust treatment
• Intercooler
– Increase charge density (hence output power) by cooling the
charge
– Lowers NOx emissions
– Suppresses knock

Additional benefit of turbo-charging

• Can downsize engine while retaining same

max power
– Less throttle loss under part load in SI engine
• Higher BMEP reduces relative friction and
heat transfer losses

2
 Engine Losses
12

11 Spark retard/enrichment for SI; 5th gear,

smoke limit for diesel flat road
10

9 4th gear,
flat road
Relative
8
efficiency = 1
Heat transfer
7 Combustion speed, pumping loss

Throttle + ht transf + friction

BMEP (bar)

6
252 =0.88
5 g/KW-hr
=0.78 =0.70
4 288 =0.64
3rd gear,
3 flat road
324 =0.58
360 =0.54
2
=0.50
1
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine speed (rpm) Data from SAE 910676;
5 Saturn I4 engine

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SI engine efficiency opportunity

Turbo DISI as enabling
technology
– Fuel in-flight evaporation
12 cools charge
10
Regain load
 More knock
head room by
turbo-charging resistant
BMEP (bar)

8
Shift op.
Issues
6 points up by – Knock
downsizing
4 – Peak pressure
– Boosting capacity
2
– Cold start emissions
Taurus FTP
0
sec-by-sec  HC
-2  PM
0 1000 2000 3000
Speed (rpm)

3
 Exhaust-gas turbocharger for trucks
1.Compressor housing, 2. Compressor
impeller, 3. Turbine housing, 4. Rotor, 5.
Bearing housing, 6. inflowing exhaust gas, 7.
Charge-air pressure regulation with Out-flowing exhaust gas, 8. Atmospheric fresh
wastegate on exhaust gas end. 1.Engine, air, 9. Pre-compressed fresh air, 10. Oil inlet,
2. Exhaust-gas turbochager, 3. Wastegate 11. Oil return

From Bosch Automotive Handbook

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Turbo-charger

Waste gate

Source: BorgWarner Turbo Systems

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4
 Variable geometry turbo-charger

Variable Guide Vane Variable sliding ring

Source: BorgWarner Turbo Systems

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Compressor: basic thermodynamics

Compressor efficiency c
2
W
 ideal

m
W c 

W
1 actual
T  

W   2  1
ideal  m c p T1 
T T
P2  1 
Ideal 1
process T2  P2  
2  
2’
P1 T1  P1 
 1 
1    
P2  
Actual 
Wactual  m c p T1    1
1 process c   P1  
 

W
s T2  T1  actual
m cp

5
 Turbine: basic thermodynamics
Turbine efficiency t
4
 
W actual
W t 
W
ideal
3

m  T 

W   4 
ideal  m c p T3  1
T3 
T  
P3 1
Ideal
T4  P4  
process  
P4 T3  P3 
3
 1 
 P   
 4
actual   t m c p T3  1  
W 
  P3 
4 Actual
process

4’  
W
s T4  T3  actual
m  cp

Properties of Turbochargers

• Power transfer between fluid and shaft RPM3

– Typically operate at ~ 60K to 120K RPM
• RPM limited by centrifugal stress: usually tip
velocity is approximately sonic
• RPM also limited by shock waves
• Flow devices, sensitive to boundary layer (BL)
behavior
– Compressor: BL under unfavorable gradient
– Turbine: BL under favorable gradient

6
 Torque characteristics of flow machinery

Angular momentum theorem

Torq     rV   Vx dA     rV   Vx dA
 1  2
 VxV
both Vx and V are fixed by the blade angle
so that both are  RPM, therefore: Vx
1
Torq  RPM
2
V

Power  RPM
3

2
V
Vx

Rotor stress

Force balance over mass element from r to dr Cross-

section
A r  A rdr  m Adr
r  2
area A
r dr
or
dA 
 m A2r r
dr
To illustrate effect, say A is independent of r, then :

 2
(r)  m
2

Rt2  r 2  Max at
root

 Tensile stress
m Material density Rt
 Angular velocity = 2N
Rt Tip radius r
Rroot

7
 Typical super/turbo-charged engine parameters

• Peak compressor pressure ratio  2.5

• BMEP up to 24 bar
• Limits:
– compressor aerodynamics
– cylinder peak pressure
– NOx emissions

Compressor/Turbine Characteristics

• Delivered pressure P2
• P2 = f( m ,RT1,P1,N,D,, , geometric ratios)
• Dimensional analysis:
– 7 dimensional variables  (7-3) = 4 dimensionless parameters
(plus  and geometric ratios)

 P2  N m
   f( , ,Re, , geometric ratios)
 P1  RT1 / D  P1  2
  RT1D
 RT1 
Velocity Velocity
Density
High Re number flow  weak Re dependence
For fixed geometry machinery and gas properties
 P2   N m  T1 
   f  , 

 P1   T1 P1 

8
 Compressor Map

Pressure ratio

 T1/P1
“Corrected” Flow rate m
 = mass flow rate (kg/s)
T1= inlet temperature (K); P1= inlet pressure (bar); N = rev. per min.; m
(From “Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering,” Ed. by Haddad and Watson)

Compressor stall and surge

• Stall
– Happens when incident flow angle is too large
(large V/Vx)
– Stall causes flow blockage
• Surge
– Flow inertia/resistance, and compression system
internal volume comprise a LRC resonance system
– Oscillatory flow behave when flow blockage occurs
because of compressor stall
 reverse flow and violent flow rate surges

9
 Turbine Map

Efficiency

Mass flow

Source: BorgWarner Turbo Systems

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Compressor Turbine Matching Exercise

• For simplicity, take away

intercooler and wastegate
• Given engine brake power 1 4
output (W  ) and RPM,
E
compressor map, turbine map, C T
and engine map
• Find operating point, i.e. air
flow ( m a ), fuel flow rate ( m f )
turbo-shaft revolution per 2 3
second (N), compressor and m f 
Diesel Engine Q L
turbine pressure ratios (c and
t) etc.

W E

10
 Compressor/ Procedure:
turbine/engine matching 1. Guess c ; can get engine inlet conditions:
solution
 
1
T1 

P2  c P1 T2   c   1  T1
c
 
Compressor
2. Then engine volumetric efficiency calibration
 a that can be 'swallowed'
will give the air flow m
Pressure ratio

3. From m  a and c , the compressor speed N can be

obtained from the compressor map
 f may be obtained from the
4. The fuel flow rate m
engine map:
W  m  ,A/F)
 f LHV f (RPM,W
E E

5. Engine exhaust temperature T3 may be obtained from

 T/P
Flow rate m
energy balance (with known engine mech. eff. M )
W
(m a  m
 f )c p T3  m
 a c p T2  m 
 f LHV  E  Q L
M
6. Guess t , then get turbine speed Nt from turbine map
and mass flow
7. Determine turbine power from turbine efficiency on map
  1

 1
W t  t 1    
  
  t  
 W
8. Iterate on the values of c and t until W  and N  N
t c t c

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Compressor/ Engine/ Turbine Matching

• Mass flows through compressor, engine,
turbine and wastegate have to be
consistent
• Turbine inlet temperature consistent with
fuel flow and engine power output
• Turbine supplies compressor work
• Turbine and compressor at same speed

C T

Inter-
Cooler
Wastegate

Compressor characteristics, with airflow

requirements of a four-stroke truck engine Engine
superimposed.
(From “Principles and Performance in Diesel
Engineering,” Ed. by Haddad and Watson)

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11
 Advanced turbocharger development

Electric assisted
turbo-charging
• Concept
– Put motor/ generator on Motor/
C T
turbo-charger Generator
– reduce wastegate function
Inter-
• Benefit Cooler
Wastegate
– increase air flow at low
engine speed Engine Battery
– auxiliary electrical output
at part load

Advanced turbocharger development

Electrical turbo-charger
Battery
• Concept
– turbine drives generator;
compressor driven by motor
• Benefit C Motor T Generator
– decoupling of turbine and
compressor map, hence much more Inter-
freedom in performance optimization Cooler

– Auxiliary power output

– do not need wastegate; no turbo-lag Engine

12
 Advanced turbocharger development

Challenges
• Interaction of turbo-charging system with
exhaust treatment and emissions
– Especially severe in light-duty diesel market
because of low exhaust temperature
– Low pressure and high pressure EGR circuits
Transient response
• Cost

EGR/ turbo Configurations

From SAE 2007-01-2978

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13
 Hybrid EGR

From SAE 2009-01-1451

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Creative Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Two stage turbo with HP EGR loop

SAE 2008-01-0611

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 1/9/2017

Hydrogen, fuel cells,

batteries, super capacitors,
and hybrids

The hydrogen economy

Premise:

H2 + O2  H2O
LHV = 120 MJ/kg (33.3 KW-hr/kg)

• Energy production via combustion or fuel cell

• No green house gas; clean

1
 1/9/2017

The hydrogen economy

Source of hydrogen
Fossil fuels (coal,
oil, natural gas, Thermochemical
…) conversion with
carbon sequestration

H2
Electrolysis
Electricity generated (50-85% efficient)
from renewables
(Solar, wind, hydro)

Advanced methods
• Algae H2 production
• Photo-electrochemical water splitting

Current production (without CO2 sequestration):

 48% from natural gas, 30% from oil, 18% from coal, 4% from electrolysis
Usage:
 Half for producing ammonia to be used for fertilizers; remaining for petroleum refining 3
(hydro-cracking)

Transportation Fuels
Fuels Density LHV/mass* LHV/Vol.** LHV/Vol. of
Stoi.Mixture
@1 atm,300K

(Kg/m3) (MJ/Kg) (MJ/m3) (MJ/m3)

Gasoline 750 44 3.3x104 3.48
Diesel 810 42 3.4x104 3.37

Natural Gas
@1 bar 0.72 45 3.2x101(x) 3.25
@100 bar 71 3.2x103
LNG (180K, 30bar) 270 1.22x104
Methanol 792 20 1.58x104 3.19
Ethanol 785 26.9 2.11x104 3.29

Hydrogen
@1bar 0.082 120 0.984x101(x) 2.86
@100 bar 8.2 0.984x103
Liquid (20K, 5 bar) 71 8.52x103
*Determines fuel mass to carry on vehicle
**Determines size of fuel tank 4
***Determines size of engine

2
 1/9/2017

The hydrogen economy

(H2 as transportation fuel)

Obstacles
• Storage: Low energy density; need compressed or liquid H2
– Compressing from 300oK, 1 bar to 350 bar, ideal compressor work = 16% of LHV; practical energy
required upwards of 35% of LHV
– Liquefaction (20oK, 1 bar LH2) work required is upwards of 60% of LHV*

5.6 kg of H2
~700 MJ

Petroleum fuel
tank capacity of 50
kg carries CcH2: cryogenic
~2200 MJ compressed LH2

cH2: compressed H2

MOF: Metal organic

framework for LH2
Source: Argonne National Lab Alane is aluminum
hydride

• Infra structure: Supply, safety, …

The hydrogen economy has significant hurdles 5

*Value adopt from NREL/TP-570-25106

What is a fuel cell?

H2 - O2 system
Direct conversion
of fuel/oxidant to i
electricity
Fuel 4e- 4H+ 4e- O2
– Example: 2H
2
O2

2H2 + O2  2H2O 2H2O

Porous Cathode
Porous Anode

– Potentially much
Electrolyte

higher efficiency
than IC engines

H2O +
excess excess
H2 O2
6

3
 1/9/2017

History of Fuel Cell

• Sir William Grove demonstrated the
first fuel cell in 1839 (H2 – O2 system)

• Substantial activities in the late 1800’s

and early 1900’s
– Theoretically basis established
 Nerst, Haber, Ostwald and others

• Development of Ion Exchange

Membrane for application in the
Gemini spacecraft in the 1950/1960
– W.T. Grubb (US Patent 2,913,511,
1959)

• Development of fuel cell for

automotive use (1960s to present)
7

The Grove Cell (1839)

• Important insights to
fuel cell operation
– H2-O2 system (the most
efficient and the only
practical system so far)
– Platinum electrodes (role
of catalyst)
– recognize the importance
of the coexistence of
reactants, electrodes and
electrolyte
W.R.Grove, ‘On Gaseous Voltaic Battery,” Pil. Mag., 21,3,1842
As appeared in Liebhafsky and Cairns, Fuel Cells and Fuel Batteries, Wiley, 1968
8

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4
 1/9/2017

The coal/air cell

Wilhelm Ostwald (1894)
“The way in which
the greatest of all
industrial problems
– that of providing
cheap energy – is
to be solved, must
be found by
electrochemistry”
Status at 1933
• Low efficiency and
The 1896 W.W.Jacques large carbon cell (30KW)
contamination of
Picture and quote from Liebhafsky and Cairns, Fuel
electrodes doomed Cells and Fuel Batteries, Wiley, 1968
direct coal conversion

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Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Critical processes
• Reactions (anode and cathode)
 Pre-electrochemical chemical reaction Cathode of H2/O2 cell
 Electrochemical reaction
 Post-electrochemical chemical
reaction
• Transport Ions
 Transport of ions in electrolyte
 Fuel/oxidant/ion/electron transport at
electrodes Porous
Electrolyte Catalytic
• Role of the electrolyte Electrode
Oxygen
 To provide medium for
electrochemical reaction
 to provide ionic conduction and to
resist electron conduction Electric Water
Current
 separation of reactants

5
 1/9/2017

Types of fuel cell

• Classification by fuel
– Direct conversion
Hydrogen/air (pre-dominant)
Methanol/air (under development)
– Indirect conversion
reform hydrocarbon fuels to hydrogen first
• Classification by charge carrier in electrolyte
H+, O2- (important difference in terms of product
disposal)

11

Types of fuel cell (cont.)

• By electrolyte
– Solid oxides: ~1000oC High temperature fuel cells
o are more tolerant of CO and
– Carbonates: ~600 C other deactivating agents

– H3PO4: ~200 Co

– Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): ~80oC

Automotive application

12

6
 1/9/2017

PEM
Nafion (a DuPont product)
Tetrafluoroethylene based copolymer

Sulfonic acid
group supplies the
proton
Function:
• As electrolyte (provide charge and material carrier) Retail ~$300/m2
• As separator for the fuel and oxidant

• PEM must be hydrated properly

If dry, resistance increase; eventually crack and reactants leak through
Excess water formation: flood electrodes; prevent reactants from
reaching electrode 13

Air
Single
H2
cell
H2O
details

PTFE:
polytetrafluoro-
ethylene (trade
name teflon)

14

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7
 1/9/2017

Modern PEM fuel cell stack

(From 3M web site) 15

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license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Typical PEM H2/O2 Fuel Cell Performance

Theoretical OCV =1.229 V
Internal loss
Voltage(V); Power density(W/cm2);Efficiency

Activation loss
0.8 Output Voltage

Ohmic loss
0.6

Efficiency
0.4 Diffusion loss
Power density
0.2 Output voltage with CO poisoning

Note: Efficiency
0 does not include
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 power required
Current density (A/cm2) to run supporting
system 16

8
 1/9/2017

Fuel cell as automotive powerplant

• Typical fuel cell characteristics

– 1A/cm2, 0.5-0.7 V operating voltage
– 0.5-0.7 W/cm2 power density
– stack power density 0.7 kW/L
– System efficiency ~50%
– $500/kW
DOE goal $35/KW at 500,000 per year production
compared to passenger car engine at $15-20/kW
– Platinum loading ~0.3 mg/cm2
30g for a 60kW stack (Jan., 2014 price ~$1500)
(automotive catalyst has ~2-3g) 17

Price of platinum
2500

Platinum spot price

2000
(1 troy ounce = 31.1 gram)
$ per troy ounce

1500

1000

500

0
Jan‐92
Jan‐93
Jan‐94
Jan‐95
Jan‐96
Jan‐97
Jan‐98
Jan‐99
Jan‐00
Jan‐01
Jan‐02
Jan‐03
Jan‐04
Jan‐05
Jan‐06
Jan‐07
Jan‐08
Jan‐09
Jan‐10
Jan‐11
Jan‐12
Jan‐13
Jan‐14
Jan‐15

18

9
 1/9/2017

The Hydrogen problem:

Fundamentally H2 is the only feasible fuel in the
foreseeable future

• Strictly, hydrogen is not a “fuel”, but an energy

storage medium
– Difficulty in hydrogen storage
– Difficulty in hydrogen supply infra structure
• Hydrogen from fossil fuel is not an efficient
energy option
• Environmental resistance for nuclear and
hydroelectric options
19

The hydrogen problem:

H2 from reforming petroleum fuel
Hydrocarbon Air

Catalyst Catalyst Fuel Cell Electricity

Air H2 H2
CO N2,CO2
CO2
H2O
Note: HC to H2/CO process is exothermic;
energy loss ~20% and needs to cool stream
(Methanol reforming process is energy neutral, but
energy loss is similar when it is made from fossil fuel)

Current best reformer efficiency is ~70%

Problems:
CO poisoning of anode
Sulfur poisoning
Anode poisoning requires S<1ppm
Reformer catalyst poisoning requires S<50ppb 20

10
 1/9/2017

Fuel cell powerplant with fuel reforming

Practical Problems
Start up/shut down GM (May, 2002) Chevrolet S-10 fuel cell
Load Control demonstration vehicle powered by
Ambient temperature onboard reformer
Durability 21

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Fuel cell outlook

• Too many barriers
– Cost: unlikely to come down because of price of
precious metal
– System complexity
 Management of hydration, temperature, cold start, cold
climate, …
– Hydrogen supply
 Source
 Infra structure
• Battery is a more practical option
Unless there is exceptional break through, fuel cell is not
going to be a transportation powerplant component
22

11
 1/9/2017

Fuel cell vehicles

23

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Honda June 2011 presentation 24

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12
 1/9/2017

Batteries

• Electrochemical energy source

• Rechargeable batteries
– Electrical energy storage
• Attributes
– Energy density (by mass and volume)
– Power density
– Cost

25

Battery electrochemistry
Lead acid battery: lead electrodes; dilute sulfuric acid as electrolyte
Charging (forward) / discharging (reverse)
Anode (in charging) :

PbSO4 (s)  2H2O(aq)  PbO2 (s)  HSO4 (aq)  3H (aq)  2e 

Cathode (in charging) :

PbSO4 (s)  H (aq)  2e   Pb(S)  HSO4 (aq)

Li ion battery: e.g. LiCoO2 anode; graphite cathode
Charging (forward) / discharging (reverse)
Anode (in charging) :

LiCoO2  Li(1 x)CoO2  xLi  xe 

Cathode (in charging) :

xLi  xe   6C  LixC
 6
26

13
 1/9/2017

Super capacitor
Power density up
Ragone Plot: engine/storage system
to 104 W/kg (From Bosch Automotive Handbook)

Ni cadmium Engine systems

battery
Gas turbine

Pb acid IC engine
battery

External combustion
engine

Li Ion battery

Fuel cell

Zn air battery
Ni metal hydride battery

27

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Battery characteristics

Electric double
layer capacitor
(super-capacitor)

(hr-1)
Integrated starter
and generator

28
Source: Conte, Elektrotechnik & Informationstechnik (2006) 123/10: 424–431

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14
 1/9/2017

Battery for the Chevy Volt

40 miles range

• 288 cell Li-ion battery; 16 kW-hr capacity

– System weight 190 kg
– Package as 3 cells in parallel as one unit; 96 units
in series
– 360 VDC; peak current 40A over 30 sec
• Thermal management
– Cool and heated by 50/50 de-ionized water and
glycol
– 1.8 kW heater for heating in cold climate

29
Source: Parish et al, SAE Paper 2011-01-1360

Capacitors
Energy storage in the electric field within the capacitor

 
 0 A
C
d

Aluminum oxide layer thickness ~m

Double layer thickness ~0.3-0.8 nm 30

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15
 1/9/2017

EDLC (super-capacitor)
Transportation application: Complementary to battery
• Advantages
– Charging/discharging by charge transfer; no chemistry involved
fast rates
 High power density (10x to 100x that of conventional battery)
 Fast charging time
– Almost unlimited life cycle (millions of cycles)
– Low internal resistance; high cycle efficiency (95%)
• Disadvantages
– Low energy density (10% of conventional battery)
– High self discharge rate
– Very high short circuit current; safety issue
– High cost ($5K-10K/kW-hr)
 cost in the activated carbon electrode manufacturing

31

Hybrid vehicles

Configuration:
IC Engine + Generator + Battery + Electric Motor

Concept
• Eliminates external charging
• As “load leveler”
• Improved overall efficiency
• Regeneration ability
• Plug-in hybrids: use external electricity supply

32

16
 1/9/2017

Hybrid Vehicles
External charging for plug-in’s Regeneration

Parallel Hybrid Battery/ ultracapacitor

MOTOR
ENGINE DRIVETRAIN

External charging for plug-in’s Regeneration

Series Hybrid ENGINE GENERATOR Battery/ ultracapacitor

MOTOR DRIVETRAIN

External charging for plug-in’s Regeneration

Power split ENGINE GENERATOR Battery/ ultracapacitor

Hybrid MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN

Examples: Parallel hybrid: Honda Insight

Series hybrid: GM E-Flex System
Power split hybrid: Toyota Prius
33

Toyota hybrid power split schedule

From SAE 2009-01-1332

2004-01-0164

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 1/9/2017

Power split arrangement

Picture from Motor Trend, Oct. 12, 2010.

35

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Hybrids and Plug-in hybrids

Hybrids (HEV) Plug-in hybrids (PHEV)
• “Stored fuel centered” • “Stored electricity centered”
– Full hybrid – Blended PHEV
– Mild hybrid /power assist – Urban capable PHEV
– AER/ E-REV

From SAE 2008-01-0458 (GM)

36

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 1/9/2017

From SAE 2008-01-0456

(Toyota)

Engine/ motor
Peak onboard supply/ Vehicle demand power (%) sizing

160
From SAE 2008-01-0458 (GM)
The optimal component
140 sizing and power

Engine
120
distribution strategy
depend on the required
100
performance, range,

Engine
80 and drive cycle
Engine

Engine

60

Motor
40
Motor
Motor
Motor

20

0
Hybrid Conversion Urban- E-REV
PHEV Capable
PHEV
37

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Cost factor

38

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19
 1/9/2017

HEV TECHNOLOGY
Toyota Prius
• Engine: 1.5 L, Variable Valve Timing, Atkinson/Miller
Cycle (13.5 expansion ratio), Continuously Variable
Transmission
– 57 KW at 5000 rpm
• Motor - 50 KW
• Max system output – 82 KW
• Battery - Nickel-Metal Hydride, 288V; 21 KW
• Fuel efficiency:
– 66 mpg (Japanese cycle)
– 43 mpg (EPA city driving cycle)
– 41 mpg (EPA highway driving cycle)
• Efficiency improvement (in Japanese cycle) attributed to:
– 50% load distribution; 25% regeneration; 25% stop and go
• Cost: ~$20K

39

Efficiency improvement:
Toyota Hybrid System (THS)

A: Increase by changing operating area

B: Increase by improvement of engine

SAE 2000-01-2930
(Toyota)

Efficiency improvement (in Japanese 10-15 mode cycle) attributed to:

50% load distribution; 25% regeneration; 25% stop and go 40

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 1/9/2017

Operating map in LA4 driving cycle

Toyota THS II Data from SAE 2004-01-0164
Typical passenger car engine

8 8

BMEP (bar)
6 6
BMEP (bar)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Speed (rpm)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

41

Hybrid cost factor

If $ is price premium for hybrid vehicle
P is price of gasoline (per gallon)
 is fractional improvement in mpg

Then mileage (M) to be driven to break even is

$ x mpg
M
 1 E
P x  1 
For hybrid E=P

 1  P 
For E-REV, E is cost
of electricity for
energy equivalent of
1 gallon of gasoline

(assume that interest rate is zero and does

not account for battery replacement cost)
42

21
 1/9/2017

Hybrid cost factor

Example:
Ford Fusion and Ford Fusion-Hybrid

Price premium ($, MY13 listed) = $5300 ($27200-$21900)

mpg (city and highway combined) = 27 mpg (47 for hybrid)
hybrid improvement in mpg(%) = 74%

At gasoline price of $4.00 per gallon, mileage (M) driven to

break even is
5300 x 27
M  84 K miles (135x103 km)
 1 
4 x  1 
 1  0.74  (excluding interest and battery replacement cost)
43

EREV cost factor

Example:
Chevrolet Cruise versus Volt (EREV)

Price premium ($, MY13 listed) = $19000 ($39145-$20145)

mpg (city and highway combined) = 30 mpg vs 98 mpge for PHEV
hybrid improvement in mpg(%) = 227%

At gasoline price of $4.00 per gallon, and electricity of $0.12/KWhr

($4.04/gallon equivalent*), mileage (M) driven to break even is

19000 x 30
M  206 K miles (332x103 km)
 1 4.04 
4 x  1 
 1  2.27 4 
44
*EPA definition: Energy of 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 KWhr

22
 1/9/2017

BEV cost factor

Example:
Nissan Sentra versus Leaf (BEV)

Price premium ($, MY13 listed) = $17480 ($35200-$17720)

mpg (city and highway combined) = 34 mpg vs 99 mpge for BEV
hybrid improvement in mpg(%) = 191%

At gasoline price of $4.00 per gallon, and electricity of $0.12/KWhr

($4.04/gallon equivalent*), mileage (M) driven to break even is

17480x34
M  227 Kmiles (365x103km)
1 4.04
4x(1  x
1  1.91 4
45
*EPA definition: 1gallon of gasoline=33.7 KWhr

Barrier to Hybrid Vehicles

• Cost factor
– difficult to justify based on pure economics
• Battery replacement (not included in the previous
breakeven analysis)

– California ZEV mandate, battery packs

must be warranted for 15 years or 150,000
miles : a technical challenge

46

23
 1/9/2017

Hybrid Vehicle Outlook

• Hybrid configuration will capture a significant fraction of

the passenger market
– Fuel economy requirement
– Additional cost is in the affordable range

• Plug-in hybrids
– Much more expansive (hybrid + larger battery)
– Weight penalty (battery + motor + engine)
– No substantial advantage for overall CO2 emissions
– Limited battery life

47

Sales figure for hybrid & electric vehicles

600 6
% of new light duty vehicle sale

500 5
Sales (thousands)

Expect substantial
400 4 increase in market
penetration by
300 3 2025 because of
fuel economy
target requirement
200 2

100 1

0 0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015

48

24
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Bio-fuels

The backdrop

1
 Transportation and Mobility

• Transportation/mobility is vital to
modern economy
– Transport of People
– Transport of goods and produce
• People get accustomed to the ability to
travel

Transportation needs special kind of energy source

• Vehicles need to carry source of energy on

board
• Hydrocarbons are unparalleled in terms of
energy density
– For example, look at refueling of gasoline
• ~40 Liters in 2 minutes (~0.25 Kg/sec)
– Corresponding energy flow
= 0.25 Kg/sec x 44 MJ/Kg
= 11 Mega Watts
Liquid hydrocarbons !
4

2
 What is in a barrel of oil ?
(42 gallon oil  ~46 gallon products)

Typical US output
Lubricants 0.90%
Other Refined Products 1.50%
Asphalt and Road Oil 1.90%
Liquefied Refinery Gas 2.80%
Residual Fuel Oil 3.30%
Marketable Coke 5.00%
Still Gas 5.40%
Jet Fuel 12.60%
Distillate Fuel Oil 15.30%
Finished Motor Gasoline 51.40%

Source: California Energy Commission, Fuels Office 5

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Refinery

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3
 US annual energy use by sector
110
100
90 Residential
Annual energy use

80
(quadrillion BTU)

70 Commercial
60
50
40 Industrial
30
20
Transportation
10
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Quadrillion=1015 7
Source: EIA

Image courtesy of the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

US petroleum use
Transportation >70%

Non‐highway Residential/
commercial

Electric Utilities
HD vehicles

Light Duty vehicles

8
Source: EIA

Image courtesy of the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

4
 Oil Supply (annual, up to 2015)
2012 world reserve estimate: 1.3 trillion barrels
100 Reserve / production ~ 64 years
90

80

70
Million Barrels/day

60
Others
50

40

30

20 OPEC US 2015 crude oil

consumption:
10 19.4 million
US barrels a day
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year Increase of US
Hubbert peak oil with fracking

9
Source: EIA

Image courtesy of the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Projected US crude oil production

Million barrels per day

10
Source: EIA

Image courtesy of the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

5
 The world Hubbert peak
(look under “peak oil” in wikipedia for a discussion)

(excluding OPEC & Russian production) 2003

11

Image courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy.

Crude oil price

(Annual Average to 2015)

US & world financial crisis

120
Constant Decrease in demand, increase Saudi increase
2004$ in non-OPEC supply
100 production US fracking
+ Iranian oil
$ of the day
80 Iran/Iraq War
$/Barrel

Demand of
Iranian Revolution
60 Gulf emerging
Yom Kippur War War market;
Arab Oil Embargo limited
40 refinery
capacity
20
Iraq war
0
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
9/11
Oil from North Sea, Alaska
Sources: EIA; event labels partially from WTRG Economics
12

Image courtesy of the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

6
 CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
Million metric tons of Carbon/year (x3.67 to get mass of CO2)

10000 4
10
8000 Total
Total 3
10
6000
2
4000 10
Liquid
1 fuel
2000 Liquid
10
fuel
0 10
0

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year Year

13

The drive to bio-fuel

• Increasing demand of liquid fuel for transportation
– Population
– Society affluence
• Drive for lower CO2 production
• Perceived decline of petroleum reserve
• Fuel price
• Government Policy
– Tax credit
– Required bio-fuel content

14

7
 What is bio-fuel?

15

Dominant biofuels

Sugar based
(corn, sugarcane, …) Usage
Ethanol E10, E20, E85, …
Cellulosic based
(switchgrass, wood, …)

Compatible with current engine

Crop based technology and fuel infra structure
(rapeseed, soybean, …)

Wasted oil/ animal fat Bio-diesel B7, B10, B20, ….

Algae

(BTL fuel not included in this discussion)16

8
 Example: Ethanol production from corn

Ethanol fuel
Resources:
Energy
Purification
Materials
Ethanol + CO2 (removal of water, …)
Labor

Fermentation
Sugar

Starch

Corn By-products

17

Example: bio-diesel production

Bio-diesel (esters)

Purification
Resources: (removal of glycerol,
Energy alkaline, fatty acid, …)
Materials
Labor Esters and glycerol

Transesterification using alcohol

(methanol) with alkaline catalyst

Oil (tri-glyceride) Alkaline

Tri-glyceride Esters Glycerol
Catalyst
CH2-OOC-R1 (KOH) R-OOC-R1
Mechanical or solvent (hexane) |
extraction + water removal CH-OOC-R2 +3ROH  R-OOC-R2 +(CH2OH)2-CHOH
Soy, |
rapeseed, … CH2-OOC-R3 R-OOC-R3

(typically 8-22 C to 2 O)
18

9
 Stoichiometric requirement for different fuels

18 Gasoline with 11% MTBE

Gasoline
and diesel
16
O/C = 0

14 O/C ratios of bio-diesel

stoiciometric

B100 esters ~ 0.12

12 Gasoline with 10% Ethanol
Ethanol
10 E85
O/C = 0.5
(A/F)

O/C = 1
6
Methanol
4

2
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Fuel H to C ratio
19

Relative CO2 production from burning different fuel molecules

C. Amann, SAE Paper 9092099 20

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10
 Bio-fuel combustion properties

• Bio-diesels and ethanol are fundamentally clean and

attractive fuels to be used in engines
• The use of these fuels as supplements to petroleum
base fuel are compatible with current engine
configuration and fuel infra-structure
• Practical issues can be adequately handled by
engineering
– Fuel quality
– Engine calibration
– Materials compatibility, viscosity, …

Burning the fuel is the least of the problem !!!

21

Status of bio-fuel production

22

11
 Liquid fuel supply projection

Millions of barrels per day oil equivalent 120

100

80

60

40

20
Source: ExxonMobil – JSAE meeting, Kyoto, July 23-26, 2007

0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

23

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license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Effect of government policy on bio-fuel

• US demand for ethanol has been driven by

government regulations and incentives
– Ethanol flex-fuel vehicles produced because of the 74%
credit towards CAFE requirement
• (E85 vehicle equivalent mph = mpg x 1.74)
– Gasoline oxygenate mandate, and phase out of MTBE
– Energy bill (Aug. 05) mandated a threshold of 7.5 billion
gallons (180 million barrels) production by 2012
– 2007 Energy and Security Act calls for 36 billion gallons
production by 2022
– Tax subsidy
• blender’s tax credit $0.51/gallon alcohol
• $0.051/gallon fuel tax exemption for gasohol
– minimum 10 vol % alcohol

24

12
 Crop-based bio-fuel
Example: Corn ethanol in US

3
16 US gasoline spot price
2.5

Spot price $/gallon

14
12 2
billion gallons

Ethanol production
10 1.5
8
1
6
0.5
4
2 0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year

50%
Domestic corn for
ethanol production Ethanol spot price

$/gallon
40%

30%

20%
Jan, 06 Jan, 08 Jan, 10 Jan, 12
10%
2012 figure: 134 billion gallons of gasoline; of which 14 billion
gallon is ethanol (~10% by vol.); uses 43% of the corn;
Energy of ethanol is 7% of the total fuel energy
0% 25
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

US crop-based bio-fuel capacity

* To get energy ratio,
US biofuels multiplied by 0.93 for
US harvested crop land (US agriculture census 2002), hectare 1.23E+08 biodiesel and by 0.59
US all distillate use (diesel+jet+power gen etc.) EIA2007; L/yr 3.34E+11 for ethanol
US gasoline use, EIA 2007; L/yr 5.40E+11
Limit of Limit of Liq. vol
production production ratio of
(gal) (L) limit to
gal/acre L/hectare Demand*
bio-diesel
palm oil 5.08E+02 4,756 1.54E+11 5.85E+11 1.63
coconut 2.30E+02 2,153 6.99E+10 2.65E+11 0.74
rapeseed 1.02E+02 955 3.10E+10 1.17E+11 0.33
soy 6.00E+01 562 1.82E+10 6.91E+10 0.19
peanut 9.00E+01 843 2.73E+10 1.04E+11 0.29
sunflower 8.20E+01 768 2.49E+10 9.44E+10 0.27
jatropia (SE Asia) 2.00E+02 1,872 6.08E+10 2.30E+11 0.64

ethanol
corn 3.44E+02 3,217 1.04E+11 3.96E+11 0.71
sugar cane (Brazil) 8.00E+02 7,489 2.43E+11 9.21E+11 1.71

Crop-based bio-fuels do not have enough

capacity to meet the liquid fuel demand !!!
Yield dependent on location and weather 26
1 hectare=104m2~2.5 acre

13
 Algae: micro-seaweeds
Issues
• Production
– Need high lipid
content
species
– Need fast
growth species
– Growth in
dense
environment
• Harvest techniques
• Oil extraction

27

Image courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy.

Current largest algae plant

(production of algae for salmon feeding)

Hawaii

28

Image courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy.

14
 Second generation bio-fuel

• Feedstock
– Non-food part of food crops (stems,
leaves, husks, …
– Non-food crops
(switchgrass,
Switchgrass
jatropha,…)
• Cultivated in
marginal land

29

Image courtesy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Technical difficulties of producing liquid fuel from plants

• Cellulose much more difficult to break down than sugar

Glucose

Source: Wikipedia Cellulose 30

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license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

15
© WH Freeman. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

32

© Source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

16
 Second generation bio-fuel: challenges

• Sustainability issues
– Energy budget
– Water use
– CO2 intensity especially with land use
replacement
– Bio-diversity
– Other issues
• Feedstock collection
Bio-fuel plant waste treatment
Resources requirement

Technology not yet ready 33

Sustainability

34

17
 Energy balance
Example: Corn ethanol in US

Ethanol from corn

• Several studies of the overall energy budget
– P = energy used in production
• feedstock production/ transport + processing Verdict:
Substantial
– E = Energy of the ethanol output environmental
– Return (%) = (E – P) / P and economic
cost; return not
• Studies clear
– Pimentel and Patzek (2003, 2005): negative return
• Return* = - 22.5%
– USDA (Shapouri et al 2002, 2004): positive return
• Return = +5.9%
• Return = +67% if by products (Corn gluten meal, etc.)
are accounted for

* For comparison purpose, the figure has been converted from the
value of (E-P)/E of -29% in the original publication 35

Carbon intensity
(net mass of CO2 produced per unit fuel energy)

36

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Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

18
 Carbon intensity

37

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Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use.

Other environmental impact

• Water resources
• Fertilizer
• Soil
• Bio-diversity
• Plant waste treatment

38

19
 Closure
• Bio-diesel and alcohols are excellent fuels for
transportation use
– Good combustion characteristics
– Compatible with current engine technology
• Sustainability
– Bio-fuels from crops are not likely to make any
significant impact on the global liquid fuel supply
picture in the near future
• Land capacity
• Effect on food price
– Further development on other feed stocks needed
• Algae for bio-diesel production
• Cellulosic alcohol
39

TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY
" Useful people mile"
Transportation Efficiency =
Fuel energy
"Useful people mile" People mile Vehicle mile Road work
= x x x
People mile Vehicle mile Road work Fuel energy

Personal efficiency
Route, traffic pattern
Vehicle weight/speed
Vehicle utilization
efficiency

Engineering

40

20
 Options?

• Alternative Fuels and Power Plants ?

• Alternative Life Styles ?

41

21
MIT OpenCourseWare
https://ocw.mit.edu

2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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