Module 5 Flow Measurement

MODULE 5: FLOW MEASUREMENT

Introduction
This module will discuss about the different methods of flow measurement. Included in
this module are: orifice and tubes – coefficients, steady and unsteady flow, free flow and
submerged type; venturi meter; and weirs – different weir shapes, steady and unsteady flow, free
flow and submerged type.
Intended Learning Outcomes
ILO 2
Discuss the Continuity Equation with reference to the conservation of mass, Energy Equation
with reference to the Euler equation, and Momentum Equation with reference to the 2nd Law of
Newton on motion.

ILO 3

Perform calculations related to (a) fluid pressure and forces with the liquid is at rest, (b) flow
velocity, flow rate, pressure, and forces when liquid is flowing in pipes and open channels, (c)
flow velocity and flow rates in conjunction with different flow measuring devices.

Topic Outcomes

At the end of the module, the student must learn:

1. Define and differentiate flow measurement devices

2. Apply Energy and Bernoulli equations in solving problems about flow measurements
3. Determine the coefficients used in flow measurement and use them accordingly

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Module 5 Flow Measurement

5.1 ORIFICE AND TUBES

Orifice
The term orifice is used to denote an opening with a closed perimeter, made in a wall or
partition. The primary purpose of an orifice is the metering or control of fluid flow.

An orifice can be
a. rounded – which enables the mass of the outgoing jet of fluid to conform very
closely to the shape and size of the opening
b. sharp-edged – it is so thin that the outgoing mass simply touches a line before
it contracts due to the inability of the individual particles to abruptly change in direction

According to geometrical shapes, an orifice can be:

a. square
b. rectangular
c. circular
Due to the simplicity in the design and construction, the sharp edged circular orifice has
been adopted.

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Short Tube
A special type of orifice is one in which the sides are extended. An example is a pipe of
two or three diameters long and whose characteristics and hydraulic properties are similar
to that of an orifice cut in a thick wall.
Properties of Orifice Flow: Free-Flow Type

The Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 (fluid surface and center of orifice),
with point 2 as the datum is:
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ +ℎ = +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
From this equation, the theoretical velocity of the flow through the orifice is

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = √2𝑔 (ℎ + + )
2𝑔 𝛾

or
𝑣1 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻 = ℎ + +
2𝑔 𝛾
H = total head which produces the flow
Theorem of Torricelli
It states that the theoretical velocity through the orifice under a head of h is equal to the
velocity acquired by a body falling from rest through a height h. This usual condition is
encountered when the pressure heads on points 1 and 2 are zero (exposed to atmosphere)
and the velocity head on point 1 is also zero (negligible). The equation for theoretical
velocity is now reduced to

𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻 = ℎ

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Module 5 Flow Measurement

Values of H for Various Conditions

 a
H h H  h1  
 g

p   p
H  h H  h2  h1  1  
 2  2

Orifice Coefficients
1. Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

It has been shown experimentally that the actual mean velocity of the jet from a
sharp-edged orifice is a little less than the theoretical velocity. To correct for the head
losses initially neglected, a correction factor known as the coefficient of velocity is
used. The actual velocity, va is

𝑣𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑣𝑡
𝑣𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

The coefficient of velocity, Cv, is not often used. When the need arises, though, a
conservative value of 0.98 may be assumed for water.

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2. Coefficient of Contraction, Cc

Note that the individual particles of the mass approaching the orifice follow a
converging paths. Due to the inertia of the particles lying close to the inner wall, they
cannot make abrupt changes in their direction as they reach the opening. This causes
them to follow curvilinear paths effecting a contraction of the jet up to a section, say
m-n, at which point the stream paths are assumed to be parallel, and the pressure
having a value equal to that of the surrounding medium.
The section where the contraction of the jet ceases is called as the vena contracta and
its distance from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of
the orifice Do.

The dimensionless ratio of the area of the vena contracta to the area of the orifice is
known as the coefficient of contraction, cc.
𝑎
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
Coefficient of contraction is not usually used, although a value of 0.62 may be
assumed for general purposes.

3. Coefficient of Discharge, C

The ideal or theoretical is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical
velocity.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑣𝑡
or
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻

On the other hand, the real or actual flow is obtained at the issuing jet (vena
contracta) and represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the
actual velocity.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎

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𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜 (𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻)

The coefficient of discharge, c is given as

𝑄𝑎 𝑎𝑣𝑎
𝐶= 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
𝑄𝑡 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑡

But

𝑎 𝑣𝑎
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑣 =
𝐴𝑜 𝑣𝑡

Therefore,

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣

Head Loss of an Orifice

To determine the loss of energy per unit weight of the fluid mass passing any orifice,
1 𝑣𝑎 2
𝐻𝑜 = ( 2 − 1)
𝐶𝑣 2𝑔
or

𝐻𝑜 = (1 − 𝐶𝑣 2 )ℎ

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Module 5 Flow Measurement

Table of Values of C: Circular Orifice

Table of Values of C: Square Orifice

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Module 5 Flow Measurement

Example 5.1.1
In the figure shown, solve for the theoretical velocity of the jet, the actual velocity, and
the discharge through the orifice considering the following:
a. p1 = p2 = 0
h = 5 m of oil (s = 0.8)
Do = 5 cm
Cc = 1.0 (rounded edge)
Cv = 0.97

b. p1 = p2 = 0
h = 5 m of water
Do = 5 cm
Cc = 0.62 (sharp-edged)
Cv = 0.98

c. p1 = 70 kPa
p2 = 0
h = 1.60 m (s = 3.0)
Do = 7.5 cm
Cc = Cv = 0.95
Solution:
a.
𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝑚
𝑣𝑡 = √2 (9.81 2 ) (5𝑚)
𝑠
𝒎
𝒗𝒕 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟎
𝒔

𝑣𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑣𝑡
𝑚
𝑣𝑎 = 0.97 (9.90 )
𝑠
𝒎
𝒗𝒂 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟏
𝒔

𝑄𝑎 = (𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜 )(𝑣𝑎 )
𝜋 𝑚
𝑄𝑎 = (1.0) ( × 0.052 𝑚2 ) (9.61 )
4 𝑠
𝟑
𝒎
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗
𝒔

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b.
𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝑚
𝑣𝑡 = √2 (9.81 2 ) (5𝑚)
𝑠
𝒎
𝒗𝒕 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟎
𝒔

𝑣𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑣𝑡
𝑚
𝑣𝑎 = 0.98 (9.90 )
𝑠
𝒎
𝒗𝒂 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟏
𝒔

𝑄𝑎 = (𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜 )(𝑣𝑎 )
𝜋 𝑚
𝑄𝑎 = (0.62) ( × 0.052 𝑚2 ) (9.71 )
4 𝑠
𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐
𝒔
c.
𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔 (ℎ + + )
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑘𝑁
𝑚 70 2 − 0
𝑣𝑡 = √2 (9.81 2 ) (1.60𝑚 + 0 + 𝑚 )
𝑠 𝑘𝑁
3 (9.81 3 )
𝑚

𝒎
𝒗𝒕 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟒
𝒔
𝑣𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑣𝑡
𝑚
𝑣𝑎 = 0.95 (8.84 )
𝑠
𝒎
𝒗𝒂 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟗
𝒔

𝑄𝑎 = (𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜 )(𝑣𝑎 )
𝜋 𝑚
𝑄𝑎 = (0.95) ( × 0.0752 𝑚2 ) (8.39 )
4 𝑠
𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓
𝒔

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Module 5 Flow Measurement

Velocity of Approach
Under the assumption made that the velocity V1 is the mean velocity at the liquid
surface, then each particle at any depth will have a similar velocity, known as the
velocity of approach, or VA= V1 .If the upstream area of the flow is very large in relation
to the area of the jet, the velocity of approach VA may be considered as negligible.
On the other hand, the velocity of approach may be considered to be appreciable under
the flow condition encountered in an orifice in a flat plate installed at the end of the pipe,
or inserted in a pipe.
a. Orifice Plate at the End of a Pipe

For an orifice plate installed at the end of a pipe, the discharge, Q is given by:

𝑝
2𝑔 𝛾1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √
𝐷 4
1 − 𝐶 2 (𝐷𝑜 )
𝑝

Where,
p1 = pressure inside the pipe
Do = diameter of orifice
Dp = diameter of pipe

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b. Orifice Plate inside a Pipe

For an orifice plate installed inside a pipe, the discharge, Q is given by:

𝑝1 − 𝑝2
2𝑔 (𝛾 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √
𝐴𝑜 2
1 − (𝐴 )
𝑝

Where,
p1 – p2 = pressure difference before and after the orifice plate
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pipe
Unsteady Flow in Orifice: Discharge under a Rising or Falling Head
The flow is steady if Qin = Qout, that is, when h is constant. The flow is unsteady if Qin ≠
Qout. The liquid surface may rise or drop as to whether Qin is greater or smaller than Qout
at time t = 0. A special case of unsteady flow is attained if the inflow Qin is cut off, that
is when Qin = 0.

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Cases of Unsteady Flow

Case 1: When Qin = 0
The surface drops and the volume decreases or
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
<0
𝑑𝑡
By definition, the rate of change in the volume of the contained liquid is the outflow,
Qout
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
= −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑡
If the time, t it takes for the water to drop from h1 to h2 is required, the above equation is
integrated as
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
−𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
𝐴𝑑ℎ
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
−𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
ℎ2
1 𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡=− ∫ 1
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ1 ℎ2
ℎ1
1 𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫ 1
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ2
Where the cross-sectional area of the container, A is a function of the water level above
the orifice, h.
If the cross-sectional area is constant throughout the container, time t is
2𝐴
𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔

Case 2: When Qin ≠ Qout at time t = 0

Under this condition, there are two related subcases:
a. Qin < Qout : The water level drops
Here, the rate of change of the contained volume is
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
= −(𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡

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And the time, t is

ℎ1
𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ − 𝑄𝑖𝑛
Where the cross-sectional area of the container, A is a function of the water level
above the orifice, h.

b. Qin > Qout : The water level rises

Here, the rate of change in the contained volume is
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
= 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
And the time, t is
ℎ2
𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ1 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
Where the cross-sectional area of the container, A is a function of the water level
above the orifice, h.
Example 5.1.2
A vertical cylindrical tank has an orifice of diameter 2.5cm in its vertical side at a point
0.60m above the bottom. If the discharge reduces the depth of water in the tank from 6m
to 4m in 78 seconds, what time is required to reduce the depth from 3.60m to 1.60m?
The coefficient of discharge is 0.60.
Solution:
2𝐴
𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔
2𝐴
78𝑠 = (√6𝑚 − 0.6𝑚 − √4𝑚 − 0.6𝑚)
𝜋 𝑚
(0.60) ( × 0.0252 𝑚2 ) √2 (9.81 2 )
4 𝑠
𝐴 = 0.1060𝑚2

2(0.1060𝑚2 )
𝑡= (√3.60𝑚 − 0.60𝑚 − √1.60𝑚 − 0.60𝑚)
𝜋 𝑚
(0.60) (4 × 0.0252 𝑚2 ) √2 (9.81 2 )
𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝒔

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Example 5.1.3
A tank in the shape of a frustum of a right circular cone having its bases horizontal and
the axis vertical is 3m high and filled with water. It has a diameter of 2.5m at the top and
1m at the bottom. What is the time required to empty the tank through a sharp-edged
orifice 7.5 cm square located at the bottom? Use C = 0.60.

Solution:
ℎ1
1 𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫ 1
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ2
Since the cross-sectional area, A varies with h, we need to establish an expression for
area in terms of h.

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟 = 0.5 + 𝑥

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By similar triangles,
0.75 𝑥
=
3 ℎ
0.75ℎ
𝑥=
3
𝐴 = 𝜋(0.5 + 0.25ℎ)2

3 (0.5
𝜋 + 0.25ℎ)2 𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫ 1
𝑚 0 ℎ2
0.60(0.0752 𝑚2 )√2 (9.81 )
𝑠2
𝒕 = 𝟒𝟒𝟓. 𝟖𝟗𝒔

Example 5.1.4
A hemispherical shell, with base horizontal is filled with water. If the radius is 2.5m,
determine the time required to empty the container through a sharp edged 15cm
diameter orifice (C=0.60) located at the lowest point.

Solution:
ℎ1
1 𝐴𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫ 1
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 ℎ2 ℎ2
Since the cross-sectional area, A varies with h, we need to establish an expression for
area in terms of h.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑥 2

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For a circle of radius r and center located at (h,k), the equation of the circle is
𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2

In our example, the equation of the circle is

𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 2.5)2

𝑥 = √2.52 − (𝑦 − 2.5)2
Take note that y in the above equation is also h which is the depth of water.

𝑥 = √6.25 − (ℎ − 2.5)2
𝐴 = 𝜋[6.25 − (ℎ − 2.5)2 ]

2.5 [6.25
𝜋 − (ℎ − 2.5)2 ]𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫ 1
𝜋 𝑚 0 ℎ2
0.60 ( 4 × 0.152 𝑚2 ) √2 (9.81 2 )
𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟔𝟏𝟔. 𝟗𝟕𝒔

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Properties of Orifice Flow: Submerged Type

For a submerged type orifice as shown above, the theoretical velocity is

𝑣𝑡 = √2𝑔𝐻 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻 = ℎ1 − ℎ2

Unsteady Flow in a Submerged Orifice

Unsteady flow problem in a submerged orifice usually requires the determination of the
time for the “equalization” of the surfaces of two tanks.
ℎ𝑜
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙)
𝑡=∫
0 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
Where ho= h1-h2 is the initial head at time t=0 and the elementary volume is
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑑(𝑉𝑜𝑙) = 𝑑ℎ
𝐴1 + 𝐴2
A1 and A2 being the cross-sectional area of the chambers A and B respectively.
By evaluating the integral further, the equation for t is
ℎ1
1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 12
ℎ2 ℎ
If the cross-sectional areas of the two chambers are constant,
2 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 𝐴1 + 𝐴2

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Example 5.1.5
Two vertical circular cylindrical tanks are connected near the bottom by a short tube
having a cross-sectional area of 725 cm2.The inside diameters of the tanks are 3m and
1.5m, respectively. The tanks contain oil. With the valve in the connecting tube closed,
the oil surfaces are 4m in the larger tank and 0.60m in the smaller above the tube. With
C=0.78, find the time required for the surface to equalize following quick opening of the
valve. Assume the properties of the tube to be similar to that of an orifice.

Solution:
2 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑡= (√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 )
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝜋 𝜋
2 ( 4 × 32 𝑚2 ) ( 4 × 1.52 𝑚2 )
𝑡= (√4𝑚 − 0.6𝑚 − √0)
𝑚 (𝜋 × 32 𝑚2 ) + (𝜋 × 1.52 𝑚2 )
0.78(0.0725𝑚 )√2 (9.81 2 ) 4
2
4
𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒔

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Short Tube
A short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently long to be
classified as pipes. A standard short tube is a smooth tube with a sharp internal corner
and a length equal to about 2.5 diameters.

Re-entrant Tube
Openings in the form of cylindrical tubes which extend inwardly from the wall of the
container are called re-entrant tubes. A re-entrant tube with a sharp internal edge and a
length equal to about 2.5 diameters is called Borda mouthpiece.

Diverging Tube
The sides of the diverging tube do not diverge rapidly and the total divergence is not too
large, the outgoing stream expands and fills the tube completely. The discharge is

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
where A is the area at the discharge end.

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Converging Tube
Unlike the diverging tube, the conical converging tube where the larger end is connected
to the reservoir, causes the outgoing mass of liquid to slightly contract beyond the point
of connection.

End of Module Exercises

1. A hemispherical shell, with base horizontal is filled with water. If the radius is 2.25m,
determine the time required to reduce the water level from 2.25m to 1.05m through a
sharp edged 7.5cm diameter orifice (C=0.60) located at the lowest point.
2. A swimming pool 20m long, 10m wide and 3m deep on one end and 1.5m on the
other end is fitted with a drain pipe of 200mm diameter at the lowest part of the pool.
Compute the time required to drain the full content of the pool assuming the drain acts
as an orifice and C = 0.70.

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