CASE STUDY IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

ORUNBON Nurudeen Olalekan (NCE, B.Sc (Ed), M.Ed, Ph.D)

Phone Number: +2348066442494
Email: orunbon.nurudeeno@gmail.com
ORDIC ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7479-2624
Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
Lagos State University, Ojo, Nigeria

&
FADUYILE Grace Oluranti (NCE, B.Sc (Ed), MPA, M.Ed, Ph.D)
Email: ofaduyile@yahoo.com
Gwinnet County Public School, Georgia, USA

INTRODUCTION
Education is the largest industry in most developing countries of the world today. Many nations
now set aside a large percentage of their annual budgets for the provision of educational
resources. It is however sad to note that in most of these countries, the educational system
performance does not justify the huge investment, as education does not bring forth much
desired growth and development. This trend can be attributed to wrong policy formulation
coupled with poor implementation on one hand, and the myriads of unwholesome behaviours
that have now plagued educational institutions on the other. Such behaviours are of different
dimensions and magnitudes and they tend to disrupt the school programmes thereby rendering
educational systems inefficient. For example, school authorities often punish students for
offences like pilfering, truancy, drug abuse, insubordination and the like, while appropriate
disciplines are meted out to teachers from time to time for offences and professional misconduct
like sexual harassment, absenteeism and misappropriation of funds.
Managing the educational industry which is the height of education management is characterized
by not only the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of
organisational members toward resources optimization. In order to achieve stated goals, but also
entails the positive maximization to achieve stated goals but also includes the positive
maximization of teaching and learning situation.
Understanding Case Study in Educational Management
Definition of Management Cases
A case study is the description of a situation or problem actually faced by administrators and
requiring analysis, decisions and the planning of a course of action. Case study can be seen as
teaching method for managerial skills developments.
Management cases are summaries of organisations and management problems and how they
were solved by decision makers or solution providers.
They can be said to be hypothetical representations of what happens in real organisations and
decisions that managers make in their organisations.
Management cases are imaginary or real management situation are used to coach management
trainees to identify management problems, analyze information and evaluate management
decisions and context to arrive at logical conclusions and solutions to the satisfactions of all
stakeholders (e.g the stakeholders in an educational organisation are students, employers,
government, parents)
Case study is a widely used research method in educational management that allows researchers
to delve deep into specific situations, institutions, or individuals to gain a comprehensive
understanding of a particular phenomenon. It provides a detailed examination of a real-life
context, enabling researchers to analyze complex issues, identify patterns, and generate valuable
insights that can inform decision-making and improve educational practices. It involves an in-
depth examination of a specific case, such as a school, educational institution, or educational
program, to understand its complexities, challenges, and potential solutions.
A case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit,
which is aimed to generalize over several units. A case study has also been described as an
intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event,
organisation, or phenomenon.
Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or
concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-
driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where
multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including
education, humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good
cases generally have the following features:
a. they tell a good story,
b. they are recent, include dialogue,
c. create empathy with the main characters,
d. they are relevant to the reader,
e. serve a teaching function,
f. require a dilemma to be solved,
g. they have generality.
A case study in education is a research method that involves an in-depth examination of a
specific educational situation, often with the goal of gaining a deeper understanding of a
particular issue, phenomenon, or educational context. It typically involves the detailed analysis
of a single case or a small number of cases, such as a specific classroom, school, or educational
programme.
The Purpose of Case Studies in Educational Management
Case studies are conducted in educational management to explore, describe, and analyze various
aspects of educational institutions, policies, practices, and leadership. These studies aim to
uncover the underlying factors influencing educational outcomes, including student performance,
teacher effectiveness, curriculum development, organisational structures, and resource allocation.
They provide a holistic view of the challenges and opportunities faced by educational institutions
and offer practical solutions for improvement.
Purpose of Case Study
The primary purpose of conducting a case study in educational management is to gain a
comprehensive understanding of a specific issue or phenomenon. It allows researchers,
educators, and administrators to explore the intricacies of real-life situations and develop insights
that can inform decision-making, policy development, and best practices in education.
Types of Management Cases
There are over ten types of management cases which managers and leaders of organisations can
work with, they are:
1. Situation or Business Diagnostic Cases
These are cases used to demonstrate the complex operating situation of organisations. They
describe issues in events with characters whose statements should be looked at critically to elicit
more information for rational or objectives decisions about organisational issues.
2. Role Play Cases
Role play management cases are used for coaching management trainees on how to behave or act
in specific roles such as negotiations, spokesperson, harmonizers, leaders etc. They live cases
that are acted out by learners according to agreed roles. These afford the actor the capability to
develop some specializes skills in line with the role given to action upon.
3. Complex Management Cases
This type of management cases emphasizes the competence needed in business or situational
diagnostics. Often such business situations are complex and characterized by interdependent
variables and a mass of data. The secret of this type of management cases is to work in systems.
Just diagnose each system and link the diagnosed systems to produce a whole mega system.
4. Decision Making Cases
These types of cases are used for coaching management trainees on how to make rational or
objective decision about organisational issues. For example if school organisation enrolment is
consistently failing by certain percentage every session, school managers must take the necessary
decisions to remedy the situation. Their actions or inactive can be encapsulated in decision
making cases.
5. Critical Incidence Case
This is a type of management cases for emphasizing critical and relevant behaviours in
organisations management e.g. communication competence, analytical skills, interpersonal
competences etc. In order to properly use this type of case, managers should define critical
behaviours that management trainees need to acquire and look out for critical behaviour
deployed in the cases studied.
Cases are wired around such critical behaviours in terms of actions or management decisions
taken in managing them. Trainees should identify those decisions and analyse or evaluate their
appropriateness or corrections.
6. Exercise Case
These are management cases for initiating the behaviour of do-it-yourself (D.I.Y), try it (T.I) and
action by the management trainees. It is built on the learning principles that we learn more by
doing than by listening or reading. They can be used to develop technical and analytical abilities.
7. Success Story or Initiation Case
This is a representation of successful actions of entrepreneurs, managers, chief executives and
leaders. Here management trainees try to identify success motivations and decisions that shaped
managers success. An example of this type of management case is “my job as the VC of LASU”-
here, the Vice-Chancellor itemizes her achievements; the managers trainee can look at this
success stories and be motivated.
8. The In-Tray-Case
This is a typical case for developing administrative and managerial skills. It is a form of decision
case consisting of documents to be found in the tray housing some background information and
sufficient time out of which learners are expected to determine and record action to be taken on
each document.
9. Short Management Case
These are highly synthesized management action showing what happened and what actions were
taken by managers. In this type of case, chains of data and exhibits are not necessary only the
main thrust of the management cases is provided. The management trainees are expected to
analyze the available information.
This type of management case is popular for employees’ short training and development
programmes.
10. Parablic and Proverbial
These are cases that are put in parables or proverbs. The objective is to allow the learner to
deduct the lessons and possible solutions e.g. Cases on the parable of the prodigal son or those
who use the sword will perish by the sword or a rolling stone gathers no moss
11. Sequential Management Case:
This type of case emphasizes the competences in managers and leaders to predict outcomes or
suggest courses of action in an event. This type of case can also test the ability of management to
create scenarios of solution and utilize futurism and exceptional (phenomenological)
competences and skills.
Components of a Case Study
A well-structured case study typically consists of several key components:
1. Introduction: This section provides an overview of the case under investigation, including its
context, objectives, and significance. It sets the stage for the subsequent analysis.
2. Background Information: This component delves into the background and history of the
case. It may include details about the educational institution, its mission, vision, organisational
structure, and any relevant policies or initiatives.
3. Research Questions: The case study should clearly state the research questions or objectives
it aims to address. These questions guide the investigation and help focus the analysis.
4. Methodology: This section outlines the research methodology employed in the case study. It
may include information about data collection methods, such as interviews, surveys,
observations, or document analysis.
5. Findings: The findings section presents the data collected during the case study analysis. It
includes both qualitative and quantitative information, which is analyzed and interpreted to
uncover patterns, themes, and insights.
6. Discussion and Analysis: In this part, the researcher critically examines the findings and
relates them to existing theories, frameworks, or educational management practices. It involves
identifying key issues, analyzing their causes and effects, and proposing possible solutions or
recommendations.
7. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the case study and highlights
their implications for educational management. It may also identify areas for further research or
suggest practical implications for educators and policymakers.
CRITICAL SKILLS NEEDED FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT CASE ANALYSIS
There are certain skills needed for effective management case analysis and trace the link towards
acquisition of skills useful for management case analysis solve problem without leaving out the
description of the format for problem-solving in management cases.
Important Skills for Management Cases Analysis
There are many important skills for effective management case analysis. Some of them are
described below:
i. Analytical Skill: This involves the ability of managers to break down a management
situation into components, sub-situations or sub-systems to master the hidden parts and
characteristics. For example the situation of high employee turnover in an organisation can
be broken down into employee motivations, management actions, task situations, labour
market situations, union action etc. it is assumed that after investigating those subsystems
of high employee turnover, a management trainee will capture the real issues involved.
ii. Synthetic Skill: This is compressing wide and disaggregated Management views,
ideas and problems into a views, ideas or problems. It is a method of reasoning from
the general particular or specific issues e.g. a management case indicating high
employee-turnover, poor inter personal relationships, low productivity, low
compensation can be synthesized as poor people management. A management trainee
will have no problem identifying poor people management as the root cause of other
symptoms in the case.
iii. Deductive or Divergent Skill: It is the ability to derive reasoned conclusions and
sub-relationships from a given relationships in a management case, e.g. if a
management case haste problem of poor people management, it can be deduced that
various other relationship can occur e.g. high employee turnover, low productivity,
high cost of employee procurement. It is similar to synthetic skill. It is a skill in
reasoning from a specific problem to multiple problems.
iv. Inductive or Convergent: Skill this is the ability to reason from general problem
situations to few specific problems. This skill is also similar to synthetic skill. It is
useful in capturing, the root causes of management case problems.
v. Creative-Imaginative Skill: This is the ability of management trainees to generate
new ideas from the facts, data, exhibits and situations described in a management
case. It is about using the mind to power new solutions and processes.
vi. Problem-Solving / Decision-making Skill: This involves the following:
The ability-of trainees to identify major problems
Description of alternative solutions to the problems identified.
An analysis of the facts data and exhibits in the case in support of or against the alternative
solutions.
A selection of the most appropriate solution. .
An estimation of the impact of the solution chosen on the organisation.
Implementation of solution selected
vii. Socio-Ethical Skill: This is the ability of management trainees to employ socio-
ethical considerations in analyzing management cases e.g. a management case
manifesting low rate of admission -will in turn create social unrest, social distrust of
that organisation, low standard of living, possibility of people becoming social
miscreants etc. The trainees should be able to use all these, socio-ethical factors in
solving problems.
viii. Communication Skill: This is the ability to transmit ideas and information to ensure
fruitful exchange and interaction between initiator and the receiver. It is about
listening and understanding people. It is about knowing the motivating powers of
organisational communication in resolving problem.
ix. Holistic/Integrative/Total Skill: This is the ability of management trainees to take a
panoramic view of a case so as to see everything and take all variables into
consideration. This skill makes managers avoid taking a fractional stance in a
management case analysis. They are taught to analyze every variable to establish its
contribution to the problem identified or in the solution proposed. This competence' is
imperative for handling complex management cases involving multiple variables and
inter-relationships.
x. Conflict Management Skill: This is the ability to identify and handle conflict
sensibly, fairly and resolutely for peaceful organisational climate and consistent
productivity.
Acquisition Link among the Skills Useful For Management Case Analysis
Effective communication skills have always been found basic to the acquisition of all other
skills. This precedes the possession of numerate, conceptual and technical skills. For instance a
trainee needs to be able to read, write and interact so as to be able to comprehend a learning
process towards a real or hypothetical issue. Therefore, there is need for mastery of the basic
principles of effective communication which is the foundation and nucleus for the development,
aggregation and utilization of other skills required for any meaningful case study analysis.Then
there will be the need for mixing skills through analytical thinking, imaginative perspicacity and
synthetically reviewing by asking intelligent questions, comparing and contrasting events to
bring out points with which to prepare some towards a range of possible actions and solutions
expected. Consequently, the link to the acquisition of all other skills is traced to the
communication skill.
THE CASE METHOD IN EDUCATION

Managing the education industry entails teaching and learning situation. The organisation of
students and teaching and non-teaching personnel is sensitive. Hence, it is necessary to equip the
educational administrator with expected cases in the teaching job. Apart from giving doses of
theoretical principles, modern education tries to simulate situations that are very near to the real
life situations which the students will encounter in life. These are called cases. Management
Education seems to be more prominent in the use of the management case methods in preparing
future managers. But, it is by no means the only subject that is taught by the case method. That
prominence seems to give the impression that all "cases" must be management cases and that
management education is incomplete without management cases. As if saying "so be it" these
write ups are on management cases analyses. The first is a general paper on the "what and why"
of management cases. The other tries to impart skills which will help identify and analyze
strategic management sues presented in management cases. The series will end with two cases
for discussion, analysis and reporting in which the skills learnt will start being applied.
What is a Management Case?
A management case (also called case study or simply a case) is a statement of a real but often
simulated business management (also organisational administrative) problem brought into the
classroom for discussion and analysis by the students. Through the discussion and analysis, the
students can suggest their own solution to the problems stated also take decisions based on the
analysis made.
The definition shows management case also as a teaching method for management development.
For this reason, it is often referred to as the "case method". The presentation sometimes can
involve role-play of true and/or synthesized situations to develop the judgment of the students
who evolve and proposed possible solutions either individually or in groups. The International
Labour Organisation (ILO) publication refers to the case study as a description in words and
numbers of an actual management situation.
Also, the definition shows that it is wrong to assume the case method is for training in business
only. It is better seen as a tool for practicing problem solving and is applicable to .any subject
which has problems to solve.
For this, there may be a single solution, a variety of possible options or no solution at all.
Type of Cases
The case method tries to develop many skill areas in the students. For example, they try to
develop creative problem-solving skill. Following this, attempts have been made to categorize
cases into types. The following eight types have been described:
i. The Exercise Case: This requires the application and practice of techniques, e.g.
quantitative technique, e.g. can be used to develop technical and analytical abilities.
ii. The Situation Case: It describe issues in events. There are characters whose
statements- should be looked at critically to elicit more information for problem-
solving.
iii. The Complex Case: This is a situation case where the problem is to diagnose
complex underlying issues often mixed with interdependent but superficial issues in a
mass of data.
iv. The Decision Case: This requires the learner to analyze a situation, judge it and
suggest what to do in the circumstance described. Often, this decision is to be made in
the light of uncertainty. It may require to formulate an action plan.
v. The In-tray Case: This is a typical case for developing administrative and
managerial skills. It is a form of decision case consisting of documents to be found in
the, in-tray. With some background information an insufficient time, the learner is
expected to determine and record action to be taken on each of the documents.
vi. The Critical Incidence Case: Here, the learner can ask right questions to get
supplementary information to the scanty one given before. This helps better
understanding of the problem and its solution.
vii. The Sequential Case: This requires stopping action in a critical point in the story.
The learner is expected to predict outcomes or suggest courses of action. The story is
then continued or completed and the reasons for any difference explained.
 viii. The Role-play Case: The role-play case is a 'live' case that is acted out by learners
according to agreed roles. The actor develops the role as seen fit to demonstrate the
required skill.
Benefits of Case Studies
i) The use of the case of method induces learning and knowledge acquisition. New
situations and contexts can be simulated and this will help increase both learning and
knowledge.
ii) Many complex inter-relationships which correspond to real-life situations can be built
into cases and these may be better understood as they are analyzed in the controlled
environment of the classroom.
iii) Cases are assumed to favour integrative and systematic thinking. Hence, they are used
develop management skills from analysis of simulated situation.
iv) Cases are presumed to allow for realism, including feelings, value discussions and
critical, judgments. These are characteristics which cannot be overlooked in
managerial competence development.
v) Case studies serve as the most practical and nearest to real-life situations with which
students can be trained in the skills they may use later in their career.
vi) Training with cases studies re arcs and cushions students against the emotional shocks
which often result to fire-fighting management styles and physical stressful break-
down commonly associated with the work of managers.
Weaknesses of the Case Study
No empirical comparison for effectiveness is available of the case method and other
teaching/learning methods. But it is taken for granted that the case method is effective. However,
some weaknesses can be perceived with the case method, In fact, cases have been described as
“good problems" that have no ideal solutions. This is especially so when the cases are not
thoroughly discussed. Besides this shortcoming is more on the contents of the case itself than the
case as a method.
Also there are concepts that can be learnt better than the case method. Therefore, the use of the
case method should not be seen as the sole method of teaching/learning. It is one of the
teaching/learning techniques. There are other weaknesses that border on the currency of case
studies. Others concern their relevance to situations being described. Some cases are either too
short or too long to capture essence of real life events. As such, cases are only best alternatives.
Learning the Skills for Management Cases
A good lesson on Case Method Learning should include how to train the students in order to
equip them with the skills they require to solve the problems presented in cases. The cases
contain problems for the students to solve. These are expected to be as near to life as possible so
as to give the students training in the skills in preparation for the work life situations they will
encounter in their career. The students should be taught the requisite skills. This should be part of
classroom teaching and complemented by relevant write-up on the ways for acquiring such skills
by self-instruction. Perhaps, these may be the benefits which students should have for
undergoing courses like this.
The Requisite Skills
It is almost impossible to just enumerate all possible skills that may be required for possession by
a student in order to work effectively with management cases. The type of skills required by any
student for case studies should be a function of many factors. That should include time
consideration of the generation of industrial sciences. It will also depend on the circumstance of
the environment.
Another .way to see the issue of time/generation and circumstances/environment is the need for
currency and relevance. Whatever is the generation of industrial sciences and the question of
circumstances of environment, the skills possessed for answering the questions of the time and
solving their problems must be current and relevant to that generation. Archaic (i.e. very old
fashioned) skills cannot suit modern conditions. In the same way, use of new skills must be in-
step with societal modernization.
On the other hand, the skills can be called by generic names and the extent of their Currency
may be determined by how much they can solve the problems of the time. Usually, the skills
mentioned for possession by student for effective work on management case include:
i) Analytical Skills - Insight issues, the ability to compare things in their parts and
relationships and draw conclusions or make decisions there from.
ii) Creative Skills - Imaginatively use the available information to make new things; it
includes being innovative and breaking new grounds. Both analytical and creative
skills are used in problem solving and decision-making.
iii) Social Skills - This is the ability to develop good and enduring relationship with
others in order to be able to work together.
iv) Communication Skills - This is the ability for fruitful exchange and interactions. It
includes effective speaking and listening, writing and reading whether at meetings
and/or for letter-writing and reporting, memos and circulars, etc.
v) Decision-making/problem-solving Skills - This skill calls for making use of or
applying the results of the analytical and creative skills, using the social and
communication skills.
These are some of the indispensable skills for success at work with management case studies.
They are the skills that would require to be applied to derive the necessary learning from any
case study. How are they acquired?
Acquisition of the Skills for Case Studies
Effective communication skills have always been found basic to the acquisition of all other
skills. This also - precedes even the possession of numerate skills. For, example, one needs to
be able to read in other to be able to understand that a certain instruction requires adding or
subtracting. Therefore, there is need for mastery of the basic principles of effective
communication. This will be the foundation for the advanced level work which is required
for any meaningful case study analysis. It will require you to be able to read fast, understand
and follow instructions quickly. Relevantly, one will be required to read the case study story
and the associated materials. When this has been appropriately done, then follow the
analysis. Here, there will be the need for mixing skills. For example, there will be not only
analytical thinking but imaginative perspicacity into the issues being analyzed. There will be
opportunities to ask intelligent questions, comparing and contrasting things, etc. The analysis
will bring out points with which to prepare some proposals as to one or a range of possible
actions and solutions as expected. It will be necessary to involve in a class discussion with
others to allow for cross-fertilization of ideas. Learning the skills and using them should be
fostered by the co-operative work of the class teacher and the colleagues. This will enable the
comparison of own ideas with those of others. The major skills to develop therefore, include:
i) ability to communicate (read)
ii) ability to analyze, solve, etc.
iii) ability to decide and propose
 iv) ability to socialize, etc.
Format for Problem-Solving
A format has been suggested, for example, for acquiring the problem-solving skill.
This involves five steps.
i) read to understand the situation of the case;
ii) diagnose the problem areas,
iii) generate alternative or predict outcomes,
iv) evaluate the alternatives rounding up analysis,
v) communicate the results.
As one considers the above format, the details of the requisite skills merge. These will be the
skills to:
a. deal with a mass of sometimes conflicting or confusing information,
b. determining the problems — the main one, subsidiary ones, etc.
c. understand how the problems came up — what, when, where, who, how, and why of the
case,
d. refine answers or sets of alternative solutions to the problem,
e. predict the possible effects of proposed alternatives (perhaps using sensitivity analysis
skills to do this)
f. communicate the conclusions to others (reports, communiqué, etc.)
g. defend the conclusions,
h. listen to others' alternative conclusions,
i. review the alternatives to feedback and modify own conclusions,
j. make a final decision or draft,
k. implement the decision
i. reflect on the decision taken to reach that decision,
l. consider the learning effects.
MANAGEMENT CASE: TYPES AND USES

Most aspects of management can be taught using suitably designed relevant cases. In this last
part of the write-up examples of suitable .case types for various aspects of management are
included. They can be used to practice the various skills already discussed. The selection of
simple cases is purposeful; that however is not to give the impression that most cases are simply.
1. Cases for Teaching New Concepts
New concepts can be taught directly. They can also be taught by the use of case studies. This has
the added advantages of revising, testing and applying the new concepts to relevant areas of
work life. The sample given here is that of teaching the new concepts of the Behavioural Science
topic called learnt and used to understand human behaviour at work. In other words, it is about
how to use people-skilled to solve people-problems at work.
Technique for People-Problem at Work
1. The workplace is a meeting point of people and of problems-people problems. But this was
not meant originally to be the purpose of the place. People are deliberately brought together at
work to serve the economic objectives of those responsible for the coming together. But this is
no way to sieve and strain people-problem from entering, despite, after very stringent
employment interviewing processes.
2. Before you know it, there is a coming together of various skills of people who can be various
in behaviour too. Before you know it, there emerges a greater need to understand human
behaviour. Greater is the urgency also because it threatens to force-close the original purpose of
bringing these people (many problems) together.
3. Neglect of solution dehumanize people now, and soon destroys the purpose. Wisdom advises
imperatively to incorporate understanding human behaviour as part and parcel of working
together. This is borne out by experience and circumstance.
4. People-problem begins as a result of people's seeming unpredictability. At work interview, it
seems a different person was dealt with from the person who started complaining for this and
that, even before he fulfils the purpose for which he was employed. He seemingly begins to
change as circumstances of work conditions change. You can never be sure you are really
dealing with one person.
5. There is no doubt that, sometimes, he shows characteristics to justify some of the skills for
which he is employed during certain conditions. This brings joy, nevertheless, but it is short-
lived and far apart sometimes for it is observed too that he owes allegiance to some primitive
cultures and very childlike-tendencies.
6. These last features can domineer him to the point of forgetting the original purpose as
everything else for the time being is secondary. It can show in blaming all else, how he behaves
differently and this is often the case. It shows in arrogance that recognizes none other than self. It
shows sometimes in self-pity and slavish indulgence and/or criminal defiance. How can people
not misbehave?
7. In communicating the work processes, people-problems also manifest. It all depends,
sometimes, on his mood. At times, people really inform, instruct and persuade effectively; but at
other times, they talk, as if it were through other persons. Their views conflict often among
themselves — very much against the harmony they need and want for success in their common
endeavour and objectives.
8. It is not even known that they can communicate with some hidden intentions other than what
the words used meant. Unfortunately, there is not yet published a dictionary possible for double
intentions (not meanings) of words. This gives people, therefore, the chance to manipulate others
at the expense of work objectives. The problem is not only among men and men but it has been
complicated because the number of women in the work-place is increasing.
9. Does solution reside in isolating people as workers? This has been tried before in the past &
generations of workers. The action was unethical and the result was dismally hopeless. The
objective of work-namely, maximum "profit" for owners among others — was further
marginalized and distracted from. The reason for this outcome seemed to be the forced lowliness
on people who are social creatures.
10. You are therefore back to where you started —bringing people together for work — but
without a solution for people-problems. This is where and how people-problems started —
people coming together for work. It is here they are supposed to co-operate to work but also
often, they disagree and quarrel. It is here that they are not only supposed to be friendly, but
often offend themselves and seek revenge at the expense of work.
Solving A Case
The Name — 'Case Study'
It is always important to remember what a management case study is — a hypothetical
description of a management situation. The story tries to stimulate a situation that would require
the application of some known management theories. As such, a management case is a distinct
literary style which the student should try to understand. It is not poetry. It is neither purely
narrative, expository nor argumentative. It is also not just fiction; it may have an impromptu
analogy to a detective story. A ease study is not designed mainly to transfer new knowledge but
to test the ones already taught or known. That is why a case study demands analysis and decision
using known information and experience. It is mainly designed to teach students "to think in the
presence of new situations" and hardly are any two management situations the same.
Management (trans) actions are supposed to be situational. Therefore, it is right to say that
business cases do not build on precedents. This is why the name "Case Study" is perhaps a
misnomer, a wrong way to describe what that method of teaching/learning is meant to be. You
cannot simply refer to a previous management case as the attorney would do in the law court.
Any management case is designed by the teacher to emphasis a principle expected to apply to the
situation which may never be or repeat anywhere.
The Right/Wrong Answer
The foregoing immediately reminds us that case studies almost never have right or wrong
answers. In fact, someone has said that it is a disastrous mistake to write a case with answers in
mid. The "management situation" which a case describes is usually (though not always) a
problem. Perhaps, looking at some -examples of the problem/question which have been built into
case studies can illustrate this vow further:
a. Where should a newly established/growing consulting firm locate its first branch?
b. Should a high-quality luggage manufacturer price-promote its merchandise?
These problems/questions require discussion and the use of combination of theoretical ideas and
experience as influenced by various factors of each situations. There hardly can be any
stereotyped, iron-clad, ideal answer to them. Any answers can be right or wrong depending on
many factors. But they require discussion and decision.

Evaluating a Case
Case teacher experts design their own cases. These may deal with immensely significant,
dramatic issues. Other cases may be workmanlike presentation of situations which may not
arouse tremendous controversy or interest but nevertheless provoke productive discussions. How
then can the success or failure of a case be evaluated? The faithful reproduction of the imagined
case in clear and lucid narration will help the content of a case. In judging a case(s) content, you
may ask:
a. Are all the diverse choices which a manager really may face in a situation
reproduced as faithfully as possible?
b. Will the students be confronted (as the manager in the situation by a variety of
options for solutions which may support?
 c. Are enough facts, figures and descriptive details provided (or deductively
implied) to force a student to choose a course of action and justify it?
A case study is ultimately evaluated for success or failure in the classroom. The user of any case
has clear objectives to achieve in the students. The extent of achieving those objectives
determines the usefulness of the case or otherwise — the thought provoked, the discussion
engendered, the decision guided, etc. Some had said that cases are not evaluated on their
complexity or verisimilitude.

Conducting a Case Study

To conduct a case study in educational management, researchers typically follow a systematic
approach comprising several key steps:
1. Selecting the Case
The first step involves selecting a suitable case or cases for study. This could be an individual
school, a district, a state, or even a national education system. The selection should be based on
the research objectives and the relevance of the case to the research questions.
2. Collecting Data
Data collection is a crucial phase of the case study process. Researchers use various methods to
gather data, including interviews, surveys, observations, and document analysis. These multiple
sources of data help in triangulation, ensuring the reliability and validity of the findings.
3. Analyzing Data
Once the data is collected, it is analyzed using various qualitative and quantitative techniques.
Researchers look for patterns, themes, and connections within the data to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the case. This analysis provides valuable insights into the
complexities and dynamics of educational management.
4. Drawing Conclusions
Based on the data analysis, researchers draw conclusions about the case under study. These
conclusions should be supported by evidence and align with the research objectives. They should
also contribute to the existing body of knowledge in educational management.
5. Generating Recommendations
One of the key outcomes of a case study is the generation of practical recommendations. These
recommendations are aimed at addressing the challenges identified in the case and improving
educational management practices. They provide guidance for policymakers, administrators, and
other stakeholders in making informed decisions.
Benefits of Case Studies in Educational Management
Case studies offer several benefits in the field of educational management:
In-depth Understanding
Case studies allow researchers to gain a deep understanding of complex educational phenomena.
By examining real-life situations in detail, researchers can uncover underlying factors,
relationships, and dynamics that influence educational outcomes.
Contextual Relevance
Case studies are context-specific, meaning they are tailored to the particular educational setting
being studied. This ensures that the findings and recommendations are relevant and applicable to
the specific context, increasing the likelihood of successful implementation.
Practical Implications
The insights and recommendations generated from case studies have practical implications for
educational management. They can inform decision-making, policy development, and the
implementation of effective strategies to improve educational outcomes.
Theory Building
Case studies contribute to theory-building in educational management. By examining multiple
cases and identifying common patterns and themes, researchers can develop theories and
frameworks that explain and predict educational phenomena.
In conclusion, case studies in educational management provide a valuable research method for
gaining a deep understanding of complex educational issues. By examining real-life contexts and
generating practical recommendations, case studies contribute to informed decision-making,
improved practices, and enhanced educational outcomes. These studies are essential for the
continued improvement and development of educational systems worldwide.
Benefits of Case Study in Educational Management
Case studies have long been a valuable tool in the field of educational management. These in-
depth examinations of real-life situations provide educators with a unique opportunity to analyze
complex problems and develop effective solutions. By delving into the intricacies of specific
cases, educational managers can gain valuable insights that can inform decision-making,
improve practices, and drive positive change within their institutions. The benefits that case
studies offer in the realm of educational management include:
1. Real-World Application
One of the key advantages of using case studies in educational management is their ability to
bridge the gap between theory and practice. While textbooks and lectures provide a solid
theoretical foundation, case studies offer a chance to apply this knowledge to real-world
scenarios. By grappling with the complexities and challenges presented in these cases,
educational managers gain practical experience that can enhance their decision-making abilities
and problem-solving skills.
2. Holistic Understanding
Case studies provide a holistic understanding of educational management by taking into account
various factors that influence decision-making. These include organisational structures,
leadership styles, financial considerations, stakeholder involvement, and more. By examining the
interplay of these elements in a specific case, educational managers can better grasp the
complexities they face in their own institutions. This holistic perspective helps in developing
comprehensive solutions that address the multifaceted nature of educational management.
3. Analysis and Critical Thinking
Case studies promote critical thinking and analysis, which are essential skills for educational
managers. By examining a case from different angles, educators can enhance their ability to
assess situations objectively and make informed decisions. They learn to identify patterns,
evaluate evidence, and consider alternative viewpoints. These analytical skills not only benefit
the managers themselves but also contribute to a culture of critical thinking within the institution,
fostering a more intellectually stimulating environment for students and staff alike.
4. Collaboration and Teamwork
Case studies often require collaborative efforts, as educational managers work together to
analyze and solve complex problems. This collaborative approach fosters teamwork and
encourages the exchange of ideas and perspectives. By pooling their knowledge and expertise,
managers can develop innovative solutions that might not have been possible individually.
Furthermore, the collaborative nature of case studies reflects the importance of teamwork in
educational management, as effective collaboration is crucial for creating a positive and
inclusive learning environment.
5. Professional Development
Engaging with case studies is an excellent way for educational managers to enhance their
professional development. By studying successful cases, managers can learn from best practices
and apply these lessons to their own institutions. Conversely, studying cases that highlight
failures can help them avoid common pitfalls and improve their decision-making processes. Case
studies also provide a platform for reflection and self-assessment, allowing managers to identify
areas for growth and further development.
In conclusion, case studies have numerous benefits in the field of educational management. They
offer a platform for real-world application of theoretical knowledge, promote critical thinking
and analysis, encourage collaboration and teamwork, and contribute to professional
development. By utilizing case studies, educational managers can gain valuable insights,
improve decision-making, and create positive change within their institutions. As the educational
landscape continues to evolve, case studies remain a powerful tool for driving innovation and
ensuring excellence in educational management.
The kind of cases and problems faced by school administrators varies from school to school and
locality to locality. People in the educational circle (that is, policy makers, administrators,
institutional heads as well as students still undergoing training with a view to becoming teachers)
must be familiar with these problems as well as be aware of the dangers they pose to educational
programmes and practices. There is therefore the need to lay a proper groundwork for a realistic
understanding of educational problems or cases and to develop analytical skills as conceptual
knowledge and historical perspective necessary to deal effectively with the complex school
problems whenever they arise. Cases as used in this book, therefore, are descriptions of
administrative decisions or problems in educational institutions. Simply defined, a case is a
classroom-oriented technique which provides a medium through which the student can study the
application of management or behavioural concepts and theories. The case method or technique
has been used widely in well-known educational institutions in developed countries. The
emphasis is on application and analysis instead of mere memorization of theories and concepts.
A sound knowledge of these cases is therefore very important to the development of educational
systems.
Cases can assume different forms as used in different professions. For instance, a case can be
general in approach and therefore used in a variety of contexts or it can be addressed primarily to
one to two types of questions. Case study is however not an entirely new method of teaching
since teachers have regularly employed it in limited areas. Everyday, different cases are being
treated by the school administrators and teachers in the classroom. Cases are now being used in
educational institutions for solving various problems.
During the course of training, a teacher trainee needs to be exposed to some of these cases and
problems, whether hypothetical or actual. He must also know how to solve them so that when he
gets to the actual classroom situation, he would have acquired some techniques and skills for
solving similar problems. By the same token, those already in the practice need to acquainted
with the techniques of analyzing and solving problems which are bound to be a regular feature as
long as one remains in an organisation. After all, the world itself is full of problems and unless
one is adequately prepared, such problems might look insurmountable. Cases are not methods of
teaching in themselves; rather, they are administrative techniques used in solving problems. In
case discussions, the teacher directs the affairs. He is just like an ice-berg, and so he must be able
to cope with what goes on in the class at any point in time.

Types of Cases
Bridges (1965) set forth three forms of cases and these differ with regard to basic form and use.
They are issue cases, descriptive cases and substantive cases.
1. Issue Case: An issue case usually contains one or more problems along with the background
material essential to understanding the environment to decision-making. In this type of case,
report of what was done to resolve the situation making for the student must choose from among
a range of reasonable alternatives which may be implicit or explicit in the case. Furthermore, the
student usually states the reason for his actions and the intended and possible unintended results.
Issue cases are often used to provide the student with opportunities to engage in a variety of
settings. Issue gives the students actual practice in decision-making and his thinking is assessed
in a risk – free social system, that is, there is minimum threat to the student’s career.
Generally, issue cases are characterized by evaluate terms like identify, Give reasons for, if you
were…, and so on. These terms and phrases spark off critical thinking ability in the student. The
student is also made to assume roles which can prove useful to him future. The teacher can use it
in treating a particular topic in class, and because issue cases do not include statements of what
was done to resolve the problem, the student’s ability to think in fully stretched. The student has
to examine the facts presented to him and give judgements and conclusions. In issue cases,
students are stimulated into discussion by the teacher and each student is allowed to arrived at his
own conclusion in solving the problems at stake. The teacher allows the students to give their
various views on the problem. He only serves as a guide to the students and put in points as a
reminder where and when necessary.

2. Descriptive Cases: As the name implies, a descriptive case is a description of problems of

administration or behaviours. In this type of case, there one or more problems to be resolved.
There is reference to the background information while statements of what was done to resolve
the issues are given. Under descriptive case, students’ analytical skill are developed. They are
presented with cases and required to analyse such cases. Descriptive cases are generally used to
furnish a representation of reality for the abstract world of theory and concepts. They supply the
instructor with relevant contexts for leading students to formulate concepts by generalizing from
particular events in the case and or with relevant context for relating concepts to practical
situations.
A descriptive case is frequently used as a means for the student to gain practice in analysing the
forces which impinge on the administrator as he makes the decision. It can also be used to
provide the student with an opportunity to develop skills in diagnosing organisational and
administrative weaknesses. Information for the treatment of descriptive cases can be obtained
directly by the use of questionnaires and interviews on the problem. Other sources of information
include books, journals, family history and biography. This information is necessary because
they go a long way to give insight into how a particular problem can be resolved. Again, in
descriptive cases, there is need to exhibit one’s ability to use statistics through the computation
of data.

3. Substantive Cases: Whereas issue and descriptive cases are instructional tools for acquiring
skills in diagnosis, analysis and decision-making, substantive case is primarily a research tool. It
is designed to increase the substantive knowledge in the study and practice of education. This is
exactly what research does. This substantive case consists of two subtypes – the first one looks at
cases from the social science point of view while the second is from the view-point of the major
operating divisions or task areas within education. The social science conceptions of substantive
cases are characterized by the following:
 i. Identification of the social science concepts, that is, a prescription or description of
what is to be observed, similar to problem statement in research;
ii. Report of the relevant conceptual and empirical literature pertaining to these
concepts:
iii. Description of the methodology employed in the investigation;
iv. Report of findings in narrative form; and;
v. Speculation and formation of tentative hypotheses.
In educational organisations for instance, substantive cases can deal with the following: conflicts
within school organisation, school-community and school interpersonal relationships, functions
in the school, and many others. The second type of substantive cases focus on the technical
aspects of education, especially advanced field practices. This would force the teaching
profession, like any other profession, to discover study and report on advanced practices in the
field.

In terms of instructional purpose or primary instructional usage, the following kinds of case
purposes were defined by Immegart in 1967:
1. The Concept Case: A case that provides a vehicle for illuminating a behavior science
concept.
2. The Incident Case: A case that provides a vehicle for information-seeking or data –
gathering and which consists of a precipitating incident and relevant facts to be solicited
from the instructor.
3. The dilemma Case: A case that provides a vehicle from making a decision or resoling a
problem.
4. The Relationship Case: This provides a vehicle for assessing relationships between
groups, persons or variables in behavioural situations.
5. The Event Case: This provides a vehicle for discussing a unit of human behavioural
situations.

Sources of Instructional Cases

Cases in educational administration can be obtained from newspaper reports, professional
journals, the experience of school children, and a wide variety of contacts with educators
including teachers, administrators and State Ministry of Education personnel. There is no dearth
of case situations in educational administration; only the vision, perception, effort, and
persistence of case prepared limit the ability to discover promising case situations. Inexperienced
cased writers often seek dramatic, colourful or crisis events. This however, is neither necessary
nor totally desirable. The value of a good case is not necessarily related to the use of exotic or
colourful situations. There are, in the case archives, numerous examples of excellent
instructional cases that do not, in fact, involve conflict or crises.
THEORIES OF ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION
What is Theory
Feugi (1951) defined theory as asset of assumptions from which can be derived, by purely
logical and mathematical procedures, larger set of empirical laws. It is a group of statements
established by seasoned arguments and based on known facts and events. The construction of a
theory demands an act of creative imagination. Theories cannot be produced on demand. They
evolve in many shapes and in different degrees of precision.
The modern educational administrator needs the use of relevant organisational theories and
techniques to be able to manage the modern complex educational institutions successfully. The
tasks of educational administrators have become increasingly complex within the past decade.
Now, more than ever, the effective administrators need a theoretical understanding of the
sociology and psychology of large organisations to be able to function well.
Theories provide general answers, suggestions or approaches to specific administrative situations
because social changes affect the individual roles, expectations, values and operations in the
school systems. One of the most important functions of theory in education is to demystify, and
to make sense of what may appear to be a confusing situation. By so doing, theory helps the
administrator to identify the relationships between elements and therefore makes useful decisions
that would have been difficult to make without a theoretical base.
Because of the kind of training they provide, educational administrators and managers have dual
needs for theory. They are obligated to equip the students with the best available theory as a
guide to their practice. They also need theory to guide or search for better understanding. An
adequate knowledge of theory as administration would go a long way toward preparing students
for change. An adequate theory would also help in preparing students for further growth through
their own later experiences by providing them with economical ways of ordering that experience.
Some of the theoretical models include:
 1. Scientific Management Theory
2. Administrative Management Theory
3. Human Relation Approach
4. Leadership theory
5. Role Theory
6. Theory of Bureaucracy
7. Douglas McGregor X and Y Theories

1. Scientific Management Approach

This rests on the philosophy that there is one best way to do things and that it is the duty of the
manager to identify, analyse and prescribe this way. The philosophy behind this principle is
simply the economy of time and effect, that is, if you can find a standard way of doing things
you will save a lot time and energy. The proponent is Fredrick W. Taylor in 1911. He wrote
down all his experiments and put them down for formulation for future analysis.
1. Manager should be able to design his job activities in such a way as to facilitate
efficiency.
2. The manager has to identify all the necessary physical, mental and psychological pre-
requisite or attribute befitting a particular job and look for the right person to fill the
position.
3. There should be a standard way of training the workers in order to ensure uniformity and
conformity to his one best approach.
4. Workers have to be motivated through financial reward- that is the only way to enlist the
interest of workers. He suggested a piece-meal rate, that is payment on hourly basis.
5. There are informal groups within a formal group.
Taylor used scientific analysis procedure and technique in order to arrive at the best way of
training workers towards the achievement of the goals of the organisation. Classical theory is
also known as traditional theory of management. The first among this school of thought
(classical management perspective) is “scientific management perspective” where Frederick W.
Taylor is known to be a “father of scientific management” for proposing 'one best way to do
things' or scientific management/Taylorism (Ghuman & Aswathapa, 2010). Time and motion
were a scientific analysis of task for examining the physical movements and requirements for the
completion of task (Khurana, 2009). The idea of Taylorism is found to be consistent with the
concerns of Adam Smith that emphasized division of labour bringing specialization, which leads
to enhanced productivity (Khurana, 2009; Robbins & Coulter, 2012). In doing so the humans are
treated as machines while ignoring the demoralizing and inhuman effects of tasks on the workers
(Ghuman & Aswathapa, 2010). In addition to that, Taylor also commenced another study
“science of shovelling” for determining the optimal weight to be lifted by the workers, thus, the
optimal shovels were introduced to increase productivity while reward as increase in the pay was
motivator (Ghuman & Aswathapa, 2010).
The major notion of the motivation for employees under scientific management was seen as
money (Khurana, 2009). According to Furnham (2012), “money is an effective, powerful and
simple motivator but it is not always motivator for everyone because at times it has power to
demotivate” (p. 152). Additionally, Katzenbach and Khan (2010) argued that majority of the
successful entrepreneurs agreed that major motivation is to be built upon something lasting
rather than on the notion of making huge money. Furthermore, “Certainly great professional
leaders like Marvin Bower, who built McKinsey & Co., John Whitehead, the former Goldman
Sachs senior partner, and Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens explained that that their
motivation came from the work itself, and that the lasting respect of others was far greater than
money as a measure of accomplishment. And very few great artists are in it for the money.
Money is a by-product, and usually a secondary one at that, for such achievers” (cited from
Katzenbach and Khan, 2010). Nevertheless, for lower level jobs, still money is often use as a
basic needs (key motivator), reflecting that the scientific management is still applicable in the
modern-day management.
Nowadays, same scientific management approach is used with modifications as of now multiple
websites offer online solutions through interactive sessions, free tutorials and blogs discussion,
which are all based on Henry Gantt management theory (Sullivan, 2017). Harrignton Emerson
stated twelve principles of efficiency that enables manager in defining objectives, developing
scientific methods for evaluation, forming standardized procedures and rewarding employees
(Sridhar, 2017). The major drawback of this school of thought is that it treats and views worker
from only the lens of economics whereas workers’ behaviours are not always directed by
financial needs as there are other needs such as social, security and esteem needs (Sridhar, 2017).
In addition to that, there multiple methods to commence task rather than relying on “one best
way” because the situation differs and even two individuals could carry out similar job
differently (Sridhar, 2017).
The Fundamental Principles of Scientific Management
Taylor believed that if the principles of scientific management were applied to the simplest
individual acts as well as to the work of the great corporations, the results would be truly
extending. The fundamental principles that he developed are as follows:
1. The development of a true science of work: By this he pointed out that since there is no
definite knowledge or clear agreement of what constitutes a fair day‘s work, a boss has unlimited
opportunities for complaining about his workers inadequacies. And a worker never really knows
what is expected of him;. This can be remedied by the establishment, after scientific
investigation of a large daily task as the amount to be done by a suitable worker under optimum
conditions. For this he would receive a high rate of pay much higher than the average worker
would receive in unscientific factories. He would also suffer a loss of income if he failed to
achieve this performance.
2. The scientific selection and progressive development of the workman: To earn this high
rate of pay a workman would have to be scientifically selected to ensure that he possesses the
physical intellectual qualities to enable him to achieve the output. Then he must be
systematically trained to be a first class man. Taylor believes that every worker could be a
developed worker, offering opportunities for advancement which would finally work for which
he could become first class man.
3. The Bringing together of the science of work and the scientifically selected and trained
men: It is the processes that cause the mental revolution in management and Taylor maintains
that almost invisibly the major resistance to scientific management comes from the side of
management. The workers, he finds are very willing to cooperate in learning to do a good job for
a high rate of pay. Thus management should ensure that the work is being done in accordance
with the principles of the scientific method that has been developed.
4. The constant and intimate cooperation of management and men: There is an almost equal
division of work and responsibility between management and workers. The management takes
over all the work for which they are better fitted than the workmen, i.e. the specification and
verification of the methods, time, place and quality standards of the job, and the continuous
supervision and control of the worker doing it. There is hardly a single act.... Done by any
workman in the shop which is not preceded by and followed by some act on the part of the men
in management. With this close personal cooperation the opportunities for conflict are almost
eliminated, since the operation of this authority is not arbitrary.
The contributions of F. W. Taylor were spelt out clearly in the following principles:-
a. Time Study Principles: Human efforts and work done should be measured with standard
time.
b. Piece–Rate Principles: Reward should be according to effort put in.
c. Separation of Planning from Performance Principles: Management should decide on
policies while work/task to be done by the workers.
d. Management Control Principles: Need for development is necessary
e. Scientific Method of Work Principle: Responsible and accountable leadership
f. Functional Management Principles: There should be flexibility in running of organization.
He gave the following principle to guide management.
1. Each worker should have a clear defined task.
2. Standard conditions are needed to ensure task is more easily accomplished.
3. High payment to be made for successful completion of task.
4. There should be loss in case of failure. That no one should fail in his tasks where nobody does
such a failing worker must pay for it.
Taylor’s scientific management advocated efficiency, which could be achieved when workers are
made to work to achieve the objective, set by the organisation. The type of management
advocated is described in his Principles of Scientific Management and may be summarized thus;
1. Time-Study Principles: All productive efforts should be measured by accurate time
study and a standard time established for all work done.
2. Piece-rate Principle: Wages should be proportional to output and their rates based on
the standards determined by time study. As a corollary, a worker should be given the
highest grade of work of which he is capable.
3. Separation-of-planning from performance principle: Management should take over
from the workers, the responsibility for planning the work and making the performance
physically possible. Planning should be based on time studies and other data related to
production, which are scientifically classified. It should be facilitated by standardization
of tools, implements and methods.
4. Scientific-Methods of work Principle: Management should take over from the workers,
the responsibility for their methods of work, determine scientifically, the best method and
train workers accordingly.
5. Management-Control Principle: Managers should be trained and taught to apply
scientific principles of management and control (such as management by exception and
comparison with valid standard) so that they can train the workers accordingly.
6. Functional-Management Principle: The strict application of military principle should
be considered as the industrial organisation should be so designed that it best serves the purpose
of improving the coordination of activities among the various specialists. Taylor and his
followers were enormously influential in establishing these principles in such powerful
organisations as Midland Steel, Bethlehem Steel, Santa Fe Railway, and ACMC Wire Company
among others. Taylorism was criticized as being too mechanistic, forceful, exploitative,
inhuman, and for not having any consideration for human factors but rather in favour of
organisation and emphasized productivity at the expense of human elements. Some of the major
critics of Taylorism are Campbell and his associates (Adepoju, 2004).
2. Administrative Management Theory
Under same classical school of management, the contemporary school of thought to scientific
management are the ‘administrative management’ and ‘bureaucratic organisations’ (Robbins and
Coulter, 2012; Sridhar, 2017). This school of thought is based on traditional or administrative
principles of management while prominent exponents include Henri Fayol, Chester Barnard and
Colnel Urwick (Sridhar, 2017). Henri Fayol is considered as the father of modern management
for his contribution in the administrative management field primarily focusing on the operational
approach through 14 principles of management. “Fayol introduced unified concept by focusing
on managerial levels and the organisation as a whole” (Sridhar, 2017). All business activities
could be split into six groups namely; administrative, security, accounting, financial, commercial
and technical while focused on the “managerial activities of manager including, planning,
organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling” (Robbins and Coulter, 2012). Key principles
include “division of work, authority and responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of
direction, subordination of individual interest to general interest, remuneration, centralization,
scalar chain, order, equity stability of tenure of personnel, initiative and esprit de corps”
(Robbins and Coulter, 2012). Fayol's heavily emphasized on rationality, logic and consistency
(Sridhar, 2017).
Interestingly, “Taylor worked from the bottom of the hierarchy upward, whereas Fayol worked
from the apex downwards, with ‘management centred’ philosophy”, which is the difference
between two classical schools of thoughts (Sridhar, 2017). On the other hand, Chester Barnard
argued that effective communication is essential for cooperation and there should be a balance
between rewards and contributions among workers (Robbins and Coulter, 2012). Colonel
Urwick assembled the principles of Taylor, Fayol and other management scholars and suggested
that management is a dynamic process to perform organisational activities (Sridhar, 2017). This
school of thought also has limitations as many of the principles have dilemmas and are
contradictory. For instance, limited span of control and division of labour contradicts number of
organisational levels being smaller or principle of specialization is contradicted by unity of
command (Sridhar, 2017). In addition to that, when seeking specialization, it is not possible to
follow simultaneously all modes. There is lack of empirical testing of these principles at
organisational setting. Moreover, all principles being valid under all situations is not practically
applicable.
Lastly, mechanistic organisational structure develops due to the outcome of these principles, that
are insensitive to psychological and social needs of the employees (Sridhar, 2017). Nevertheless,
Brown (2014) argued that Henri Fayol's 14 principles of management promoted efficiency
through division of work, which are still recognised idea in the present day. Additionally, “Fayol
acknowledged employees’ needs through adequate remuneration, stability of tenure, equity, team
spirit and initiative are all essential albeit coming from top down direction” (Brown, 2014).
Hence, Fayol has not ignored the employee perspective in the organisational context but yet the
major criticism Fayol attracted is that it is flatter in present era (Ibid). However, although, it
appears less applicable to some extent in modern day work environments. Moreover, even in
modern era, Fayol offers a good start for the managers and organisation to learn about
approaches, structures and managerial functions (such as planning, forecasting, organising,
directing, coordinating and monitoring) (Brown, 2014). Having said that, these were further
taken into consideration by theorists from human relation school.

The contribution of Henry Fayol 1841 – 1925

He was a qualified mining engineer and managing director of large French Company. He
focused attention on what should be the work of a chief executive. For this, he propounded five
basic elements of management, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
He equally divided activities in business organization into six groups namely:
1. Technical Operation: Total commitment of making use of machines, technology in this
production activities.
2. Commercial Operation: Concerns the marketing strategy.
3. Financial Operation: Centered on raising money, capital and optimum use of capital
resources of an organization.
4. Accounting Operations: This is concerned with keeping records of accounts and checking
frauds.
5. Security Operation: Involves total commitment towards the protection of goods, machines
and other resources belonging to organization.
6. Administration: Involves the general running of day – in day out activities of the
organization. That comprises of planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling the
organizational resources.
According to Fayol the sixth operational activity i.e. administration is the most essential because
it is through it all other five operational aspects can be effectively run. So to achieve a desired
goal and objective the administration should be allowed to take control of all other five
operations. Fayol further advanced fourteen principles to serve as a main guide to the sixth
operational and administrative operation of an organization.
The fourteen principles of management can be summarized as follows:
1. Division of Work: Work should be split and break into small units or departments among the
employees on the basis of their skill, ability and competence. This would help to carry out the
job easily, it also enhance specialization among the workforce in an organization.
2. Authority and Responsibility: Every employee should be given a specific responsibility.
And every employee (worker) must be given the authority to commensurate the responsibility, so
that whatever comes up he can be held responsible of either success or failure on the said
assigned responsibility. This implies that the right to issue commands, and authority must go
with responsibility because exercising authority gives rise to responsibility. This principle
suggests that there is a need for managers to have authority in order to command subordinates so
they can perform their jobs while being responsible for their actions. (Pathak, 2015).
3. Unity of Command: Individual employee should receive order or instruction from one
source, i.e. from one supervising superior. Duel source of command produces conflicts and
confusions. Each worker should be answerable to one boss with no other conflicting lines of
command. This principle has been however questioned (see Achinivu, Okwu, Wey, Akpan &
Fasan, 2017), especially with regards to current situations in modern organisations where work is
done in groups and teams, it simply suggests that each group will have a coordinator or
supervisor whom orders are gotten from; whereas this coordinator may not be the sole or overall
manager (Uzuegbu & Nnadozie, 2015). Unuegbu & Nnadozie (2015) have further argued that
this principle is rigid and needs modification, especially in consonance with current realties in
many organisations and felt “Fayol was not explicit to show if it means that only one person can
give orders or whether two or more person can give instructions/ directives to employees but not
at the same time. This is as Nwachuwku (1988) had previously asserted that it is not unusual for
a staff member to receive instructions from superiors outside his/her immediate units/sections or
departments. We could conclude here that Fayol’s proposition is about timing, where only one
command is issued at a time.
4. Order: Ordering that everything in the organization must be organized. Everything must be
placed in a proper and suitable arrangement.
5. Unity of Direction: Every effort must be directed towards the attainment of one goal that is
the organizational goals.
6. Hierarchy: The principle of hierarchy suggests the arrangement of functions in vertical order
that is one employee subordinates another. Commands, order and instruction flows from the
above and obedience emanating from the below upward.
7. Remuneration: It means the reward of the services rendered; this is about ensuring fair
compensation to the individual contribution and performance. Payment should be
commensurable to the work.
8. Discipline: Subordination and obedience to the standardized rules of the organizational
hierarchy, that is employee should respect the laid down rules of the organizational hierarchy.
Employees must obey, but this is two-sided; employees will only obey orders if management
plays her part through good leadership. Achinivu, Okwu, Wey, Akpan, & Fasan (2017) argued
that this principle is often a part of the core values of an organization in form of good conduct,
respectful interactions, proper dress code, etc.
9. Scalar Chain: Chain of command with the formal line of authority. Unbroken chain of
authority from the above to the bottom position of the organizations hierarchy.
10. Subordination of Individual Interest to the Organization General Interest: The interest
of the organization should dominate and superseded individual employees‘ interest of the
organization. Employees should surrender their personal interest so that the overall
organizational interest could be achieve and realize.
11. Equity: Concerns with fairness in the treatment of personnel or employees of the
organization ―Justice to whom justice is due‖. Here no one single employee should suffer from
any discriminate treatment. Everybody is treated equal in accordance with the laid down rules of
the organization.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: The management must make deliberate attempt to
discourage employees turnover tenure in a position must be guided and stabilize, else this
produces general instability and lack of order within the organization.
13. Espirit De Corp: That the spirit of belonging and oneness, feeling of togetherness and
comradeship. Where there is Unity and cooperation, there is going to be strength. Unity is
strength, united we stand. Some would feel more comfortable in the organization where they
feels happier and can contribute more greatly as a result.
14. Initiative: Measure of freedom to do the job in the best way understood. It is an effective and
efficient ways of carrying out organizational task that could enhance effective realization of an
organizational goals and objectives.

3. Human Relation Approach

An early protagonist for building and maintaining dynamic yet harmonious human relations in
any enterprise was Mary Parker Follet. She made coordination the underlying strategy for
effective organisation, reducing her principles of organisation to four as follows:
1. Coordination by direct control of the responsible people concerned;
2. Coordination in the early stages;
3. Coordination as the reciprocal relating to all the factors in a situation; and
4. Coordination as a continuing process.
Although Follet was the first great exponent of the human relations view in administration
which, in summary, states that “Adequate human relations is the sum total of administration”.
The systematic and empirical data in support of this view came from a number of experiments in
human engineering carried out by Elton Mayo, Roernlisherger and Dickson at the Hawthorne
Plant of the Western Electric Company (Lipham and Hock, 1974). These experiments tested the
effects on workers output of certain physical conditions, such as illumination, rest periods, length
of work day and methods of payment. In one of the experiments for example, it was observed
that workers output increased with increased illumination; but the illumination was decreased,
output continued to decrease.
The human relations movement has been turned to theories of personality. More recently, human
relations efforts have been directed toward the development and utilization of new techniques
such as T-groups, encounter groups, and other modes of sensitivity training, course, seminar,
workshop, and other pre-service and in-service training experiences are now being utilized in
many educational organisations to improve the human relations skills of principals and other
educational personnel.

4. Leadership Theory
Many researchers have put forward different definitions of leadership. Stogdili (1974) defined
leadership as function of group process, a set of acts or behaviour, a power of relationship, an
instrument of goal achievement, the initiational role and the initiational structure. According to
Oetzels (1968), leadership is to engage in an act which initiates a structure in an interaction with
others in an organisation. Many other writers have defined leadership as the process of
influencing the activities of an organised group towards goals achievement and goal setting.
Those predisposed to a personalistic concept of leadership view it as a one-way process,
explaining it in terms of inferred or observed specific characteristics or combinations of
characteristics of individuals.
Those predisposed to a situational concept view leadership as an interactive process, defining it
in terms of leader- group relationships and interactions. Others who hold an organisational
orientation are committed to the view that the incumbents of status positions are ipso facto
leaders, their role behaviour therefore defining leadership behaviour. Others despair of the
definitional problems at least so far as attempts are made to compare or contrast leadership with
other terms, such as management or administration. It is not surprising to find a plethora of
definitions of leadership.
It is impossible to define leadership without a definition with a function. Therefore, for any
definition to be applicable, it depends on the type of organisation in which such, leadership is to
be operated. The operation of leadership will in turn depend on the goal set which could be
political, social, economic or even religious. e that as it may, the essence of leadership is to direct
the forces of the organisation to inspire people coordinate efforts and to direct the activities of
the followers towards the greatest and effective achievement of the goal set.
Conventionally, four types of leadership are recognized: autocratic or authoritative, democratic,
Laizzez-faire, and transactional. The idea of categorising leadership into four has now become
obsolete in view of the fact that a rigid classification of it is not possible.
The autocratic leader gives command and direction to his subordinates and expects them to obey
such commands by nature. He does not tolerate long debate on issues before they are carried out.
This type of leadership has some advantages. One is that it creates distinct power relationship
between the leader and his subordinates. It also enhances rapid decision-making and thereby
saves time. This, of course, may lead to goal achievement and greater productivity within the
organisation. One weakness of this type of leadership is that it stifles individuals’ initiatives and
encourages gullibility. It also generates factions within the organisation.
A democratic leader on the other hand directs the affairs of the organisation by consensus of
opinion. He has a permissive attitude in relation to his subordinates because he assumes that as
people grow within the organisati0fl they learn to assess their attitudes, 4iscover their deep
interest and develop their basic potentials and because of this, leaders gain acceptance of the
objectives of the organisation. There is greater achievement of goals than in the autocratic style
since good relationship exists between the leader and his subordinates. Individuals are willing to
put in their best in any organisation in which they have a say. This style of leadership gives
freedom to members to choose whoever they want to work with thereby promoting and allowing
individual to realise their participation in decision-making.
The Laizzes-faire type of leadership is characterised by a “hands- off” policy in which
individuals within an organisation assume greater responsibilities in decision-making. It is also
characterised by a complete non-participation of the leader in the determination of tasks to be
done. Laizzes-faire type of leadership has a great potential for attracting anarchy with grave
consequences of paralysis in the achievement of organisational goals.
Transactional leadership is a blend of all the three types discussed above. Cetzels and Guba
(1957), in their own analysis, originally delineated and defined three leadership styles -
nomothetic, idiographic and transactional. Nomothetic or normative refers to emphasis on the
sociological or institutional axis of behaviour in a social system; idiographic or personal refers to
the psychological or personalistic axis of behaviour; and transactional refers to alternate
emphasis on each. The three types are shown in the figure on page. The nomothetic style
emphasizes the normative dimension of behaviour and accordingly the requirements of the
institution, the role and expectations, rather than requirements of the individual, the personality,
and the need dispositions: In this type of leadership style, the most expeditious route to the goal
is seen as residing in the nature of the institutional structure rather than in any particular persons.
The idiographic style stresses the personal dimension of behaviour and accordingly the
requirements of the individual, the personality, and the need - dispositions rather than the
roquirem.nts of the institution, the role and expectations. The most expeditious route to the goal
is seen as residing in the people invoked rather than in the institutional structure.

5. Role Theory
Role theory includes several models that are useful for viewing assessing, analysing and
improving the principal’s and teachers’ roles performance. Derived from social systems theory.
role theory permits assessment of the role expectations held by the principal or teacher himself
and by his significant reference groups - central office personnel other principals teachers,
parents citizens, and students as well. Role theory also permits assessment of the extent to which
one is able to perceive accurately the role expectations held by others- Knowledge of the role
theory will enable the principal or teacher to understand adapt, modify, and fulfill his significant
social role.
Role is a position that has expectations evolving from established norms. The concept connotes
not only overt actions and performances but also covert expectations held by an observer a group
of observers. Role theory therefore gives us a way of view the behaviour of individuals in a
group and of groups as they respond to and make demands upon individuals in the group. We
talk of role enactment, role expectations, role conflict, and role perception.
Role enactment is the actual behaviour that serves as the dependent or outcome from an occupant
of a given position, that is, its focus is on what the occupant does and says. Such behaviours are
being noticed by observers who may use behaviour rating scales or free response verbalisations
to make known their observations. There are a number of positions, statuses or offices which are
a collection of rights and duties designated by such terms as mother, father, teacher, policeman,
son, daughter, and others. Each of these roles has role expectations linked with it and not on the
person who occupies the position. Any person who therefore occupies such positions and does
not behave according to expectations is not behaving as expected of the occupant of the role.
Success of a person in a position is therefore judged in terms of the fulfilment of the role. Failure
to behave thus makes him subject to censor.
Role expectations can be overt actions like the office cleaner who is expected to open windows
every morning, clean and dust glasses and seats. Or it can be viewed as qualities and personal
dispositions expected of an occupant of a position. Persons usually occupy multiple positions in
real life. Expectations between these multiple positions may sometimes be compatible while in
other cases, they may be very incompatible. It is in e situation of incompatible roles that role
conflicts emanate. This can be illustrated with a public administrator in a bureaucratic set-up
who finds his role of stern, impersonal keeper of the public fund incompatible with his self
concept as a paternal, helpful friend of the poor. Role perception means how the members of an
organisation or a society think they are expected to have and how others actually expect them to
behave.

6. Theory of Bureaucracy
This theory forms part of the behavioural science approach earlier discussed under the general
systems theory. Bureaucracy is an irrational or abstract process which aims at an efficient control
and effective utilisation of human resources in an organisation through a system of
impersonality, specialization, hierarchy of authority and procedural rules. It is a recent
organisation theory; the proponent was Max Weber at the turn of this century. Two objectives
guide the theory: one is the need to depersonalize work task at every level of management while
the other is the need to achieve efficiency and high productivity.
One characteristic of bureaucratic organisations is the hierarchy of authority that is to say that
every worker’ in the organisation is responsible to a superior officer. Bureaucracy has a system
of rules covering the rights and duties of employees. It thus defends workers from arbitrary
dismissal. before you fire a messenger in an office for example, you would have given him
queries, bureaucracy is impersonal and formal and expects workers to be so. In other words, no
worker is expected to develop emotions, affections, passions, love or hatred for other workers. It
has what has been described as chain of command in the sense that authority is linked in the
entire organisation. It promotes what we call unity of command in that a worker takes directives
from one officer at a time. This is to guide against conflict. All transactions and activities in
bureaucratic organisations are committed to writing. by this principle, one Is going to produce
documented evidence for whatever one is going to do for reference purposes. This is to ensure
that people follow laid down rules and regulations strictly and to ensure that bogus individuals
do not go beyond their limits. Furthermore in a bureaucracy, there is specialisation or division of
labour: every worker has his sphere of influence and schedule of work. To do this, one has to
define the functions of each worker properly and in an unambiguous way. Promotion is based on
seniority or merit where appointment is based on possession of technical or appropriate
qualification.
People do not take kindly to bureaucracy because of its misuse. From the objectives and
characteristics stated above, one can see that the intentions of bureaucracy are good.
Unfortunately many organisations take workers to ransom by the use of bureaucracy. One of the
major functions of the theory is to bring out efficiency in workers and to ensure high productivity
It also helps to achieve coordination of efforts of workers, that is the man at the top is given the
power to organise. Bureaucracy also has a number of dysfunctions. In an organisation where
there are divisions or departments, the method of functioning differs from one division to the
other. In any organisation, hierarchy of authority is supposed to have both downward and upward
movements. Unfortunately, however the downward movement is the only one being emphasized
in bureaucracy: For example in the Ministry of Education and other educational organisations,
one cannot pass instructions to the top. This practice limits the passage of information from the
people at the bottom of the ladder to these at the top. This practice kills personal initiatives and
brings conflicts and unrest within the organisation. In bureaucracy, rules are seen as ends in
themselves rather than means to organisational growth. Rules are used for judgemental purposes.
If contravention to rules does not affect the growth of an organisation, there may not be the need
to punish the contravention, Bureaucracy does not recognize individual differences and does not
reckon with the talent of individuals. It moulds the worker into what is described as
organisational man”. Organisational men are those whose thinking and behaviour have been pre-
conditioned by the roles they are given to play, Bureaucracy concentrates power in a few hands
and it dehumanizes workers in the sense that it regards personnel as inanimate objects
(machines).

7. Douglas McGregor’s X and Y Theories

Douglas McGregor (1960) was one of those that made significant contributions to the Human
Relations Movement. He suggested that the underlying assumptions about human beings must be
changed. He listed certain assumptions about human behaviour that he believed are traditionally
held by managers. These he called ‘Theory X’. He believed that modern management should
embrace an opposing list of assumptions which he described as ‘Theory Y’.
Theory X states that the average person is naturally lazy and will avoid work if he can. Because
of this dislike for work, people would like to be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with
punishment to get them put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organisational
objectives. Again, the average worker has no ambition and is irresponsible and yet wants
security. Theory Y is an opposing views. It says that workers have initiatives; they will exercise
self-direction and self-control in the service—of objectives to which they are committed and that
commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with achievement. The theory
also says that workers have initiatives; they are creative imaginative, responsible and can achieve
organisational goal given the change and opportunity to perform.
Continuous use of Theory X in management prevents managers and administrators from
discovering and utilizing the best potentials of the average workers, McGregor recommended the
idea in Theory Y as the ideal stance for efficiency basing his arguments on Abraham Maslow’s
hierarchy of human needs.
CASE WRITING AND ANALYSIS
Gathering Data for Instructional Case
The gathering of case data, a large part of the scientific aspect of case study, commonly seems to
be synonymous with the interview. This prevailing action, one most often held by numerous
critics of case study, is misleading and it should be noted that case preparers, be they empirically,
clinically or instructionally oriented, are not willing to equate case study and the interview. Case
study is, in its most useful sense, a method of investigation and, as such, is systematic and
vigorous. That case study centers around the interview technique, as pointed out by Culliton
(1954) is not subject to questions. The point is simple that the two are one and the same thing.
Case study is a method of scientific inquiry and data gathering in case preparation. It is not
necessarily subjective, random, and, or intuitive. The method of case data has at its disposal a
variety of scientific procedures and techniques for collecting data. Essentially, its procedures or
investigation strategies are those of observation, solicited verbal report and perusal of records.
Additionally, the instructional case prepared has a number of specific data collection techniques
under each of the generic investigation systems that can be employed. Within each of the three
data gathering procedures — observations, verbal report and perusal of records — a number of
levels of data gathering systems can be identified. Berelson and Stunner (1964) offered the
following Levels or hierarchically arranged strategies for collecting data:
1. Free association - no direct solicitation of data, complete respondent freedom
2. Depth of unstructured devices - approximates complete respondent freedom but confines
respondent to an area or topic. of major concern for investigation.
3. Semi-structured devices - specification of topic and response stimuli (questions) and
usually the order of questions.
4. Structured devices - controlled wording and sequence of response stimuli and
additionally, an established or pre-coded categorization of possible response.
5. Formal tests and inventory devices - extreme respondent control through validated
measuring or evaluative devices.
Recognizing the general investigation procedures and levels of data gathering systems available
to the case preparer, one can discuss in detail, specific techniques for collecting data for the
instructional case along With ways to establish an adequate data base, and ways to increase dta
validity.

B. Techniques for Gathering of Case Data

Within the three strategies or operational systems of case investigation, a number of specific
techniques for gathering case data are available. Immegart (1967), set forth the available
techniques in relation to the larger systems of investigation with which they are associated, and
also indicated briefly the various forms the techniques might take:

1. Procedure: Direct Observation

(a) Technique: Observation
Forms: Participant and non-participant observation, scheduled and nonscheduled
observation, individual and team observation.
(b) Technique: Audio Recording
Forms Formal and informal interaction, interview and individual responses, short
and long segments.
(c) Technique; Visual Recording
forms; Snapshots and motion sequences, Visual only and audio-visuals
Photographs and other representations

2. Procedure: Verbal Report

(a) Technique: Interview
Forms: Structural and unstructural interview
Individual and group interview
Face to face and phone interview.
(b) Technique: Questionnaire
Forms: Structured and unstructured questionnaire
Close and open-ended questionnaires.
(c) Technique: Tests and Inventories
Forms: Individuals and interaction devices
Personality devices
Opinion, attitude devices.
(d) Technique: Sociometry
forms: General and specific devices.

3. Procedure: Exploration or perusal records

(a) Technique: General search on analysis of records
Forms: General and specific information
For information and other data needs.
(b) Technique: Content analysis
Forms: Small and large units of analysis
Theme and character units of analysis.
 For counting, ranking, or rating purposes.

The systems of investigation and specific fact — finding devices identified above are appropriate
for use in preparing the instructional case. It is not implied that all the techniques are equally
useful and applicable for all purposes in the preparation of instructional cases.
Certainly, as noted above, the interview in its many forms remains as the central gathering
technique in case investigation. It is applicable to all phases of data collection and can take a
variety of forms. Observation as a technique is limited to the study of actual or live situations.
Audio and or visual recording (observations) are available to a limited extent and unless
consciously and purposively collected, have limited applicability to most ex-past facto study.
Exploration or perusal of records as a technique is useful in finding case leads in the early stages
of developing a case, and to reveal specific kinds of data Some of the above identified techniques
such as questionnaires, tests and inventories, sociometry, content analysis of records, and, to
some extent, audio and/or visual recordings serve best to provide highly specific and! or
supplemental data and are therefore used less than other procedures.

C. Establishing Adequate Data Base

The case researcher needs to strive to collect as much data as possible about a given situation and
as much data as are relevant in regard to antecedent conditions, and internal external social and
physical environment outside impinging forces and tangentially related problems, situations,
issues and/or dynamics. Further, data about the full range of sociological, psychological,
biographical and physical-material aspects of a behavoural event or situation need to be obtained.
According to Immegrat (1967), an adequate data base may be ensured in the following ways:
1. Seek information from all actors or participants in the event or situation under scrutiny.
2. Utilize relevant written and primed records as well as human sources of data.
3. Plan consciously overall data collection strategy and specific fact-finding techniques.
4. Strive to illuminate all sides and dimensions of the phenomena being investigated.
5. Employ multiple data gathering procedures and techniques to the greatest degree
possible.
6. Attempt to use objective (structured or scheduled) procedures and techniques as much as
feasible.
 7. Check data inconsistencies and in congruencies in order to establish fact and to reveal the
reasons for such discrepancies.

D. Writing and Analysing Cases

After case data have been collected, the case preparer is confronted with the task of writing the
case. In writing a case, the nature of the case preparer work changes from the purely scientific to
a blend of scientific and literary activity. Writing the case is not literary activity alone; in
addition to the literary concerns of communicating the case in a readable and clear manner, there
are also the scientific concerns of selecting relevant data, organizing them in such a way as to
faithfully portray reality and reporting the data.
Cases must contain facts and be accurate representations of reality. They must also be written in
such a way as to be clear and readable. Thus, they must achieve a balance between cold factual
presentation and the novelist's usual literary prerogative. A good case is not like a typical
research report; rather, it: stimulates reader's interest and conveys the drama and some aspects of
a real life. To achieve a case's maximal instructional utility, the case narrative should simply 'tell
a story' in an expository but interesting way. Case writing should be objective, clear and concise,
but not flamboyant. Before drafting the case narrative, the case writer is confronted with a
number of decisions. He must select a purpose and/or perspective (historical, problem, thematic,
etc.) for presenting the case, set boundaries for the case, determine the length of the case, decide
on whether or not the situation and actors will be disguised, select the data which will be used
and determine how they are to be used and determine which data will be excluded. Usually the
use preparer begins early in data gathering to decide on the Purpose or perspective that will be
employed in presenting case data. In determining case form, the case preparer needs to consider
the event or situation being studied; kind, nature and extent of data; the possible uses of case
narrative about this event or situation which these data might have in instructional settings; and
the writer's own purpose for developing the case - whether for a particular goal or for general
training usage by the profession. in determining boundaries, questions need to be entertained
concerning when and where the narrative will begin how much tangentially or indirectly related
information will be included, how much background information will be used, that should be
told about the case participants or actors, and when and how the case should be ended. Related to
case boundary decisions is the matter of determining case length. In simple but not definite
terms, a case should be long enough to do the job and no longer. Cases should not belabour a
situation or event. It should not tax a reader by going down side streets or blind alleys. On the
other hand, brevity and terseness or the short but sweet measures are inadequate. The question,
however, still remains — how long? Realizing that different writing styles and abilities are
continuing variables, the best rule is the imprecise one long enough but no longer. Decision has
to be made about whether or not the case situation and actors are to be’ disguised. Cases in
educational administration are typically disguised. There is, of course, some merit in not
disguising cases.
The quality of the writing of a case) is crucial in determining whether or not a vicarious
experience is communicated to the case reader, and certain forms of presentation go a long way
toward ensuring acceptable cases. Thus, the most telling of the case preparer is numerous task;
the test of this mettle is actually the writing of the case. Good case writing involves the use of
proper English and should be free from defects in organisation and errors of grammar.
punctuation or word usage. Cases should be written in an objective manner Specific techniques
for increasing objectivity include the following Ummegart. 1967):
1. using quotation;
2. using dialogue;
3. making conscious efforts to avoid bias for or against individuals in the case;
4. presenting all sides of controversial issues;
5. avoiding the use of jargon, colour words and superlatives; and
6. avoiding your own opinions.
Cases are analyzed and written so as to provide framework for school administrators and
managers. Such written cases form permanent records of schools and a summary of such
cases rating to students problems goes into the school log book which can he referred to from
time to time. The following steps must be followed when writing a case. Each step forms a
major heading of the case report.
1. Statement of the case title in an unambiguous way
2. Clear definition of the case problem(s).
3. Adequate background to the problem - give a short introduction to the problem by
mentioning the remote and immediate causes of the problem.
4. State the facts of the case by explaining the major issues at stake. The characters involved
should be identified and their roles specified.
 5. Relating the facts of the case to the existing administrative and/or organisational theories
in an effort to explain the actions of the characters involved in the case.
6. Statement of what was done to resolve the case, that is, solutions adopted for the. case.
7. Comparing alternative solutions in terms of their capacity to resolve the issues and finally
selecting the best alternative(s).
8. evaluating the solution(s) adopted.
9. State the implications of the case to the school administrators and educational managers.
10. Give a summary of the case. It is a good thing to give a summary of the case by starting
the major points discussed in steps 2 to 6 in few short sentences.
E. Examples of Cases
1. A teacher puts a student in a family way.
2. Leakage of examination through the sale of question papers by a vice-principal.
3. Discovery of some quantities of Indian hemp in a male hostel.
4. Disagreement between subject masters and the vice-principal over period allocation.
5. Senior students bullying on junior students.
6. Cheating in the examination hail.
7. Poor quality of food in students dining hail sparks off violent demonstration.
8. Two male students beating up a female student.
9. Lateness to school by staff and students.
10. Mismanagement of school funds by the principal.
11. Sex scandal among teachers and students.
12. Protest over non-provision of desks and chairs.
13. Senior students initiate junior students into the hemp-smoking group.
14. Suicide attempt behind students’ hostel.
15. Alternation and falsification of examination report sheets.
16. Irate students set laboratory on fire.
17. Encroachment on the school land.
18. Students riot during a friendly football match.
19. Hostility of villagers to teachers.
20. Power tussle between the principal and his vice.
21. A road-side mechanic having love affair with a female student.
 22. Introduction of new policies in the school causes students unrest.
23. Shortage of chemicals in the laboratory.
24. Senior Secondary three students are forced to include French in the list of subjects to be
offered in the WASC examination.
F. Case Groups
A case is either actual or hypothetical. Cases listed in can be grouped under any of the following;
examination malpractice assault, insubordination, indiscipline, poor service and administration,
bullying, truancy, pilfering, stealing, misappropriation of funds, embezzlement, financial
mismanagement, and others. For example, cases 2, 6 and 16 are examples of examination
malpractices while cases 1, 17 and 19 can be categorized under indiscipline. The cases can be
further classified along the following dimensions:
i. Interpersonal school relationship;
ii. School-community relationship;
iii. Resources and resource management;
iv. Curriculum/instructional planning and implementation; and (v) finance management,
to mention a few.

Interpersonal School Relationship

These are cases involving strained relationship between and among teachers, students and
principal. Examples of such cases are as follows:
(i) a friendly football match ended in chaos;
(ii) fracas among students of two community schools during sports meeting;
(iii) students’ demonstration over the non-release of promotion examination result; and
(iv) Students’ protest over the principal’s leadership style.

School-Community Relationship
The school as part of the community often comes in conflict with the community. This happens
when the community is not fulfilling its moral, social or financial roles to the school. There are
also instances when members of the community have to descend on the school administration
for failing to meet their yearnings and aspirations. There are also instances when students go on
rampage and destroy public properties. There are cases which either involve the school and the
community or cases in the school which affect the social order of the community. Examples of
such cases are as follows:
(i) parents coming to school to report their children unruly behaviour at home;
(ii) students entering a nearby farm and harvesting large quantities of maize;
(iii) students receiving severe injuries from the masquerades during a community festival;
(iv) students rioting in the town and destroying public properties;
(v) encroachment on the school land by members of the community and vice versa;
(vi) petition by the community over the transfer of a devoted teacher;
(vii) a parent attacking a teacher in the school for flogging his daughter.
Finance Management
This is about the most sensitive case a school administrator handles. He has to pull himself and
should not allow emotion to get the better part of him if he is to handle such cases successfully.
They are cases which involve embezzlement, fraudulent acts and other related vices. Some
examples will suffice here;
i. school clerk steals the school fees collected by the bursar;
ii. the school bursar fails to remit school fees collected into the school’s account;
iii. misappropriation of school’s funds by the principal or bursar;
iv. a youth corper embezzles #50,000:00 proceeds from the sale of school agriculture
products;
v. misappropriation of funds by the PTA treasurer.
Curriculum/Instructional Planning and Implementation
These are cases in which all the school curricular and instruction programmes come into focus.
Such cases border on curriculum instructional planning and implementation and work ethos of
students, teachers, principal, ministry of education officials and all those who are directly
involved in formal education process.
The list of such cases is endless:
(i) refusal of Muslim students to attend morning devotion;
(ii) the school makes a subject compulsory for Senior Secondary two students and this
generates crisis;
(iii) teachers’ irregular attendance at school and in classes;
(iv) sudden change in examination time-table;
 (v) change of a subject teacher leading to violent demonstration by the students
(vi) disagreement over period allocation;
(vii) parents complain through the PTA over the poor performance of students in the West
Africa Senior School Certificate Examination;
(viii) PTA makes a representation to the School Management board to post English language
and Science teacher to the community secondary school;
(ix) teachers refuse to prepare lesson notes and –instructional materials;
(x) assignment and homework not duly completed by students;
(xi) Senior Secondary to female students refuse to participate in the cultural display
organized by the school;
(xii) inadequate provision of physical and material resources like library books, laboratory
equipment. chemicals, sports and games equipment, chairs, tables, desks and others.
CASE TEACHING
Case Discussion
Case study can be adopted for use in normal classroom teaching in the form of case discussion.
As in the conventional teaching, successful discussion depends upon the creation of a meaningful
experience for both the students and the teacher. The use of cases, however, assigns a larger role
in discussion to students than to the teacher and thus, to some extent, reverses the traditional
classroom roles of the students and the teacher. Many studies have revealed that the various
methods of teaching are efficient means to pass on only the technical experience while case
discussion scenes to motivate the students. The lecture method, for example, does not help
students keep their distinctiveness. Case discussion ensures greater participation in the
educational process by students. The teacher’s role, then, is less of an authority on subject—
matter and more of an unobtrusive discussion leader. The learning experience comes more from
the interaction process between students than between the student and teacher. Although the
emphasis has been shifted away from the teacher, teaching by case method is far more difficult
than conventional teaching. To the class, only a small part of the teacher’s effort is visible —
beneath lies intensive preparation and a carefully devised framework by the teacher for
discussion. The more this frame work is exposed and the more authority has to be invoked to
settle student raised questions, the less likely is a case discussion to be successful.

Teaching with Cases

1. Use Cases Wisely: Use cases where they make sense in terms of what you and your
students are doing. A case can be used in a variety of ways and in a variety of contents, It is
not primarily designed to Convey large amounts on information; therefore, it is not in itself
a substitute for materials which have this purpose, that is, the textbook as basic source of
facts.
2. Be Prepared: Know more about the background of a case than is presented in it. Much
discussion time can be wasted on basically factual points. If you are in a position to step in
and provide needed factual information, more time will be available for meaningful student
discussion. Simplify your questions by breaking down each question and by asking them in
smaller segments. This will help the students to overcome the tendency to discuss facts and
thus delay discussion of more fundamental considerations. Keep in mind that part of the
purpose of case discussion is to motivate the student to seek other sources of information for
answers to meaningful questions. You must be the judge of what meaningful is for your
class and your judgement will determine how much factual information you must be
prepared to insert during the discussion.
3. Be Flexible: Accept the fact that you must be flexible in using case materials in the
classroom. The quickest way to kill discussion is to insist “This is the way it was and this is
the way it had to be”. While it is important for students to know “This is the way it was”, the
discussion should include such questions as “Why was it this way?” and “Did it have to be
this way?” If you start the discussion by asking questions of this kind, you should be
prepared for unexpected responses. Your own interpretation of a past event may suddenly be
cast in doubt. As a discussion leader, your job is not to defend your interpretation, but to
encourage the class to force each student to defend his.
4. Ask few Questions: The ideal is to ask a few questions as much as possible to get the
students involved in discussion among themselves. Your role is to keep the discussion
moving towards meaningful goals with a minimum amount of intervention, Obviously, a
sense of timing, insight into the factors that will stimulate and govern the students’
participation in the discussion and a willingness to withhold comment on their approaches
until they have reached an unproductive point are important.
5. Use the chalkboard: Perhaps, the most valuable tool for case discussion is the chalkboard.
Of course, the overhead projector can be substituted for the board. Both provide a means for
 keeping the key elements of the discussion before the class. As you record these elements,
you have a check on the discussion, especially its direction, and you can be better prepared
for intervention at the right moment with the right discussion — provoking question.
6. Summarize: It is a good idea to reserve a few minutes at the end of each case discussion for
summarizing what has happened.
Guidelines on Case Teaching
In case discussion, students do not only learn how to think about problems but also how to find
solutions to problems as well as how to determine the action required to put these solutions into
practice. Individuals make different decisions often with limited information. In discussing a
case problem, there is always the tendency to jump to quick conclusions and easy solutions
when making decisions. The teacher must show students the importance of trying to consider
and weigh all possible facts before deciding the best solution to a problem. Right questions must
be asked. By asking the right questions at the right time, the teacher leads- students to areas and
topics which they might not have considered, without necessarily directing the discussion. The
following points are considered important in the use of questions:
i. use precise wordings; provide continuity;
ii. ask questions that are clear;
iii. ask direct questions;
iv. elicit students’ response;
v. encourage students’ questions.
While the teacher keeps student discussion moving in appropriate directions, he also ensures that
key points and insights are not overlooked in the heart of discussion. Phrasing of questions must
be carefully done.
Types of Questions
Ask questions that make students to analyse, evaluate, compare! contrast, relate and describe.
For example, questions like “Why...”; “How would you explain...;” “Prove that...;’, “What is the
importance of ...;“ “Tell why you agree or disagree with... - ate all analytical questions. They are
questions that provide basic facts and call for sustained answers involving critical thinking.
Questions like ‘Evaluate the statement”; “Clarify the statement”; “What is meant by”; explain
the statement”; Explain how are evaluation questions. In addition, personalized questions may
be asked like “What would you do if...”; “Suppose that..; Such questions are designed to involve
students in the situation under discussion and are good as initial questions to begin discussion.
Ambiguous, indefinite, leading and tugging questions must be avoided. Ambiguous and
indefinite questions are confusing and unclear. Students will not understand what is wanted or
what the teacher is suggesting. A leading question usually implies the expected answer and
prevents students from reaching their own conclusions. It often elicits a simple yes or no
answer. Tugging questions usually tries student’s patience and does not really stimulate critical
thinking. Here are some examples:
1. What happened in the school yesterday? (Ambiguous).
2. How do a principal and his vice differ? (Indefinite).
3. Don’t you feel that the girl is wrong to have slapped the boy? (Leading)
4. Think again what else can you say about the boy? (Tugging).

CASES IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Case Study 1
Olalekan was a young graduate teacher of English Language. Besides being an intelligent young
man (he bagged a first class honours degree in English Language Education from his
University), the Lagos State Teaching Service, Establishment and Training found him highly
competent and dedicated. The Service so impressed with Olalekan’s innovativeness and
capabilities that, after spending four years in classroom teaching, he was appointed to head a
Secondary School in the Epe area of the State. Before Olalekan accepted the offer, he had been
told of Isiaka, a long-time non-graduate senior tutor in the school, who was said to be autocratic,
all-knowing and impervious to change. For Olalekan, that was a challenge and he willingly
accepted the offer. Olalekan discovered indeed that Isiaka’s conduct was as it had been told to
him by the executive secretary of the Service. Isiaka was highly protective about his role as
senior tutor, without, however interfering openly with Olalekan. As far as he was concerned,
Olalekan was one of these young and brilliant chaps who would trample upon age and seniority
to achieve their inordinate ambition for recognition and high offices. In the third month,
Olalekan tried to persuade Isiaka to mend his way. But Isiaka replied arrogantly: "I have been
here long before you went to secondary school and this is the way I have been operating ever
since.
Of course this is the way also I shall operate even after you will have been transferred out of this
place". Olalekan truly knew that he would be transferred away from the school in two or three
year’s time, but he was convinced that school administration must match the current
development trends in the society.
Of course Olalekan realized that Isiaka had a very strong community support particularly from
his ethnic group which formed over 90% of the population in Epe. Olalekan was thus at a loss as
to how to handle this situation. He knew fully well that any confrontation with Isiaka might
provoke ethnic opposition and hatred with the school system.
Questions
(i) Discuss as much as you can the role that seniority, age and ethnic background played
in this case.
(ii) If you were Olalekan, what would you do with Isiaka? Give reasons
(iii) What are the implications of this case for staff development programmes in the
educational sector?

Case Study 2
Ms. Aisha Ayomiposi is a thirty (30) years old, Accounting teacher from Lagos State, Nigeria.
She joined the civil service commission in Ikeja; she was posted to the Federal Ministry of
Education because she had filled in her form under ministry preferred education. The Federal
Ministry of Education deplored her to unity school in Eastern part of the country. Aisha loves her
job and she always tell those that care to listen she loves teaching and always give thanks to God
for providing her with a dignifying profession. She has been teaching for 7 years now without
any hitch. This year's students in SSI - III seems to be very wild and uncivil. They give
nicknames to their teachers. Refuse to come to class with their textbooks form gangs and stories
had it that they belong to different cults which are affiliated the tertiary institutions, which is in
the same town. Aisha entered SS IIA to teach her subject (Accounting) and noticed that some of
the students do not have textbooks and their notes were not up to date. She asked Master Kolade
what happened to his Accounting textbooks and note. Before she could say Jack Robinson, there
was uproar among the students. The students stood up and start banging their lockers and
shooting paper clips across the classroom. Aisha felt unperturbed and over looked their
restiveness. She threatened the students that she will go to the PTA bookshop to collect the
Accounting textbooks for them and the amount will be credited to their school fees: The school
has a policy of giving textbooks and notebooks to student and the bill sent to their parents. She
made them know that textbooks are instructional materials, a reservoir of information regarding
issues to be studied. The students yelled and said the textbook is outdated and her teaching style
is no more in vogue. She responded that it is not possible for any written record to be completely
current and up-to-date. It is not the function of a textbook to compete with the daily newspapers.
She went further to reiterate that the essential and defining characteristics of textbooks is that
they are designed for students as written guides to the subject content of a course of study. As
Ms. Aisha turn to write on the board a student picked a stone and hit her on the buttocks. Who
did it? She asked, there was no reply she singled out Kolade as the culprit. She took him to the
principal to report the incident. The principal told him to write a report of what transpired in the
class. Two days later the disciplinary committee sat to deliberate on disciplinary issues in the
school. Kolade's report was read and he was sent for, he was interrogated by the committee's
chairperson. The following conversation ensued:
Chairperson - Since you did not throw the stone, who did?
Kolade - I did not know
Chairperson - If you refuse to confess, you will be punished and a letter to this affect will be
written to your parents.
Kolade - I don't care, my parents will not believe you the chairperson sent for Ms. Aisha.
Pleaded with her to forget the issue and forgive the students. Mr. Kelly, one of committee
members went to the class to pick out three other students; they were interrogated to no
available. Kolade was left off the hook and they went back to their class.
During the weekend, Ms. Aisha took the shortcut road that leads to the town's market. The
students have been trailing her movement. The road is a bush path that leads from the staff
quarters' to the town. Three of the SSII boys ambushed, they waited until she came close to them
unsuspecting of any human presence one of the boys hit her head with a stick and she fell
unconscious, they then dragged her away from the path and raped her, tore her clothes and
shaved her hair and abandoned her after the orgy. About 3 hours later, she gained consciousness
and called the principal. The principal came with an ambulance and took her to the health centre.
The case was reported to the police. The police interviewed her, she did not recognize the face of
the people because they wore mask to disguise their look. The police arrested the guards on duty
on that day. The guards made statement in the station and they were released. Aisha lest expected
that men that raped her, were her SSII students.
Two week later, two of the rapist engaged in a bout of quarrel. One of the boys said he will
report the incident to the principal, that he was the one that initiated the idea to rape and
dehumanize Ms. Aisha. Another student who was not in the gang but eavesdropping on their
conversation went to report what he had heard to the principal.
The principal sent for boys
Principal - Say what you have just came to tell me
Boy - I heard Joseph telling Emeka that he will report Emeka to the Principal that he was the one
who initiated the idea to rape Ms. Aisha in the bush
Principal - Joseph, is that right?
Joseph - Yes, sir.
Principal - Emeka what do you have to say for yourself
Emeka - It was Asari who came to meet me to cook the plan in my head
Principal - Go and call me Asari. The boy went to call Asari.
The Principal sat the three boys down and interrogated them. They confess to the incidence. The
principal sent for the chairperson of the disciplinary committee. She drafted an expulsion letter
that was duly signed by the Principal and the students were sent packing from the hostel and the
school. Their parents came to see the Principal; he narrated what happened to the parents. They
felt embarrassed that their children whom they thought were still children could do a thing like
this. Aisha heard about the confession by the students. She felt so dehumanized and ashamed,
she locked herself up in her room in the quarters and planned to commit suicide, but, for the
timely intervention of her neighbour who suspected that she was inside, but refusing to open the
door. Aisha had planned to stab herself to death. She was too ashamed to attend to her classes.
One of her colleagues advises her to request for transfer to another unity school. The principal
gave her permission to the Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja; she was able to offer her
transfer to a unity school in Sagamu, Ogun State.
Questions
1. If you were Ms. Aisha what could .you have done?
2. Were the boys justified in their actions?
3. What did you think the boys had in mind when they embark on the orgy?
 4. If you were the principal of the school what could you have done to ease the pain Ms.
Aisha effect?
5. What does this case try to point out about the degenerating state of the society?
Case Study 3
The Shameful Act
It was Monday morning at Bermuda Student Academy, a private secondary school, situated at
Igando, Lagos, Nigeria. The teachers and students were very busy in their respective classes. The
school principal, Mr. Ibikunle in his usual manner was going round to ensure that academic
activities were going on as expected.
As Mr. Ibikunle approached JSS III class, he discovered that the students were engaged in heated
argument and the noise generated was almost disrupting the peaceful atmosphere in the school.
As soon as the students sighted the principal, the class became as silent as a grave yard.
However, Mr. Ibikunle insisted on knowing the reason for the great noise that was coming out of
their class. The students were reluctant to divulge any information to the principal but when he
threatened to punish the whole class, Abdul Baki a young boy of about 12 years old who also
was the class captain volunteered to explain why.
According to Abdul Baki, some of his classmates refused to `square' the sum of two hundred
naira (N200) as requested by the Integrated Science teacher, Mr. Henry. Mr. Ibikunle, who was
apparently confused, asked Abdul Baki to clarify his statement. Abdul Baki explained that the
Integrated Science teacher, Mr. Henry was in the habit of asking the students to pay some money
in lieu of being punished for not doing his assignments. According to Abdul Baki each offending
student was asked by Mr. Henry to 'square' the sum of N200 and go unpunished, otherwise, such
students would be punished.

Mr. Ibikunle also gathered from the students that this practice had been going on for two terms.
The principal was shocked to his bone marrow when the students further revealed that the
Mathematics teacher, Miss Jendidun was also involved in the shameful act. Some of the students
explained that they preferred 'squaring' (as Mr. Henry and Miss Jendidun called it) to doing their
assignments especially when the assignments were difficult and time-consuming. Before he left
JSS Ill class, Mr. Ibikunle warned the students to keep sealed lips over the issues until further
notice.
An emergency staff meeting was summoned by the principal in his office, where he made his
findings open to all the teachers. Mr. Henry and Miss Jendidun denied the allegations initially,
but when the principal decided to bring in the concerned students, they admitted committing the
offence only twice. Other teachers condemned the actions of their two colleagues which they
described as most shameful.

Consequently, a committee comprising the principal, and four other teachers was constituted to
look into the matter and come up with appropriate disciplinary actions. The committee's swiftly
swung into action and ugly stories about Mr. Henry and Miss Jendidun were told by the students
called to testify. The statements made by the students were in collaboration with the facts which
the principal had earlier on got from them. The committee also gathered that Mr. Henry and Miss
Jendidun were nicknamed 'Uncle Square' and 'Auntie Square' by the students. When summoned
to appear before the committee, Mr. Henry and Miss Jendidun blamed the poor and irregular
salaries being paid to teachers of Bermuda Student Academy for their actions.

According to the committee members, such reasons could not be justified as they were not only
the teachers affected by the poor remunerations. In fact, the issue of motivation and
compensation of members of staff had been a lingering issue at Bermuda Student Academy.
Teachers were finding it difficult to cope with the meager salaries they were being paid. To
worsen the situation, the salaries were irregular. Teachers could go for three consecutive months
without being paid. This had been a constant bone of contention between the teachers and the
school management. Most of the teachers could not live beyond two weeks with the salary. A
new shirt or a pair of shoes was beyond the reach of the teachers. The school management had
promised to increase teachers' salaries but was yet to effect the increment.

After looking carefully into the matter, the committee concluded that Mr. Henry and Miss
Jendidun opted to condescend so low all in their bid to have few naira in their pockets. Their
actions were seen as a disgrace to other teachers and the teaching profession in particular as
unlawful extortion of money from students by teachers was a professional misconduct.
Moreover, they were seen to be inhibiting the academic growth of the students instead of
enhancing it. Therefore, the committee recommended that offending teachers should forfeit their
one month salary, to serve as a deterrent to others.
Questions

1. Do you think the punishment recommended by the committee was commensurate to the
offence committed by Mr. Henry and Miss Jendidun?
2. What should the school management do to prevent similar occurrence in the future?

CASES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Case Number l A Girl was Raped in the School Farm

Statement of the Case

One afternoon, during the school hours when all students and teachers were in the classroom,
some boys dragged a female student to the bush where she was raped. Other students who
discovered this ugly incident reported immediately to the school’s authority. When questioned
on the incident, the girl claimed that she went to work on her ridges in the school farm when she
was apprehended by the boys and was dragged to the bush where she was raped.
The principal referred the case to the Ministry of education the boys were expelled from the
school, and those that were in Form Five were allowed to come back to sit for theft West African
School Certificate examination. The case was also reported to the police and all the boys
involved in the case were arrested and put on trial.

Background to the Case

It is observed that the boys who were involved in this dastardly act were the most notorious
students in the school. They formed themselves into gangs and were very boisterous. Apart from
the shameful act of raping which put an end to the academic careers of some of the students, the
boys were also involved in other cases of indiscipline in the school before they actually
committed the offence, the boys were known for tormenting and worrying the girls in the school.
It is oh record that several clashes over girls have erupted among boys in the school. This may
also explain the reason why the boys planned to rape a girl in the school.

Alternative Solution to the Case Apart from the solutions provided for the case by the school
authorities, i.e. expelling the students from the school, other solutions come to mind that might
be used in settling the case. They are:
 i. The student may be punished publicly. This will serve as deterrent to other students.
ii. The erring students may be seriously punished and demoted to a class below their normal
level.
iii. Instead of demotion and expulsion, the students may be asked to work on the farm from
Monday to Wednesday for a whole term.

The Best of the Suggested Solutions

The last solution whereby the students will have to work on the farm from Monday to
Wednesday for a whole term is the best of the solutions, because apart from the fact that it will
make the erring students to become sober, it will also serve as deterrent to other students in the
school. Besides, it will not be all punitive, but will also allow the students to have access to the
classroom at least twice a week, and they can always make up for the lost periods at home with
their friends if they are serious.

Evaluation of the Solution

The third solution is selected because though It Is punitive to some extent, it still gives the
students the chance to be reformed. Apart from that, they will not be all— loosing while serving
the punishment because they will still have the chance of going to the classroom at least twice In
the week.
It cannot be disputed that any student that is caught with this type of act is wayward and has a
slim chance of succeeding in life, yet we as teachers should not help in damaging the life of
students that we are trained to build.

Implications for -School Management

Any school management that uses this type of solution to solve such a problem would be praised
for her sense of maturity and foresight. But this type of case tends to portray the school
management as being very weak administratively and very short- sighted. This is so because the
commitment of such an offence in the school is an indication of the fact that students have taken
the management for granted.

Analysis of the Case

 a. One Monday afternoon during the school hours when everybody was in the classroom a
girl went to the school farm to work on her plot.
b. Some boys went there, dragged her to the bush, and raped her.
c. A student noticed this and reported the case to the principal.
d. The students were apprehended and the police was involved.
e. The erring students were arrested and taken down to the police station.
f. The principal set up a disciplinary committee on the case, and the students were found
guilty and thereby expelled.
CASE 2
Statement of the Problem
This is a case of immoral act in the school premises. The incident happened sometime in 1985. It
was between a class four (4C) girl and a boy in class five. There was a room in the Biology
Laboratory called preparatory room. The laboratory attendants were supposed to stay in this
room and prepare chemicals for lessons.
On the day in question, the Form five boy and the Form four girl were caught in the act by the
Vice-Principal in the school. The Vice principal called both students to her office and made them
write their statements. She immediately informed the school Principal who in turn referred the
case to the school’s Disciplinary Committee When the Disciplinary Committee began sitting, a
number of revelations were made. For instance, it was discovered during the investigation that
the teacher in-charge of Biology had taken over the preparatory room from the laboratory
students and was using the room as his office. It was also discovered that this particular boy was
a favourite of the teacher and it was actually the teacher who gave him access to the room.
Another startling revelation was that the teacher himself was always in the habit of using this
room for immoral dealings with female students especially anytime he asked students to stay
behind for extra lessons after the normal school hours. The class five boy was actually about to
start his West African examination Council examination when this incident happened:

Background to the Problem

Female students in this school were forbidden from visiting male teachers at home. This in
essence means that any teacher intending to have any intimate affairs with female students might
find it difficult because the school had spics among the students. Little wonder then why this
teacher had to effectively occupy the preparatory room meant for laboratory attendants. The
teacher used this room for all his illicit affairs with the female students. The class five boy was
his favourite and it was he who usually called in girls for the teacher.
This boy had earlier been caught in an uncompleted building having love affair with another girl
in class three. They were severely punished then. The boy was then in class four. There had been
rumours that the biology teacher had assisted some girls in passing previous examinations but the
school had no evidence. If he did he must have done it cleverly. The teacher was spending his
second session in the school. Me was a young university graduate of about twenty-six years and
a bachelor

Related Organisational Theory

The most appropriate organisation theory related to this case is the role theory. This theory
enables one to be able to assess the way individuals behave in a group.
The aspects of role theory that are related to this case are: role enactment; role expectation and
role conflict. Mere, one would like to say that the teacher occupies a unique position in the
school and as such his behaviour is being closely watched. The teachers position was around the
school Compound and behind the school’s biology preparatory room she heard strange voices.
She then peeped through the window and saw a Class five boy and a form four girl in a love
affair. The two students were apprehended and were made to write statements. The Vice-
Principal informed the Principal of this ugly incident.
The Principal then referred the case to the Disciplinary Committee. The Biology teacher was
invited for interrogation and the laboratory attendants as well as the two students were also
called for questioning. Others who made statements were some of the students who always
stayed behind for extra lessons after school hours. The investigation lasted for a week. The
Disciplinary Committee submitted its report to the school Principal after sitting for three days.
The Principal met with the staff of the school and the report of the Disciplinary Committee was
presented for serious deliberations. At the end of the meeting, the staff accepted the following
recommendations made by the Disciplinary Committee:
1. That the preparatory room should always remained closed after school hours and the key
to the room must be submitted to the Vice-Principal at the end of each day.
2. The teacher in-charge of each laboratory should not use the preparatory room as offices.
3. The culprits should be given twelve strokes of the cane in the school assembly in addition
to four weeks suspension.
 4. The teacher was to write a letter of apo1o’ to the school for encouraging such acts and
making available the room for students’ use.

The teacher who was also the games master, was to remove all sports equipment he had in the
room, and would no longer be in possession of the laboratory key.
The culprits were called to the assembly and the girl was given twelve strokes of the cane while
the boy refused the punishment arid left the school compound only to resurface for the WASC
examination. The school then resolved that both testimonial and statement of result would not be
issued to the boy until the punishment has been served. However, up till the time of collecting
this case from the school, the boy had not shown up to request for his testimonial and statement
of result.
CASE 3
A Graduate Teacher Impregnates a Junior Student Statement of the Problem
His real name was Obinna Ndubueze but students call him by the nickname African Michael
Jackson”, a nickname that became even more popular than his real name among students and
fellow teachers alike. Obinna was a Physics teacher in one of the Federal Government Colleges
in Lagos State. He was given this nickname because of his youthful display, mode of dressing,
use of make- ups and cosmetics like skin-toning creams. He would wear his bousers above the
navel level to his chest-close. He wore very narrow neckties all the time. His skin was bleached
to almost white and he looked more like a film-star than a classroom teacher.
Obinna, a graduate teacher of a Nigerian University, was thirty - one years old. He regarded
every student, regardless of age or sex as a friend. The rapport between him and his students was
very cordial that within two years of his employment in the school, he had become popular
among the student populace. His office in the physics laboratory had become a favourite place
for students to loaf and relax. This was done under the guise that he was giving them extra
lessons.
Quite often than not, Obinna would take one or two students for lunch either in the staff canteen
or a nearby restaurant and his fellow teachers raise eyebrows especially if the student was a girl.
Twice, the principal had to give him verbal warnings on his relationship with his students. Also,
Obinna was on many occasions accused by his colleagues of leaking examination questions and
awarding marks unduly to students. In 1997, he took off for his master’s degree course without
obtaining proper permission from the school authority. This earned him a query which was sent
to the Ministry of Education.
In 1999, a parent made a report on him to the school authority. He had impregnated a Junior
Secondary School II student and had helped in terminating the pregnancy. The cat was however
let out of the bag when the girl continued to bleed profusely. She was taken to the hospital by her
parents who established a case of, abortion against Obinna. The girl lived with her parents and
the place was very close to Obinna’s residence. She used to visit him regularly under the pretex
that she was having extra lessons. The girl’s parents did not have the least suspicion.
Obinna was summarily apprehended and locked up in a military guardroom. Me was confined to
the guardroom for a whole week without the knowledge of the school authority because Obinna’
was fond of absenting himself from school for days without permission. So, no one looked for
him. When he was eventually released, the father of the girl (who was a soldier) felt that Obinna
had not received enough disgrace and therefore decided to report the matter to the school
authority.
A disciplinary committee was set up and it was recommended that Obinna should settle the
hospital bills of the girl. Me was asked in a query issued to him to:
i. explain why disciplinary action should not be taken against him; and
ii. write a letter of apology to the parents of the girl.
The committee eventually recommended him for dismissal from service.
Obinna, knowing the gravity of his offence had requested for a transfer to another federal
government college with the help of a top official at the ministry before the dismissal was
effected Obinna had been transferred to another school.

Background to the Problem

It is quite clear that the remote cause of the problem was that the teacher concerned was not a
serious person.
He was fond of interacting freely with the students, hence the nickname — “African Michael
Jackson,”
His mode of dressing and the manner he bleached his skin showed that he wanted to be attracted
to the opposite sex, especially the female students.
He used his of the in the Physics laboratory as a place for entertaining ‘students.
Sometimes he took them out for lunch.
It is evident that Obinna was not a disciplined teacher as he always leaked examination questions
and awarded marks unduly to student.

Major Issues at Stake

Obihna was nicknamed “African Michael Jackson” by his fellow his real name.
His mode or dressing did not portray him as a serious teacher. Even though he was a graduate of
physics, he was not an educationist.
He maintained a very cordial rapport with students and sometimes took them out lot lunch. The
Principal had cause to give Obmnha verbal warnings a couple of times. Obinna had on many
occasions been accused by his colleagues of leaking examination question and awarding marks
unduly to students. He was notorious also for absenteeism. He eventually impregnated a Junior
Secondary School girl.

Relationship of Case with Existing Organisational and Administrative Theories

This case can be analysed using the following theories
(i) Role Theory
(ii) Decision Theory.
(iii) Douglas McGregor X and Y Theories, and
(iv)LeadershipTheory.

1. Role Theory
Any person who occupies a teacher position and does not behave according to the expectations
linked with the position is not behaving as expected and has failed as a teacher. In Obinna’s case,
he failed to fulfil his role as a teacher, tie would not dress properly the way a teacher should, his
interaction with students was to the discomfort of other teachers. Definitely, sleeping with ones
student is an immoral act.

2. Douglas McGregors X and Y Theories

Douglas McGregor’s theory is of relevance here. The theory states that the average person is
naturally lazy and will avoid work if he can. because of this dislike for work, people would Eke
to be coerced., controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them put forth
adequate effort toward the achievement of organisational objectives, It is evident from Obinna’s
case that he liked to be coerced or threatened with punishment to get the best out of him. The
Principal had the cause to give him verbal warnings concerning h4s relationship with students,
but despite this) he went ahead to, impregnate a girl. lie was also notorious for absenteeism
which earned him queries a couple of times. No wonder why no one looked for him when he was
locked up for a week. We now see that Obinna was. an individual who liked being controlled all
the time. .Lathe school setting, there are the likes of Obinna who need the continuous use of
theory X in other to get the best out of them. It means that he cannot just do something right
without being supervised.

3. Decision Theory
This theory has created awareness that there are individuals who would not want to conform to
the rules and regulations of an organisation. Therefore, in the decision-making theory, routine
decisions are made. There are laid-down processes for meting out punishment to both teachers
and students in such offences as lateness, absenteeism, insubordination, stealing, among others,
This is the reason why Obinna did not get away with such offences.

4. Leadership Theory
The Principal in this case is a democratic leader. He had a permissive attitude to issues because
he felt he could change Obinna by giving him only verbal warnings. An autocratic leader would
have given Obinna written queries several times or reported his matter to the Ministry of
Education instead of allowing it to degenerate to a situation where a student is impregnated.
THE CONCEPT OF CONFLICT
Conflict is a normal and even healthy part of our relationships. After all, two people cannot be
expected to agree on everything at all times so we need to change the way we understand the
word conflict. Conflict can be negative (destructive) which leads to unhealthy relationship or
positive (constructive) which leads to healthy relationship. Since relationship conflicts are
inevitable, learning to deal with them in a healthy way is crucial. When conflict is mismanaged,
it can harm the relationship. But when handled in a respectful and positive way, conflict provides
an opportunity for growth, ultimately strengthening the bond between two or more people. By
learning the skills you need for successful conflict resolution, you can keep your personal and
professional relationships strong and growing. Conflict arises from differences which if not
properly handled will produce sharp disagreement and sometimes violent clashes. It occurs
whenever people disagree over their values, motivations, perceptions, ideas, or desires.
Sometimes these differences look trivial, but when a conflict triggers strong feelings, a deep
personal and relational need is at the core of the problem—a need to feel safe and secure, a need
to feel respected and valued, or a need for greater closeness and intimacy. Conflict also occurs
when you have disagreement, dispute or controversy in ideas or viewpoints mostly held by two
or more individuals/groups; however you can have disagreement within yourself, when there are
more than one motives or thoughts conflicting within you.
Deutsch (1973) views conflict as an action, which prevents, obstructs, interferes with, injures or
renders ineffective another action with which it is incompatible. Osita Agbu (2006) looks at
conflict, as an opportunity to change. This means that conflict is neither negative nor positive.
What determine the way conflicts go are our own attitudes; how we were brought up (our
backgrounds) and the information we have. Chaplin, (1979) defines conflict as “the simultaneous
occurrence of two or more mutually antagonistic impulses or motives’ while Wilson and Hanna,
(1979) describe conflict as ‘a struggle involving ideas, values, and limited resources”. Conflict is
the result of any antagonistic difference between ideas, persons or groups contending for
supremacy at any given time. Let us then proceed to articulate the different types of conflict.
TYPES OF CONFLICT
Conflict occurs among different classes of people and produces different kinds of results. We
will consider only four types of conflicts that are based on where the conflict happens and two
types of conflicts based on the kind of effect the conflicts produce.
A. Conflicts based on location include:
1. Intrapersonal Conflict: This occurs within a person as he takes a decision on the use of time,
choice of partner, moral issues, goals and aspirations etc. This is capable of producing anxiety
and tension within the person going through this kind of conflict.
2. Interpersonal Conflict: This is a conflict that occurs between two or more individuals. It may
result from differences in opinion, motives and actions. This kind of conflict is what is seen
when two people are having disagreement among themselves.
3. Intragroup Conflict: This may occur between individuals within a group. This is similar to
interpersonal conflicts except that it occurs within a particular group. This kind of conflict can be
seen when for example two members of the choir are having disagreement about something
which has to do with the choir.
4. Intergroup Conflict: This is a conflict that occurs between groups of people such as
solidarity groups, activity groups and church denominations. This kind of conflict occurs when
for example members of the choir are in disagreement with members of the Ushering team or
one country at war with another country.
B. Conflicts based on the effects produced include:
1. Functional or Constructive Conflict: This kind of conflict improves the quality of
decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation through which problems can be aired and tensions
released. This kind of conflict is also referred to as positive conflict because it is a conflict that
helps the people involve to improve their relationship for good. An example of this kind of
conflict is when people argue from different points of view on the same matter with an open
mind, they end up arriving at a new position which is an improvement on their previous myopic
views. This kind of conflict helps you understand the sensitivity of the other person on a
particular issue, which will help you avoid conflicts in such matters in the future.
2. Dysfunctional or Destructive Conflict: This type of conflict leads to retarded
communication, reduction in group cohesiveness and a subordination of goals to primacy of in-
fighting among members. This kind of conflict produces bitterness, envy, anger and
unforgiveness. This type of conflict is usually protracted with no immediate and permanent
solution at sight.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts involving
institutionalized provisions and regulative procedures for dealing with conflicts whenever they
occur. It describes the way we respond to and deal with conflicts before, during and after it has
occurred. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances—standing up
for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Briefly stated,
conflict management is about using managerial tactics to contain a conflict, to put a lid on it, and
control the environment. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution. Because many conflicts cannot be really resolved, we use the term conflict
management rather than conflict resolution. Good conflict management enables parties to co-
exist amicably and deal with their disputes without necessarily resolving the underlying conflict.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
This aims at identifying the causes of the conflicts on ground and finding new ways of
reconciling the groups involved and building a new social relationship. Incompatible interests are
not the only thing that is a problem in more severe conflicts. Conflicts last longer and are more
deeply rooted than disputes. They tend to arise over non-negotiable issues such as fundamental
human needs, intolerable moral differences, or high-stakes distributional issues regarding
essential resources, such as money, water, or land. To truly resolve a conflict, the solution must
go beyond just satisfying the parties' interests as in dispute settlement. To end or resolve a long-
term conflict, a relatively stable solution that identifies and deals with the underlying sources of
the conflict must be found. This is a more difficult task than simple dispute settlement, because
resolution means going beyond negotiating interests to meet all sides' basic needs, while
simultaneously finding a way to respect their underlying values and identities. True conflict
resolution requires a more analytical, problem-solving approach than dispute settlement. The
main difference is that resolution requires identifying the causal factors behind the conflict, and
finding ways to deal with them. On the other hand, settlement is simply aimed at ending a
dispute as quickly and amicably as possible. This means that, it is possible to settle a dispute that
exists within the context of a larger conflict, without resolving the overall conflict. This occurs
when a dispute is settled, but the underlying causes of the conflict are not addressed.
STAGES OF CONFLICT
Most conflicts go through a series of stages, which may or may not occur in order. They start as
latent conflict then emerge, escalate, de-escalate and are resolved-- sometimes permanently,
sometimes temporarily until they emerge or escalate again.
1. Pre-Conflict or Latent stage: This is the period when there is an incompatibility of
goals between two or more parties, which could lead to open conflict. At this stage, there
are deep value differences or significant injustice, which will potentially lead to an active
conflict. The conflict is hidden from general view, although one or more of the parties is
likely to be aware of the potential for confrontation. There may be tension in
relationships between the parties and/or a desire to avoid contact with each other at this
stage. It is common for significant tensions or grievances to persist over long periods of
time without resulting in a noticeable conflict.
2. Confrontation or Emergence: At this stage the conflict has become more open. If only
one side feels there is a problem, its supporters may begin to engage in demonstrations or
 other confrontational behaviour. Occasional fighting or other low levels of violence may
break out between the sides. Each side may be gathering its resources and perhaps
finding allies with the expectation of increasing confrontation and violence. Relationships
between the sides are becoming very strained, leading to a polarization between the
supporters of each side. Usually a confrontation between parties, like a large public
demonstration, serves as the match and quickly ignites the dry, waiting materials.
Confrontation usually means that the covert or structural forms of violence are being
rejected publicly. Emergence or confrontation may be followed quickly by settlement or
resolution or it may be followed by escalation, which can become very destructive.
3. Crisis or Escalation: This is the peak of the conflict, when the tension and/or violence is
most intense. In a large-scale conflict, this is the period of war, when people on all sides
are being killed. Normal communication between the sides has probably ceased. Public
statements tend to be in the form of accusations made against the other side(s). When a
conflict reaches the escalation phase, it intensifies quickly. Escalating conflicts can turn
into a spiral with each side continually provoking each other to raise the stakes, making
the conflict more and more destructive. Once conflicts escalate for awhile, the parties
often reach a stalemate, a situation in which neither party can win, but neither party wants
to back down. At this stage the parties have two options, continue to bleed each other dry
or look towards resolution.
4. Outcome: One way or another, crisis will lead to an outcome. One side may defeat the
other(s), or perhaps call a ceasefire (if it is a war). One party might surrender or give in to
the demands of the other party. The parties may agree to negotiations, either with or
without the help of a mediator. An authority or other more powerful other third party
might impose an end to the fighting. Conflicts do not escalate indefinitely. Eventually,
they reverse direction, decreasing in intensity until they are forgotten or resolved. In any
case, at this stage the level of tension, confrontation and violence decrease somewhat
with the possibility of settlement.
5. Post-Conflict: Finally, the situation is resolved in a way that leads to an ending of any
violent confrontation, to a decrease in tensions and to a more normal relationship between
the parties. However, if the issues and problems arising from their incompatible goals
have not been adequately addressed, this stage could eventually lead back into another
 pre-conflict situation. The repeated failure to negotiate an end to a conflict confirms its
intractability. Often these failures discourage new attempts and create a burden of
mistrust to be overcome.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
Conflict resolution strategies are as follows:
i. Accommodating: The accommodating strategy essentially entails giving the
opposing side what it wants. The use of accommodation often occurs when one of the
parties wishes to keep the peace or perceives the issue as minor. For example, a
business that requires formal dress may institute a "casual Friday" policy as a low-
stakes means of keeping the peace with the rank and file. Employees who use
accommodation as a primary conflict management strategy, however, may keep track
and develop resentment. This is a lose/win situation. The accommodation approach is
generally used when one party is willing to forfeit their position. It is best used in
situations where:
a. One party wishes to indicate a degree of fairness.
b. People wish to encourage others to express their own opinion.
c. The issue or problem is more important to the other party concerned.
d. It is more important to safeguard the relationship rather than argue about the issue.
ii. Avoiding: The avoidance strategy seeks to put off conflict indefinitely. By delaying
or ignoring the conflict, the avoider hopes the problem resolves itself without a
confrontation. Those who actively avoid conflict frequently have low esteem or hold
a position of low power. In some circumstances, avoidance strategy can serve as a
profitable conflict management strategy, such as after the dismissal of a popular but
unproductive employee. The hiring of a more productive replacement for the position
soothes much of the conflict. This is a lose/lose situation. Neither party takes action to
address the issues involved in the conflict, meaning that it will remain unresolved.
This approach is best used:
a. If all concerned feel that the issue is a minor one and will be resolved in time
without any fuss.
b. When the parties need a chance to cool down and spend time apart.
 c. If other people are able to resolve the conflict more effectively than the parties
concerned.
d. When more time is needed before thinking about dealing with the issues.
e. If the impact of dealing with the situation may be damaging to all parties involved
iii. Collaborating: Collaboration works by integrating ideas set out by multiple people.
The object is to find a creative solution acceptable to everyone. Collaboration, though
useful, calls for a significant time commitment not appropriate to all conflicts. For
example, a business owner should work collaboratively with the manager to establish
policies, but collaborative decision making regarding office supplies wastes time
better spent on other activities. This is a win/win situation. It is the most effective but
most difficult way of managing differences. It requires trust and commitment on all
sides to reach a resolution by getting to the heart of the problem. All parties need to
be willing to empathise and try to understand each other’s situation. Collaboration is
most appropriate:
a. When all parties are willing to investigate alternative solutions together that they
may not necessarily have thought of on their own.
b. When trying to get to the source of problems that have continued for a long time.
c. When upholding objectives that cannot be compromised on any side while still
preserving the relationship.
d. When parties from different backgrounds and experiences are involved.
iv. Compromising: The compromising strategy typically calls for both sides of a
conflict to give up elements of their position in order to establish an acceptable, if not
agreeable, solution. This strategy prevails most often in conflicts where the parties
hold approximately equivalent power. Business owners frequently employ
compromise during contract negotiations with other businesses when each party
stands to lose something valuable, such as a customer or necessary service. This is a
win/lose – win/lose situation, i.e. everyone involved gains and loses through
negotiation and flexibility. Each will win some of what they desire while at the same
time giving something up. The main goal of this approach is to find common ground
and maintain the relationship. Compromise is best used:
a. To achieve an agreement when all parties have equal power.
 b. To reach a temporary resolution in more complicated matters.
c. To achieve a settlement when time or other circumstances are constrained
v. Competing: Competition operates as a zero-sum game, in which one side wins and
other loses. Highly assertive personalities often fall back on competition as a conflict
management strategy. The competitive strategy works best in a limited number of
conflicts, such as emergency situations. In general, business owners benefit from
holding the competitive strategy in reserve for crisis situations and decisions that
generate ill-will, such as pay cuts or layoffs. This is a win/lose situation. One party
attempts to win the conflict through dominance and power. This approach is best
used:
a. When all other methods have been tried (and failed).
b. In emergency situations when quick, immediate and decisive action is called for.
c. In situations where unpopular changes need to be applied and discussion is not
appropriate.