ARDHI UNIVERSITY DS 102

MODULE I: RURAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Rural development is a multidimensional concept. It can be viewed as a concept, strategy or a deliberate

attempt aimed at improving the living standard of the rural people on a self sustaining basis. However rural
development is new to developing nations. If you are discussing rural development the main question to
ask is what has been happening to unemployment, education, economic growth, health among others. If
any of the aforementioned variables is on the increase, then there is no point talking about rural
development. For instance, where there is no light or power as the case with my country, what do even
think about e-rural development? Other scholars such as Ready (2013) and Madrigal ( 2012) argue that
rural development is a process of raising the living standards of households by establishing improved
mechanisms for the delivery of priority economic and social infrastructure and services by public and
private sector.

What is agriculture?

Agriculture may be defined as the production, processing, marketing and distribution of crops and livestock
products. According to Webster's Dictionary (2012), " agriculture is the art or science of production of crops
and livestock on farm."

Importance of Agriculture sector

Agriculture plays a crucial role in the life of an economy. It is the backbone of our economic system.
Agriculture not only provides food and raw material but also employment opportunities to a very large
proportion of population. The following facts clearly highlight the importance of agriculture in this country.

1. Source of Livelihood: In India the main occupation of our working population is agriculture. About 70 per
cent of our population is directly engaged in agriculture. In advanced countries, this ratio is very small being
5 per cent in U.K., 4 per cent in USA., 16 per cent in Australia, 14 per cent in France, 21 per cent in Japan
and 32 per cent in USSR. This high proportion in agriculture is due to the fact that the non-agricultural
activities have not been developed to absorb the rapidly growing population

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2. Contribution to National Income:

Agriculture is the premier source of our national income. According to National Income Committee and
C.S.O., in 1960-61, 52 per cent of national income was contributed be agriculture and allied occupations. In
1976-77, this sector alone contributed 42.2 per cent while in 1981-82, its contribution was to the tune of
41.8 per cent. In 2001-02, it contributed around 32.4 per cent of national income. This was further reduced
to 28 per cent in 1999-2000. Contrary to this, the proportion of agriculture in U.K. is only 3.1, in USA it is 3
percent, 2.5 per cent in Canada, 6 per cent in Japan, 7.6 per cent in Australia. The mere conclusion of all
this is that more developed a country the smaller is the contribution of agriculture in national output.

3. Supply of Food. Agriculture sector also provides fodder for livestock. Cow and buffalo provide protective
food in the form of milk and they also provide draught power for farm operations. Moreover, it also meets
the food requirements of the people. Import of food grains has been very small in recent years, rather
export avenues are being looked for.

4. Importance in International Trade: It is the agricultural sector that feeds country's trade. Agricultural
products like tea, sugar, rice, tobacco, spices etc. constitute the main items of exports of India. If the
development process of agriculture is smooth, export increases and imports are reduced considerably.
Thus, it helps to reduce the adverse balance of payments and save our foreign exchange. This amount can
be well utilized to import other necessary inputs, raw-material, machinery and other infra-structure which is
otherwise useful for the promotion of economic development of the country.

5. Source of Raw Material:

Agriculture has been the source of raw materials to the leading industries like cotton and jute textiles,
sugar, tobacco, edible and non-edible oils etc. All these depend directly on agriculture. Apart from this,
many others like processing of fruits and vegetables, dale milling, rice husking, gur making also depend on
agriculture for their raw material. According to United Nations Survey, the industries with raw material of
agricultural origin accounted for 50 per cent of the value added and 64 per cent of all jobs in the industrial
sector.

6. Importance in Transport: Agriculture is the main support for railways and roadways which transport bulk
of agricultural produce from farm to the industries and factories. Internal trade is mostly in agricultural

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products. Besides, the finance of the government, also, to the large extent, depends upon the prosperity of
agricultural sector.

7. Contribution to Foreign Exchange Resources: Agricultural sector constitutes an important place in the
country's export trade. According to an estimate, agricultural commodities like jute, tobacco, oilseeds,
spices, raw cotton, tea and coffee accounted for about 18 per cent of the total value of exports in India. This
shows that agriculture products still continue to be significant source of earning foreign exchange.

8. Vast Employment Opportunities: The agricultural sector is significant as it provides greater employment
opportunities in the construction of irrigation projects, drainage system and other such activities. With the
fast growing population and high incidence of unemployment and disguised unemployment in backward
countries, it is only agriculture sector which provides more employment chances to the labor force. In this
way, significance of agriculture emerges more and more.

9. Overall Economic Development:

In the course of economic development, agriculture employs majority of people. This means raising the
level of the national income and standard of living of the common man. The rapid" rate of growth in
agriculture sector gives progressive outlook and further motivation for development. As a result, it helps to
create proper atmosphere for general economic development of the economy. Thus, economic
development depends on the rate at which agriculture grows.

10. Source of Government Income: In India, many state governments get sizeable revenue from the
agriculture sector. Land revenue, agricultural income tax, irrigation tax and some other types of taxes are
being levied on agriculture by the state governments. Moreover, considerably revenue is earned by way of
excise duty and export duty on agricultural products. Raj committee on Agricultural Taxation has suggested
imposition of taxation on agricultural income for raising revenue.

Rural poverty. According to the 1991/92 household budget survey (HBS), rural poverty is estimated at 57%,
while food poverty (inability to meet nutritional requirements) is about 32%. In rural areas, farmers are
poorer than non-farmers; farmers with no cash crops are poorer and less food-secure than farmers growing
cash crops; households with many members are poorer than households with fewer members; and
households close to roads and markets are better off than other farmers. Disparities among households

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and also among regions are significant. The Gini coefficient is estimated at 0.46, and the wealthiest 20% of
the population have a level of expenditure nearly ten times that of the poorest 20%. Annual per capita
income is above USD 600 in Dar-es-Salaam, while in several regions (e.g. Dodoma, Kagera and Kigoma) it
is below USD 200.

Life expectancy at birth increased from 45 years in 1970 to 52 years in 1990. Recent estimates indicate a
decline to 48 years largely because of HIV/AIDS. The disease is the leading killer in the 15-59 age groups,
where it accounts for 35% of deaths in the male population, and 44% of female deaths. The number of
orphans is currently estimated at 680 000. Yet the population continues to grow at a high annual rate of
about 2.8%.

FOOD SECURITY AND FOOD SOVEREIGNITY

Here is a distinction between ‘food security’ and ‘food sovereignty’. Food security according to the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): implies that all people have at all times physical
and economic access to the basic foodstuffs that they require, and that there should be stability in the
supply, an adequate amount of food and that it should reach those who need it. Others are saying that food
security is availability of getting food by people at all time both quantities and qualities . There are however
many difficulties with the idea of access as the ability to purchase imported food can fluctuate dramatically
when prices rise or currencies are devalued. Relying on imported food does not give the consumer or a
community real control and ownership over what they can consume. Additionally a huge amount of both
energy and food is wasted in this exportation process. While the precedence for this situation is as old as
the coffee and sugar plantations of early colonial Latin America, the fact that Irish (and other developed
world) consumers enjoy a convenient, cheap, varied, year round supply of food from around the world is a
huge contributory factor in the perpetuation of food a commodity. The term ‘food sovereignty’ goes beyond
simple matters of access. A basic understanding of this term is the ‘right that every national collective has
to decide the what, how and when to sow or raise with a view to guarantee an adequate diet to its members
according to their own cultural characteristics’. In March 2007 however this definition was extended when
800 peasant organizations met at the World Forum of Food Sovereignty in Nyeleni, Mali. Nyeleni (2011)
declared that:

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.......Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through
ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture
systems. It puts those who produce, distribute and consume food at the heart of food systems and
policies rather than the demands of markets and corporations. It defends the interests and inclusion of
the next generation. It offers a strategy to resist and dismantle the current corporate trade and food
regime, and directions for food, farming, pastoral and fisheries systems determined by local producers.
Food sovereignty prioritizes local and national economies and markets and empowers peasant and
family farmer-driven agriculture, artisan fishing, pastoralist-led grazing, and food production, distribution
and consumption based on environmental, social and economic sustainability. Food sovereignty
promotes transparent trade that guarantees just income to all peoples and the rights of consumers to
control their food and nutrition. It ensures that the rights to use and manage our lands, territories,
waters, seeds, livestock and biodiversity are in the hands of those of us who produce food. Food
sovereignty implies new social relations free of oppression and inequality between men and women,
peoples, racial groups, social classes and generations……

In essence Nyeleni declared food sovereignty to be a holistic approach not just to agriculture but to the
world and the socio economic relations that exist in it as the following five points:

 Local and national economies and markets are given priority as well direct forms of exchange
between producers and consumers.
 The food systems, agriculture, pasture and fishing are controlled by the local producers. This is
order that the food systems and policies are developed around those who produce, distribute and
consume food over and above the demands of the markets and the corporations.
 Indigenous and peasant knowledge and practice is valued protecting the original biodiversity,
using appropriate technology to develop a productive sustainable and autonomous model.
 An integral agrarian reform is implemented that guarantees the rights of peasants and indigenous
people’s access to and control over the land and territory in autonomous fashion with a social
community focus.
 People live socio–productive relations free from oppression and inequality so that all peoples can
live with dignity in their work and can have the opportunity to live in their places of origin.

INDICATORS OF FOOD SECURITY

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According to FAO (2012) states the following indicators of food security as follows:

 Availability: Both Households food production and crop diversity are available among people.
 Access : The percentage of food expenditure to total household expenditure.
 Utilization: The degree of access to services (water, health and sanitation).
 Stability: Stability of food prices and supply.
 Price applicability. Do people able to buy their food at the right time ?

FOOD INSECURITY

Food insecurity is the most broadly-used measure of food deprivation in the United States. The USDA
defines food insecurity as meaning “consistent access to adequate food is limited by a lack of money and
other resources at times during the year.” It is the state of being without reliable access to a sufficient
quantity of affordable, nutritious food: Others are saying that food insecurity is inadequate of getting food by
people at all the time both quantities and qualities.

INDICATORS OF FOOD INSECURITY

 Migration of people from one place to another either by permanent or temporally

 Malnutrition among young children
 Importation of food from outside of the country
 Crops border trade
 Government declaration by either the president or parliamentarians
 Unemployment
 Poverty rates – individual and child (Poor households have a greater risk of food insecurity)
 Percentage of non-elderly adults with a disability (Households with disabled member have a
greater risk of food insecurity”
 Percentage of family households headed by a single mother (Single mother households have a
greater risk of food insecurity)
CAUSES OF FOOD INSECURITY

FAO (2012) analyses the following causes of food insecurity in the most Developing countries as:

 Poverty,

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 Lack of investment in agriculture
 Natural disasters
 Conflict,
 Displacement and rising global food prices are some of the causes of food shortages.
 Climate change. Temperature and rainfall are critical elements determining when and how often
crops can be sown. While some Asian countries are able to harvest three times in a single year,
food production nearly halts during dry seasons in many tropical zones and during winter cold in
temperate areas. Extremes or thresholds of heat, increasingly accompanied by high ultraviolet
radiation, and of cold, especially early frosts or late thaws, can ruin harvests. They test the limits of
growing seasons and moisture-temperature tolerances of particular crop varieties. These extremes
will be modified by global climate change, which promises to transform regional cropping patterns.
For the present, drought is the most widespread climatic threat to production, and is treated more
extensively below.
 Poor methods of agriculture. Since agricultural methods and inputs vary in areas with different
soils, the causes of disparities in productivity are multiple. Grain yields per hectare in SSA are
about one-third of those achieved in East Asia, but SSA also struggles with more challenging
climate, uses fertilizer at a rate less than 13 per cent of the world average (World Bank 1992), and
has made little use of irrigation. Investments in agricultural intensification, including higher-yield-
potential seeds, fertilizers, water management and chemicals for pest control, are costly and make
it unlikely that they will be easily or widely available for use by poorer farmers and countries.
Especially where imported food is cheaper than domestically produced food, as is the case today
in many developing countries, expanding local production may not appear to be economically
feasible.

 Seeds and related technologies. Basic to all production strategies and yields are the seeds, which
may be more or less productive; drought and disease resistant; or responsive to moisture, fertilizer,
and other chemical inputs. In many regions, "traditional" seed varieties are less and less plentiful
because they are unable to keep up with demand for more food and more intensive methods.
Modern seeds, bred for shorter growing periods and neutral photoperiod, allow multiple sowings
and harvests; they also may be tailored to resist insects and plagues that attack traditional varieties
and lower their yields. Exponential growth in world food production over the past three decades

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 has been made possible largely by new seeds and related technological advances that have
greatly increased output per unit of land and labor. The impact of the GR seed-water-chemical
technologies on grain yields has greatly reduced food shortage, especially in rice- and wheat-
growing regions. But technological advance can prevent food shortage only if (1) it continues to
increase yields faster than the population grows, (2) food availability within agriculturally
modernizing regions actually increases, and (3) increased caloric availability is not transformed into
richer diets.

 Social and cultural factors: The causes of food shortage are in no way limited to physical and
biological factors affecting production. Socio-cultural factors include the organization of land and
labor use as well as dietary preferences. Political-economic factors involve world markets and
government policies to modernize agriculture and increase foreign exchange, which at the local
level are translated into incentive structures, especially "getting the prices right." Armed conflict, a
major contributor to food shortage.

 Natural calamities: This may be referred like drought, floods, earth quakes

 Rural-Urban migration

 High fertility rate which is contrary to resources available in the society is also likely to results to
food insecurity in Africa.

 Structural Adjustment conditions (SAPs):

INTRODUCTION AND IMPACT OF SAPs IN AFRICAN ECONOMY

Structural Adjustment programs (SAPs) and economic reform Programs (EPRs) emerge from Bretton
Woods Institutions-the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. These institutions are always
imposing difficulty conditions to African countries which for one way or another are affecting agriculture
sector. Some of these conditions are: devaluation of our local currency, trade liberalization, removes
subsidies in agriculture sector and reduce government expenditure. These all conditions have affected
much the agriculture sector in terms of famine, lack of markets for selling crops, lack of fertilizers etc. This
is mainly because the farmers f developing countries cannot afford to incur the cost of agriculture

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production without assistance from the government. On the other side of the coin, SAPs has contributed
much unemployment among African countries and this also has connected directly to the food shortage.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT; Is the process of improving the life standard of life of people who are living in
urban both politically, socially and economically

The sociologists argue that, the term urban is still controversial to define because of different perceptions
from some countries. Definitions vary somewhat between nations. European countries define urbanized
areas on the basis of urban-type land use, not allowing any gaps of typically more than 200 m, and use
satellite imagery instead of census blocks to determine the boundaries of the urban area. In less developed
countries, in addition to land use and density requirements, a requirement that a large majority of the
population, typically 75%, is not engaged in agriculture and/or fishing is sometimes used.

While people are saying rural and urban development at the same time others are saying rural and urban

poverty. This is due to the fact that it is very difficult today to differentiate urban poverty from rural poverty

because the life style of both areas is worse than the time before globalization. Today rural and urban

poverty is still prevailing at the highest level among the developing countries and the measures taken to

address the problem have seemed to fail. The characteristics of urban and rural poverty are seen to be the

same like, child labor, lack of employment, drug abuse, street children in urban but in rural there is

vagabondism, alcoholism, early pregnancies, poor housing (slums and squatting).

What is an Urban: According to Wikipedia Free Cyclopedia (2012) defines the term urban as an area or a

location characterized by high human population density and vast human-built features in comparison to

the areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly

extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets. It is further explains that an urban areas are

created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Measuring the extent of an urban area helps

in analyzing population density and urban sprawl, and in determining urban and rural populations. For

example;

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 Canada: According to Statistics Canada, an urban area in Canada is an area with a population of

at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per km 2. If two or more urban

areas are within 2 km (1.2 mi) of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area,

provided they do not cross census metropolitan area or census agglomeration boundaries.

 Finland: An urban area in Finland must have at least 15,000 people

 For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows:

1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.
2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria:

a. A minimum population of 5,000;

b. At least 75% of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and
c. A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

 Japan: The Japan urbanized areas are defined as contiguous areas of densely inhabited districts
(DIDs) using census enumeration districts as units with a density requirement of 4,000 inhabitants
per square kilometre (10,000/sq mi).

 United States: In the United States, there are two categories of urban area. The term urbanized
area denotes an urban area of 50,000 or more people. Urban areas under 50,000 people are
called urban clusters. Urbanized areas were first delineated in the United States in the 1950
census, while urban clusters were added in the 2000 census. There are 1,371 urban areas and
urban clusters with more than 10,000 people. The U.S. Census Bureau defines an urban area as:
"Core census block groups or blocks that have a population density of at least 1,000 people per
square mile (386 per square kilometre) and surrounding census blocks that have an overall density
of at least 500 people per square mile (193 per square kilometre)."
 Greece; people define urban as any town having less than ten thousand is classified as urban.

 Albania: any town having 400 or more is an urban.

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF TERMS RURAL AND URBAN: ARE THEY RELATED?

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 Some sociological thinkers have tried to define term rural and urban. The most pioneer who
contributed much those definitions are Ferdinand Tonnies (a German sociologist).

Historical Background: Ferdinand Tönnies was born into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia,
Schleswig (today Nordfriesland, Schleswig-Holstein), then under Danish rule. He studied at the universities
of Jena, Bonn, Leipzig, Berlin, and Tübingen. He received a doctorate in Tübingen in 1877 (with a Latin
thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis). Four years later he became a private lecturer at the University of Kiel.
Because he had sympathized with the Hamburg dockers' strike of 1896, the conservative Prussian
government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies was not called to a professorial chair
until 1913. He held this post at the University of Kiel for only three years. He returned to the university as a
professor emeritus in 1921 and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis, due to his earlier
publications that criticized them. Tönnies, the first German sociologist proper, published over 900 works
and contributed too many areas of sociology and philosophy. Many of his writings on sociological theories
including Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887) — furthered pure sociology. He coined the metaphysical
term Voluntarism. Tönnies also contributed to the study of social change, particularly on public opinion,
customs and technology, crime, and suicide. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially
statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings.
Gemeinschaft — often translated as community (or left untranslated)— refers to groupings based on
feelings of togetherness and on mutual bonds, which are felt as a goal to be kept up, their members being
means for this goal. Gesellschaft — often translated as society — on the other hand, refers to groups that
are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' individual aims and goals.

Gemeinschaft may be exemplified historically by a family or a neighborhood in a pre-modern (rural) society;

Gesellschaft by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived.
Gesellschaft relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by individualism and
impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial, with
self-interest and exploitation increasingly the norm. Examples are corporations, states, or voluntary
associations.

His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two basic forms of
an actor's will, to approve of other men. (For Tönnies, such an approval is by no means self-evident; he is
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quite influenced by Thomas Hobbes). Following his "essential will" ("Wesenwille"), an actor will see himself
as a means to serve the goals of social grouping; very often it is an underlying, subconscious force.
Groupings formed around an essential will are called a Gemeinschaft. The other wills is the "arbitrary will"
("Kürwille"): An actor sees a social grouping as a means to further his individual goals; so it is purposive
and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called Gesellschaft. Whereas the membership in a
Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology,
theoretically, these two normal types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology empirically they
are always mixed. Tönnies’ distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, like others between
tradition and modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies, and
implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which he never
proclaimed. The equilibrium in Gemeinschaft is achieved through morals, conformism, and exclusion -
social control while Gesellschaft keeps its equilibrium through police, laws, tribunals and prisons. Amish,
Hassidic communities are examples of Gemeinschaft, while states are types of Gesellschaft. Rules in
Gemeinschaft are implicit, while Gesellschaft has explicit rules (written laws). Therefore, from Ferdinand
Tonnies definitions of rural and urban, then it makes us to be able also to define the term urbanization.

In summary: Gemeinschaft Societies are characterized by

 Pre-industry societies ( poor technology)

 Little social mobility

 Local beliefs

 Extended family

 Homogeneity societies ( absence of heterogeneity societies)

 Interpersonal relationship- too closed societies having mutual relationship embodied by Love

 Agriculturalists

Gesellschaft Societies are characterized by

 Industrialized societies

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  Technological innovative

 Impersonal relationship bonded by selfish and individualism

 Nuclear family

 Modern life

CONCEPTS OF URBANIZATION

1. According to Wikipedia Dictionary (2011) the term urbanization is an increase in a population in

cities and towns versus rural areas. Urbanization began during the industrial revolution, when
workers moved towards manufacturing hubs in cities to obtain jobs in factories as agricultural jobs
became less common. It goes further that urbanization occurs as more workers leave their rural
towns in search of better work in urban areas.

2. Some sociological scholars have another definition of urbanization that Urbanization refers to the
concentration of human populations into discrete areas, leading to transformation of land for
residential, commercial, and industrial & transportation purposes . It can include densely populated
centers, as well as their adjacent per urban or suburban fringes.

3. According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (2010 ) Urbanization refers to the
number of people who migrate from rural areas to urban areas, resulting in growth. These
phenomena results in the development of land for the use of residential and commercial properties
and roads. Urbanization typically occurs when individuals move closer to cities to avoid a long
commute to work and to have access to better education, housing and health care. Also, rural and
farm life can be more susceptible to drought and hardship. Cities are better known for economic
advancements than rural areas, and businesses make the move towards urbanization to remain
competitive and to increase growth.

4. Castells(1977) urbanization is the concentrations of population and activities in a limited space.

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 5. Brian Robert (1978) urbanization is a socio-economic transformation in which agriculture becomes
less and less as a source of livelihood

6. Smith(1978) urbanization is the concentration of population relatively in a compact settlement.

THEORIES OF URBANIZATION

1. Louis Wirth THEORY URBANISM AS A WAY OF LIFE: Louis Wirth (August 28, 1897 – May 3, 1952)
was an American sociologist and member of the Chicago school of sociology. Louis Wirth was born in the
small village of Gemünden in the Unstuck, Germany. He was one of seven children born to Rosalie and
Joseph Wirth. Gemünden was a pastoral community, and Joseph Wirth earned a living as a cattle dealer.
The family was Jewish and both of his parents were religiously active. Louis left Gemünden to live with his
older sister at his uncle's home in Omaha, Nebraska in 1911. Soon after arriving in the United States, Louis
met and married Mary Bolton. The couple had two daughters, Elizabeth (Marvick) and Alice (Gray). Wirth
studied in the United States and became a leading figure in Chicago School Sociology. His interests
included city life, minority group behavior and mass media and he is recognized as one of the leading
urban sociologists. Wirth's major contribution to social theory of urban space was a classic essay Urbanism
as a Way of Life, published in the American Journal of Sociology in 1938.

His research was mostly concerned with how Jewish immigrants adjusted to life in urban America, as well
as the distinct social processes of city life. Wirth was a supporter of applied sociology, and believed in
taking the knowledge offered by his discipline and using it to solve real social problems. Wirth writes that
urbanism is a form of social organization that is harmful to culture, and describes the city as a “Substitution
of secondary for primary contacts, the weakening of bonds of kinship, the declining social significance of
the family, the disappearance of neighborhood and the undermining of traditional basis of social solidarity” .
Wirth was concerned with the effects of the city upon family unity, and he believed urbanization leads to a
‘low and declining urban reproduction rates … families are smaller and more frequently without children
than in the country’. According to Wirth, marriage tends to be postponed, and the proportion of single
people is growing, leading to isolation and less interaction. But Wirth also stressed the positive effects of
city life: "the beginning of what is distinctively modern in our civilization is best signalized by the growth of
great cities“; "metropolitan civilization is without question the best civilization that human beings have ever
devised“; "the city everywhere has been the center of freedom and toleration, the home of progress, of
invention, of science, of rationality“ or: "the history of civilization can be written in terms of the history of
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cities“. The profound social understanding of minority groups that Wirth obtained first-hand as a Jewish
immigrant in America, can equally be applied to understanding the problems of other minority groups in
society, such as ethnic minorities, the disabled, homosexuals, women and the elderly, all of whom have
also suffered, and/or continue to suffer prejudice, discrimination and disenfranchisement from the more
numerically dominant members of a host society. It is in this respect that Wirth's path-breaking and
insightful work still amply rewards detailed study even today, some seventy years after his original
investigations.

“Chicago School” urban sociologist Louis Wirth proposes a new academic paradigm for city life as
sociological construct. Lacking a suitable set of hypotheses, scholars would benefit from a more
comprehensive portfolio of city characteristics, ultimately moving the field towards a theoretically informed
notion of urbanism. Grafting sociological propositions onto urbanism research, Wirth details three empirical
areas of focus: population size, density, and demographic heterogeneity.

Concerning the first, Wirth insists that urban dwellers, in contrast to rural, depend on more people for day-
to-day interactions, producing “impersonal, superficial, transitory, and segmental” contacts and
engendering “reserve, indifference and a blasé outlook” that people use to “immunize” themselves against
the expectations of others. Therefore, interpersonal contact is driven solely by selfish utility . About density,
Wirth describes a socially differentiated specialization (Darwin’s theory of nature), which segments activities
and complicates social ecology. “Visual recognition,” in which people are identified by their purpose but
denied acknowledgement of their personal traits, provokes a cognitive separation by the observer, for
whom urban environments expose contrasts in wealth, sophistication and belief. Daily interaction
functionally close but socially distant among people without mutual ties fosters “exploitation,” although such
diversity, Wirth states, gives rise to a “relativistic perspective” that leads to tolerance. Density, self-
satisfying masses competing for scarce resources in a competitive environment, fosters “friction and
irritation” (Berkeley Bowl shopping cart wars) and creates “nervous tensions” that add grist to the mill of
social interaction. Heterogeneity, the third of Wirth’s sociological propositions for urban ecology, turns away
from the built environment to explain the complicated phenomenon of affinity groups. Recognizing that
demographic variety erodes class distinctions, Wirth proposes that urbanites are apt to have multiple group
memberships (going beyond social clubs, he uses “group” to include political affiliation, neighborhood,
workplace, economic and cultural organizations). Moreover, in instances of high membership, intra-group
mass homogenization eclipses the interests of the individual, and these “leveling influences” mandate that

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members subordinate their interests to those of the “average” community at large. These moves in
opposition to the urban environment’s tendency to favor uniqueness, eccentricity and inventiveness, factors
that are needed to provide the variety of differentiated services that characterize major cities.

With these three factors having been laid out; Wirth proposes three “interrelated perspectives” on which to
build a theory of urbanism: physical structure, social organization, and attitudes/ideas. From the physical
perspective, the city has become dominant because the variety of services and institutions, and the
superior facilities that serve them, provide the armament needed to assert power over competing regions of
lesser capability. For the organizational perspective, urban existence is characterized by a de-emphasis on
kinship and primary contacts, liberating individuals to act rationally in the pursuit of their own interests
without burdensome exhortations of traditional institutions. The urbanite’s ability to assert himself as an
individual, however, is obstructed by competition, and therefore, according to Wirth, he joins groups that
pool everyone’s resources to pursue end-goals that serve the “average” constituent. As such, these
“fictional” kinship groups are an outlet for expression and mobility. Finally, of note is Wirth’s theory that
crowded environments lower the sophistication of communication to elementary levels, focusing on things
that are “assumed to be common or to be of interest to all.”

Three major variables which are influencing the city growth are:

1. Size of the population aggregate. According to him size is where the activities are taking place and
therefore he says that” the bigger the city the wider the variations ”. Ever since Aristotle's politics, it has
been recognized that increasing the number of inhabitants in a settlement beyond a certain limit will affect
the relationships between them and the character of the city. Large numbers involve, as has been pointed
out, a greater range of individual variation. Furthermore, the greater the number of individuals participating
in a process of interaction, the greater is the potential differentiation between them. The personal traits, the
occupations, the cultural life, and the ideas of the members of an urban community may, therefore, be
expected to range between more widely separated poles than those of rural inhabitants. That such variation
should give rise to the spatial segregation of individuals according to color, ethnic heritage, economic and
social status, tastes and preferences, may readily be inferred. The bonds of kinship, of neighborliness, and
the sentiments arising out of living together for generations under a common folk tradition5 are likely to be
absent or, at best, relatively weak in an aggregate the members of which have such diverse origins and
backgrounds. Under such circumstances competition and formal control mechanisms furnish the

16
substitutes for the bonds of solidarity that are relied upon to hold a folk society together. Characteristically,
urbanites meet one another in highly segmental roles. They are, to be sure, dependent upon more people
for the satisfactions of their life-needs than are rural people and thus are associated with a greater number
of organized groups, but they are less dependent upon particular persons, and their dependence upon
others is confined to a highly fractionalized aspect of the other's round of activity. This is essentially what is
meant by saying that the city is characterized by secondary rather than primary contacts6. The contacts of
the city may indeed be face to face, but they are nevertheless impersonal, superficial, transitory, and
segmental. The reserve, the indifference, and the blasé outlook which urbanites manifest in their
relationships may thus be regarded as devices for immunizing themselves against the personal claims and
expectations of others.

The superficiality, the anonymity7, and the transitory character of urban social relations make intelligible,
also, the sophistication and the rationality generally ascribed to city-dwellers. Our acquaintances tend to
stand in a relationship of utility to us in the sense that the role which each one plays in our life is
overwhelmingly regarded as a means for the achievement of our own ends. Whereas the individual gains,
on the one hand, a certain degree of emancipation or freedom from the personal and emotional controls of
intimate groups, he loses, on the other hand, the spontaneous self-expression, the morale, and the sense
of participation that comes with living in an integrated society. This constitutes essentially the state of
anomia, or the social void, to which Durkheim alludes in attempting to account for the various forms of
social disorganization in technological society.

The segmental character and utilitarian accent of interpersonal relations in the city find their institutional
expression in the proliferation of specialized tasks which we see in their most developed form in the
professions. The operations of the pecuniary nexus lead to predatory relationships, which tend to obstruct
the efficient functioning of the social order unless checked by professional codes and occupational
etiquette. The premium put upon utility and efficiency suggests the adaptability of the corporate device for
the organization of enterprises in which individuals can engage only in groups. The advantage that the
corporation has over the individual entrepreneur and the partnership in the urban-industrial world derives
not only from the possibility it affords of centralizing the resources of thousands of individuals or from the
legal privilege of limited liability and perpetual succession, but from the fact that the corporation has no
soul.

17
The specialization of individuals, particularly in their occupations, can proceed only, as Adam Smith pointed
out, upon the basis of an enlarged market, which in turn accentuates the division of labor. This enlarged
market is only in part supplied by the city's hinterland; in large measure it is found among the large
numbers that the city itself contains. The dominance of the city over the surrounding hinterland becomes
explicable in terms of the division of labor which urban life occasions and promotes. The extreme degree of
interdependence and the unstable equilibrium of urban life are closely associated with the division of labor
and the specialization of occupations. This interdependence and this instability are increased by the
tendency of each city to specialize in those functions in which it has the greatest advantage. In a
community composed of a larger number of individuals than can know one another intimately and can be
assembled in one spot, it becomes necessary to communicate through indirect media and to articulate
individual interests by a process of delegation. Typically in the city, interests are made effective through
representation. The individual counts for little, but the voice of the representative is heard with deference
roughly proportional to the numbers for whom he speaks. Density as in the case of numbers, so in the case
of concentration in limited space certain consequences of relevance in sociological analysis of the city
emerge. Of these only a few can he indicated.

As Darwin pointed out for flora and fauna and as Durkheim noted in the case of human societies, an
increase in numbers when area is held constant (i.e., an increase in density) tends to produce
differentiation and specialization, since only in this way can the area support increased numbers8. Density
thus reinforces the effect of numbers in diversifying men and their activities and in increasing the
complexity of the social structure. On the subjective side, as Simmel has suggested, the close physical
contact of numerous individuals necessarily produces a shift in the media through which we orient
ourselves to the urban milieu, especially to our fellow-men. Typically, our physical contacts are close but
our social contacts are distant. The urban world puts a premium on visual recognition. We see the uniform
which denotes the role of the functionaries, and are oblivious to the personal eccentricities hidden behind
the uniform. We tend to acquire and develop sensitivity to a world of artifacts, and become progressively
farther removed from the world of nature. We are exposed to glaring contrasts between splendor and
squalor, between riches and poverty, intelligence and ignorance, order and chaos. The competition for
space is great, so that each area generally tends to be put to the use which yields the greatest economic
return. Place of work tends to become dissociated from place of residence, for the proximity of industrial
and commercial establishments makes an area both economic any and socially undesirable for residential
purposes.

18
2. Density, to him is referred as the concentration of population in a certain area . Land values, rentals,
accessibility, healthfulness, prestige, aesthetic consideration, absence of nuisances such as noise, smoke,
and dirt determine the desirability of various areas of the city as places of settlement for different sections
of the population. Place and nature of work, income, racial and ethnic characteristics, social status, custom,
habit, taste, preference, and prejudice are among the significant factors in accordance with which the urban
population is selected and distributed into more or less distinct settlements. Diverse population elements
inhabiting a compact settlement thus become segregated from one another in the degree in which their
requirements and modes of life are incompatible and in the measure in which they are antagonistic.
Similarly, persons of homogeneous status and needs unwittingly drift into, consciously select, or are forced
by circumstances into the same area. The different parts of the city acquire specialized functions, and the
city consequently comes to resemble a mosaic of social worlds in which the transition from one to the other
is abrupt. The juxtaposition of divergent personalities and modes of life tends to produce a relativistic
perspective and a sense of toleration of differences which may be regarded as prerequisites for rationality
and which lead toward the secularization of life.

The close living together and working together of individuals who have no sentimental and emotional ties
foster a spirit of competition, aggrandizement, and mutual exploitation. Formal controls are instituted to
counteract irresponsibility and potential disorder. Without rigid adherence to predictable routines a large
compact society would scarcely be able to maintain itself. The clock and the traffic signal are symbolic of
the basis of our social order in the urban world. Frequent close physical contact, coupled with great social
distance, accentuates the reserve of unattached individuals toward one another and, unless compensated
by other opportunities for response, gives rise to loneliness. The necessary frequent movement of great
numbers of individuals in a congested habitat causes friction and irritation. Nervous tensions which derive
from such personal frustrations are increased by the rapid tempo and the complicated technology under
which life in dense areas must be lived.

3. Heterogeneity, the growth of the city should comprise varieties of people coming from different places
having different background in terms of norms and values. The social interaction among such a variety of
personality types in the urban milieu tends to break down the rigidity of caste lines and to complicate the
class structure; it thus induces a more ramified and differentiated framework of social stratification than is
found in more integrated societies. The heightened mobility of the individual, which brings him within the
range of stimulation by a great number of diverse individuals and subjects him to fluctuating status in the

19
differentiated social groups that compose the social structure of the city, brings him toward the acceptance
of instability and insecurity in the world at large as a norm. This fact helps to account too, for the
sophistication and cosmopolitanism of the urbanite. No single group has the undivided allegiance of the
individual. The groups with which he is affiliated do not lend themselves readily to a simple hierarchical
arrangement. By virtue of his different interests arising out of different aspects of social life, the individual
acquires membership in widely divergent groups, each of which functions only with reference to a single
segment of his personality. Nor do these groups easily permit of a concentric arrangement so that the
narrower ones fall within the circumference of the more inclusive ones, as is more likely to be the case in
the rural community or in primitive societies. Rather the groups with which the person typically is affiliated
are tangential to each other or intersect in highly variable fashion. On the basis of the three variables,
number, density of settlement, and degree of heterogeneity, of the urban population, it appears possible to
explain the characteristics of urban life and to account for the differences between cities of various sizes
and types.

Urbanism as a characteristic mode of life may be approached empirically from three interrelated
perspectives: (1) as a physical structure comprising a population base, a technology, and an ecological
order; 9 (2) as a system of social organization involving a characteristic social structure, a series of social
institutions, and a typical pattern of social relationships; and (3) as a set of attitudes and ideas, and a
constellation of personalities engaging in typical forms of collective behavior and subject to characteristic
mechanisms of social control.

Urbanism as a form of Social Organization.

1 - At one level Wirth definition of urban in terms of size, density and heterogeneity is simply a statement of
how he is going to use a word or concept. The concept of the urban way of life becomes more controversial
when the features of size, density and heterogeneity are used to explain or to infer. It is this which attracts
the criticism of Abrams and others (link to Abrams) .As he himself suggests at several points, the notion of
size, density and heterogeneity is much more helpful if we include the word 'relative' in the definition.

2 - Wirth presents this contrast in several ways - as a dichotomy with two sharply differentiated types of
situation. - as a continuum with extremes such as inner Chicago and Indian 'folk' society and intermediate

20
situations such as the residential suburb and small agricultural market town. - as a relationship between
town and country in which the urban influence is dominant.

3 - At one level Wirth definition of urban in terms of size, density and heterogeneity is simply a statement of
how he is going to use a word or concept. The concept of the urban way of life becomes more controversial
when the features of size, density and heterogeneity are used to explain or to infer. It is this which attracts
the criticism of Abrams and others (link to Abrams) .As he himself suggests at several points, the notion of
size, density and heterogeneity is much more helpful if we include the word 'relative' in the definition.

4 - Wirth refers here to an important aspect of the ideology or self image of the United States, namely that
its culture and above all its cities were able to merge and integrate a wide variety of European immigrant
cultures. The work of urban historians has shown that this was a myth and ethnic and racial groups
sustained their distinctive spatial and cultural identities. See Theodore Hershberg (editor), Philadelphia.
Work, Space, Family and Group Experience in the 19th century, Oxford University Press 1981.

5 - There was a tendency in the 1930s, which still exists to some extent, to define and understand the city
by contrast with what it was not. The concept of 'folk society' arose from studies of Indian communities in
Latin America. Urban people were seen as less isolated, less dependent on kin, influenced by science and
professionals rather than by the sacred and priests. They experienced more division of labour and more
individual freedom. The danger here was the tendency to confuse "urban" with other features of social
organization such as the expansion of the capitalist market, industrialization, the growth of scientific
knowledge and of improved communications. Wirth later modifies this by suggesting that actual urban
societies can be organized on a continuum in which they experience the features of these ideal types to
different degrees.

6 - This was another contrast devised early in the 20th century to help understand the nature of urban
industrial society. Primary relationships involved the total person. They entailed commitment, face to face
relationships and emotional intensity. They were often prescriptive such as the family and most involved the
individual in a variety of overlapping social roles, such as situations in which family, work and neighborhood
relationships overlapped with each other. Secondary relationships involved the individual in one or maybe
two social roles. They were partial and often indirect and ephemeral. The folk society was held to be one of
primary relationships. The increased dominance of secondary relationships was believed to be a feature of
urbanization.
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7 - The belief in urban anonymity has been widely challenged. Studies made in the 1950s in Britain and
North America suggested that urban populations developed close social networks based upon family,
neighborhood and work. Historical studies made of Britain in the 1890s supported this view and
emphasized that women played a central role in the creation and support of these informal networks.

8 - Wirth was part of the Chicago school of sociology of the 1930s led by Robert Park. They studied the city
in terms of changing patterns of spatial arrangements of population and institutions. They saw these
patterns in terms of the struggle for survival against impersonal forces. The analogy with the Darwinian
biological model of survival of the fittest was very strong and led to the search for 'natural' processes of
urbanization. This tended to ignore individual human motivation and the autonomy of human cultural
influences. Although Wirth's thinking originated in this ecological tradition, he is in this extract going beyond
it and trying to achieve a balance of 'ecological' with individual and cultural factors.

9 - Wirth was part of the Chicago school of sociology of the 1930s led by Robert Park. They studied the city
in terms of changing patterns of spatial arrangements of population and institutions. They saw these
patterns in terms of the struggle for survival against impersonal forces. The analogy with the Darwinian
biological model of survival of the fittest was very strong and led to the search for 'natural' processes of
urbanization. This tended to ignore individual human motivation and the autonomy of human cultural
influences. Although Wirth's thinking originated in this ecological tradition, he is in this extract going beyond
it and trying to achieve a balance of 'ecological' with individual and cultural factors.

10 - Many theorists saw voluntary associations as a key element of urban society which integrated the
individual with the wider social group. Such associations have been identified as a means by which
individuals and groups negotiated with each other and experimented with and developed new values and
sets of social relationships. Thus they can be linked with the problems of anomie. In recent years the
associational culture of towns has been related to the notion of civil society, - that is the area of social
behavior which mediates between the individual and the prescriptive agencies of state and family.

11 - Many theorists saw voluntary associations as a key element of urban society which integrated the
individual with the wider social group. Such associations have been identified as a means by which
individuals and groups negotiated with each other and experimented with and developed new values and
sets of social relationships. Thus they can be linked with the problems of anomie. In recent years the

22
associational culture of towns has been related to the notion of civil society, that is the area of social
behavior which mediates between the individual and the prescriptive agencies of state and family.

Due to the above explanations Louis Wirth summarized his explanations by giving us the following
assumptions which are likely to happen in the growth of the city

 The modern culture today is urban culture eg dressing, eating , walking , marriage ceremonials,
singing etc
 Urban area/ city area is the center for human innovation

 The modern life today is affiliated by the growth of the cities

 The growth of the cities have completely broken out the human neutrality, no flesh

 The city is the center of all socio-economic and political decision-making. All decisions are made in
the city not in urban.

MODELS OF URBAN GROWTH

The Chicago School of Thought was one of the schools of thought who tried to explain on how urban
growth is in both developed and Developing countries. The following are various urban growth models:

1. Growth Machine Theory

The growth machine theory of urban growth says urban growth is driven by a coalition of interest groups
who all benefit from continuous growth and expansion. First articulated by Molotch in 1976, growth machine
theory took the dominant convention of studying urban land use and turned it on its head. The field of urban
sociology had been dominated by the idea that cities were basically containers for human action, in which
actors competed among themselves for the most strategic parcels of land, and the real estate market
reflected the state of that competition. Growth machine theories reversed the course of urban theory by
pointing out that land parcels were not empty fields awaiting human action, but were associated with
specific interests—commercial, sentimental, and psychological. In other words, city residents were not
simply competing for parcels of land; they were also trying to fulfill their particular interests and achieve
specific goals. In particular, cities are shaped by the real estate interests of people whose properties gain
value when cities grow. These actors make up what Moloch termed "the local growth machine. "

23
2. Urban Sprawl
This is a model of urban growth in which the places of people living, working, shopping or relaxing are
located far away from the human settlements and therefore people are using public/ private transports to go
those areas. Urban sprawl's segregated land use means that the places where people live, work, shop, and
relax are far from one another, which usually makes walking, public transit, or bicycling impractical. As a
result, residents must use an automobile. Urban sprawl tends to include low population density: single
family homes on large lots instead of apartment buildings, single story or low-rise buildings instead of high-
rises, extensive lawns and surface parking lots, and so on.

Critics of urban sprawl argue that it creates an inhospitable urban environment and that it encroaches on
rural land, potentially driving up land prices and displacing farmers or other rural residents. Urban sprawl is
also associated with negative environmental and public health effects, many of which are related to
automobile dependence: increases in personal transportation costs, air pollution and reliance on fossil fuel,
increases in traffic accidents, delays in emergency medical services response times, and decreases in land
and water quantity and quality.

Characteristics of urban growth and sprawl

From the early 20th century, cities began to grow upward quickly. Especially in American cities (e.g.
Chicago, New York), skyscrapers came to change urban landscapes with numerous tall commercial
buildings. However, in the latter part of the 20th century, urban structure has become less compact.
Unending miles of shopping malls, offices and houses are now commonly dominating the urban structure.
Early on, citizens may live in sprawling suburbs but continued to work in city centers. Then jobs may
however follow the people, and this trend in turn leads to decentralization of homes and jobs. As a relatively
new form of urbanization, sprawl is a natural expansion of metropolitan areas when population expands
(Sinclai 1967, Lowry 1988) and equates to haphazard or unplanned growth (Peiser 1984, Koenig 1989).
Sprawl is also defined according to undesirable land-use patterns, i.e. continuous low-density, strip/ribbon,
scattered, and leapfrogs development (McKee and Smith 1972, Popenoe 1977, Heikkila and Peiser 1992,
Ewing2008). Several suggestions have been offered to explain the causes of sprawl:
 Population growth is one of the most important driving factors behind the urban sprawl. It
contributes to sprawl through absolute growth, increased urbanization (the percentage of the
population living in urban areas is growing), and the restructuring of household demography
(household sizes decrease and housing units increase) (Torrens 2006).

24
  The increased use of cars is considered as a root cause of urban sprawl. At the same time,
highways and other transportation systems have grown quickly. Due to these two reasons, people
can choose to live in suburbs. In order to follow labor forces and pursue cheap land, industry and
business move from the city to suburbs by accessing an expanding highway network. Intersections
of suburban highways have become sub-centers of new urbanization.
 Internet and communications technologies may encourage sprawl trends. Nowadays, disparate
parts of a city may be separated spatially but linked functionally through the advances in
communication technologies.
 Other causes may include subsidies for suburban development in terms of owner-occupied
housing and infrastructure, external benefits related to open space, and encouragement in low-
density development by suburban land-use regulation (Ewing2008).Urban sprawl has been
conceptualized as a multi-dimensional phenomenon that requires a set of measures for each
dimension(Torrens and Alberti 2000, Ewing et al. 2002).
 Growth rate (sprawl index). It is defined as the ratio between the growth rate of built-up areas and
the population (Hadly 2000).
 Density. Normally it is defined as the ratio between the amount of a certain urban activity and the
area where it takes place (Burton 2000, Chin 2002). Density decreases during a certain time period
and is relatively low in a sprawl area.
 Spatial geometry. There are numerous spatial geometric measures, most of which have been
adopted within ecology (McGarigal and Marks 1995; Turner 1989) or in fractal geometry (Batty and
Kim 1992, Torrens and Alberti 2000). Spatial geometric measures quantify the configuration and
composition of an urban landscape
 Configuration describes the geometry of an urban built-up area while composition depicts the level
of heterogeneity. In a sprawling urban area,

2. Concentric zone model

The Concentric zone model, also known as the Burgess model or the CCD model, is one of the
earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest
Burgess in 1923.

a. Central business district is characterize by the following major characteristics

 Land is too expensive

25
  There is a lot of social entertainments eg night clubs, shopping centers, playing grounds ets
 A lot of supermarkets
 Permanent settlements for loyal people
 Availability of Transport facilities.
b. Transition Zone is also characterized by
 It is mixed residential and commercial users
 A lot of markets
 Land is still so expensive to own
 Population is so compact
 There is a battle / fighting between two classes ( businessmen and owners of land
 Availability of Transport facilities

c. Working class zone is also characterized by

 The land is surveyed / planned by the government
 People who are living here are mainly government workers and businessmen and mostly are
educated people
 Availability of Transport facilities
d. Residential zone, it is characterized by
 Poor people settlement ( slums or squatter settlements)
 People who are living here are uneducated and having low income earning
 Area is surrounded by poor transport systems
 People are still holding traditions beliefs
e. Commuters Zone, characterized by
 Land is too big
 Rich settlements
 It is a private owned transport
 Areas are cool, no disturbances made by car noises or human beings

Criticisms

The model has been challenged by many contemporary urban geographers. First, the model does not work
well with cities outside the United States, in particular with those developed under different historical
contexts. Even in the United States, because of changes such as advancement in transportation and
information technology and transformation in global economy, cities are no longer organized with clear
"zones" (see: Los Angeles School of Urban Analysis).

 It describes the peculiar American geography, where the inner city is poor while suburbs are
wealthy; the converse is the norm elsewhere
 It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape

26
  Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain sectors; hills and water features may make
some locations unusually desirable for residential purposes

 Commuter villages defy the theory, being a distant part of the commuter zone

 Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry (see Industrial suburb), and entertainment

 Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in formely 'low class'
housing areas

 Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain

 It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization

 The model does not fit polycentric cities, for example Stoke-on-Trent.

3. Sector Model: Soon after Burgess generalized about the concentric zone form of the city, Homer Hoyt re-
cast the concentric ring model. While recognizing the value of the concentric ring model, Hoyt also
observed some consistent patterns in many American cities. He observed, for example, that it was common
for low-income households to be found in close proximity to railroad lines, and commercial establishments
to be found along business thoroughfares. In 1939, Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for
major transportation routes. Recall that most major cities evolved around the nexus of several important
transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports, and trolleys lines that emanated from the city's center.
Recognizing that these routes (and later metropolitan expressways and interstate highways) represented
lines of greater access, Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or sectors,
emanating from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes. Higher levels of access translate to
higher land values. Thus, many commercial functions would remain in the CBD, but manufacturing activity
would develop in a wedge surrounding transport routes. Residential land use patterns also would grow in
wedge-shaped patterns with a sector of lower-income households bordering the manufacturing/
warehousing sector (traffic, noise and pollution making these less desirable locations to live) and sectors of
middle-and higher-income households located away from industrial sites. In many respects, Hoyt's sector
model is simply a concentric zone model modified to account for the impact of transportation systems on
accessibility. Example: Cities growing in the era of rapid transportation systems technology.

27
Therefore, this model of urban growth is a result of conurbation and fortifications which are depending on
various sectors; like markets, churches, education centers, heath centers, transport centers, these all
together are forming the growth of the cities.
4. Multiple Nuclei Model:
By 1945, it was clear to Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman that many cities did not fit the traditional
concentric zone or sector model. Cities of greater size were developing substantial suburban areas and
some suburbs, having reached significant size, were functioning like smaller business districts. These
smaller business districts acted as satellite nodes, or nuclei, of activity around which land use patterns
formed. While Harris and Ullman still saw the CBD as the major center of commerce, they suggested that
specialized cells of activity would develop according to specific requirements of certain activities, different
rent-paying abilities, and the tendency for some kinds of economic activity to cluster together. At the center
of their model is the CBD, with light manufacturing and wholesaling located along transport routes. Heavy
industry was thought to locate near the outer edge of city, perhaps surrounded by lower-income
households, and suburbs of commuters and smaller service centers would occupy the urban periphery.
Examples: Rapidly-growing, newer, modern cities, large-land-area cities like Houston and Los Angeles.
The Harris Model (Multiple Nuclear Model) in short we can say that it is one of the urban growth which
explains that the growth of the city is always beginning from the center and expands outwards by forming a
V-shape.

IMPACT OF URBANIZATION IN THIRD WORL COUNTRIES

 Health hazards
 Poor sanitation

 Poor transport

 Poor social services eg education centers , health, electricity,

 water pollution

 Diseases

 In human actions associated by rapping robbery, homosexuality, thieves, prostitution

 Availability of industrial waste and sewage disposal

 Rural-urban migration\

28
  Massive poverty

 Unsurveyed land leading to poor settlements

People in these cities lack not only those things that are necessary to sustain life- such as food, clean water
and adequate sewage. But they also lack those things that we consider to be essential to life such as
electricity, running water, and education, forget any of the things that we just have to enjoy, like cars
clothes candy drugs television and entertainment. Eventually large slums develop around or inside of the
cities, in these slums; large groups of poor and uneducated people end up living together in poverty. (The
World Bank, 1999 Report) adds that the main negative economic impact of urbanization is unemployment.
With massive migration from rural areas, jobs in the urban area may not be created fast enough to meet the
needs. Therefore, the first problem faced by newly arrived migrant in the urban area is finding a job. While it
is true that opportunities exist in cities, it is also true that the competition for these opportunities is fierce as
there are more demands for jobs than are available.

Also an urbanization result to health hazard as a result of air pollution is definitely an adverse effect of
urbanization. Water pollution is also a serious environmental problem in most overpopulated urban cities.
First of all, cities have more pollutants and convection currents serves as magnets for raindrop formation.
Once the water falls, instead of being absorbed by the soil, it is instead channeled into run-off systems,
picking up ground pollutants along the way. As people from the villages are not educated on how to
dispose of their rubbish properly, they have little regard for the environment and would litter everywhere.
This pollution is added to that brought about by industrial waste and sewage disposal, which is often
untreated, especially in cities in the development countries. For instance, water pollution is one major
problems facing Vietnams cities, especially the larger ones, exacerbated by the high densities in core cities.
For instance, in Hanoi, as many as 300 factories had been discharging untreated waste including
chemicals, and some heavy metals, directly into water bodies. These are toxic to marine life such as fish
and shellfish, and can affect the rest of the food chain and those who eat them. Hence, urbanization has
brought negative environment impact in terms of water pollution

Conclusion

The fast pace and long hours of work in urban area are causing city people a lot of stress and mental
health problem such as depression. Compounding the problem is that many city people are living in units
on their own, causing people to be cut off from society. Life style differences between the rural and urban

29
areas also cause cultural conflict. When the rural people move to the city initially, they might undergo
identity problem as they do not understand or get use to the city life-style. If they cannot adapt, it may lead
to insensitivity, disinterested and aggressive behaviors. Eventually, the balance and order of the community
deteriorates. These people may also live on their own in accordance with their own rules, isolating
themselves from the existing urbanism, creating a hostile environment. On the other hand, some of these
rural people may lost their own traditional culture values and spirit to be so influenced by urban way of life
which may include unhealthy, selfish, and egoistic tendencies. In conclusion, urbanization is one of the
most controversial issues in the world today, containing various subjects, including both good and bad
effects. Among them, the most significant negative impact of urbanization is always on economic and
environmental effects, follows by social and culture effects. It is important to remember that urbanization is
a long term process, and it is possible to solve these problems in the future.

RURAL AND URBAN MIGRATION

What is Human Migration?

Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of
taking up permanent or semi permanent residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of
"semi permanent residence" would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm laborers. People can either
choose to move ("voluntary migration") or be forced to move ("involuntary migration"). Migrations have
occurred throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human groups from their
origins in East Africa to their current location in the world. Migration occurs at a variety of scales:
intercontinental (between continents), intercontinental (between countries on a given continent), and
interregional (within countries). One of the most significant migration patterns has been rural to urban
migration—the movement of people from the countryside to cities in search of opportunities. Types of
Migration Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent. External Migration:
Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent. Emigration: Leaving one country to move
to another (e.g., the Pilgrims emigrated From England). Immigration: Moving into a new country (e.g., the
Pilgrims immigrated to America). Population Transfer: When a government forces a large group of people
out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an involuntary migration.
Migrations have occurred throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human
groups from their origins in East Africa to their current location in the world. Migration occurs at a variety of
scales: intercontinental (between continents), intercontinental (between countries on a given continent),

30
and interregional (within countries). One of the most significant migration patterns has been rural to urban
migration—the movement of people from the countryside to cities in search of opportunities.
Types of Migration
 Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.
 External Migration: Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent.
Emigration: Leaving one country to move to another (e.g., the Pilgrims emigrated from England).
Immigration: Moving into a new country (e.g., the Pilgrims immigrated to America).
Population Transfer: When a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually based on
ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an involuntary or forced migration.
Impelled Migration (also called "reluctant" or "imposed" migration): Individuals are not forced out of their
country, but leave because of unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems, or religious
persecution.
Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person's place of origin to final
destination—such as moving from a farm, to a village, to a town, and finally to a city.
Chain Migration: A series of migrations within a family or defined group of people. A chain migration often
begins with one family member who sends money to bring other family members to the new location. Chain
migration results in migration fields—the clustering of people from a specific region into certain
neighborhoods or small town.
Return Migration: The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin.
This is also known as circular migration.
Seasonal Migration: The process of moving for a period of time in response to labor or climate conditions
(e.g., farm workers following crop harvests or working in cities off-season; "snowbirds" moving to the
southern and southwestern United States during winter.

RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION: Rural-urban migration is a form of so-called internal migration which means
a movement within a country and which stays in contrast to international or intercontinental migration. It
refers to the movement of people from the countryside respectively the rural areas into the cities, often the
metropolitan cities of a country. This change of residence is often connected with the migration of labor and
a career change from primary to second or third sector - not necessarily, though, as it can refer to the
migration of people who are not working in agriculture or farming as well. It is obvious that these
developments always show their two sides: one side or the area of destination gains population whereas

31
the other side respectively the area of origin looses people. One always has to keep that in mind because
interaction and networking.

Why Do People Migrate? People move for a variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and
disadvantages of staying versus moving, as well as factors such as distance, travel costs, travel time,
modes of transportation, terrain, and cultural barriers.
Push Factors: Reasons for emigrating (leaving a place) because of a difficulty (such as a food shortage,
war, flood, etc.).
Pull Factors:
Reasons for immigrating (moving into a place) because of something desirable
(Such as a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom, etc.). Several types of push and pull factors may
influence people in their movements (sometimes at the same time), including:
1. Environmental (e.g., climate, natural disasters)
2. Political (e.g., war)
3. Economic (e.g., work)
4. Cultural (e.g., religious freedom, education).
Impacts of Migration: Human migration affects population patterns and characteristics, social and cultural
patterns and processes, economies, and physical environments. As people move, their cultural traits and
ideas diffuse along with them, creating and modifying cultural landscapes
Diffusion: The process through which certain characteristics (e.g., cultural traits, ideas, disease) spread
over space and through time. Relocation Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc. that move with people from
one place to another and do not remain in the point of origin.
Expansion Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc., that move with people from one place to another but are not
lost at the point of origin, such as language.
Cultural markers: Structures or artifacts (e.g., buildings, spiritual places, architectural styles, signs, etc.) that
reflect the cultures and histories of those who constructed or occupy
Measuring Migration
 In-migration: people moving into one place from another place within a nation (internal migration).
 Out-migration: people moving out of one place to another place within a nation (internal migration).
 Gross migration: total number of in-migrants and out-migrants (internal migration).
 Net internal migration: the difference between in-migration and out-migration.

32
  Movers from abroad: people coming into a nation from another country or part of the world.
 Net migration: the difference between net internal migration and movers from abroad.
CHALLENGING QUESTIONS IN MODULE 1:

7. The current food shortage in Sub-Saharan African countries can be explained in terms of

inadequate agricultural policies. With reference to any country of your choice, discuss this

allegation.

8. Discuss the contributions from agriculture to the development process and show why many African

countries are persistently faced with food security problems.

9. What do you consider to be the indicators and causes of food crisis in sub-Saharan Africa since the

mid 1970’s? What policy measures would you recommend to solve the crisis?

10. What do you consider are the main causes of persistent of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa?

What Policy measures would you recommend to deal with the situation?

11. What is the impact of SAP on the Peasantry and rural sector in general?

12. “Rural-urban migration in third world countries is still a chronicle problem”. Discuss and suggest the

ways of curbing the problem.

13. What is urbanization? Discuss the models of the growth of the cities and suggest which model(s)

may fit in the third world urbanization.

14. “Nguvu kazi” was one of the strategies adopted by Tanzanian government in order to control rural-

urban migration in the early of 1980’s. Discuss in details of why the government failed to control it

and say what can be done to solve the problem.

15. What is the relevance or irreverence of Louis Wirth’s argument of urbanism is a way of life and

Tonnies’s arguments on gemeinschaft and gesselschaft to the study of social change.

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 16. Louis Wirth argument that size of a place is leading that place to urban growth. The mere fact size

alone is insufficient to give a place an urban character means a variety of other factors are much

more important. Discuss these factors to be considered for a place to grow into urban.

17. Urbanization process of most third world countries is a replica of that which occurred in the most.

Discuss the statement in the view of urbanization in Tanzania.

18. What is urbanization? Discuss the impact of urbanization to a country like Tanzania.

19. With examples from any African country of your choice, discuss the extent to which rural-urban

linkage development policy has been implemented.

MODULE II: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Many people prefer to say that, we are living in the world of science and technology due to socio-economic
development which has been done in this world. Before going further we need to understand the meaning
of these two terms (science and technology).
LINKAGES BETWEEN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
Science, technology and development are closely related things. Indeed, one can establish a cyclical
relationship between science, technology and development process. Science influences technology and
technology influences development process. In turn, development influences science and technology. For
instance, science produces knowledge is used to produce goods and services the process called
technology. Then technology helps to improve socio-economic development through various forms
including increased incomes and modernization of infrastructures. This development will in turn promote
science and technology. On the other hand, the countries that are technologically backward they also lag
behind in other aspects of socio-economic development. This shows that science and technology have a
great role to play in socio-economic development of the society.
Main Issues to be covered in this module

1. Introduction

2. Basic Concepts: Science, Technology, Innovation and Society

3. Science and Technology Policies and Strategies in Tanzania

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 Science and Technology Strategies/Initiatives in Tanzania

Science and Technology Policies in Tanzania

4. ICT and Development in Tanzania

5. Globalization: Science and Technology

6. Technological Development and Africa’s Marginalization

1. INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Introduction

Science and technology plays a very important role towards socio-economic development of any
country. Although science and technology development have both positive and negative impacts, it is
undeniable fact that science and technology are necessary factors for national development. For
instance, while the developed countries have progressed scientifically and technologically the low
developed countries are lagging behind in science and technology are economically backward. Therefore
this shows that science and technology plays a critical role realization of goals of sustainable
development for any country.

1.2 Basic Concepts

Science

 It refers to systematic and Objective search for understanding of the natural human world. It
normally leads production of body of knowledge formed through continuous inquiry.

 Science is also defined as a systematic study or inquiry of the universe leading into the
production of knowledge that is objective, verifiable and replicable.

Technology

 Technology can be defined as the application of science to solve practical problems or achieve
human goals.

 Technology is a body of knowledge devoted to creating tools, processing actions and extracting
of materials.

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In this sense, science and technology are interrelated concepts. Technology is perceived to be “know-
how” while science is “know-what” Science produces knowledge and technology helps to produce
wealth/development by using knowledge produced by science. Science can be said to be a generator of
ideas while technology is their material embodiment. While science gives man a logical framework of his
physical and social world, technology equips man with the tools and equipment with which to respond
to the challenges of the world.

Innovation Scientific/technological innovation is defined as technological based process, or the product

of such a process, that is the result of the efforts organized system which represents a departure from
previous state. (Gattiker, 1990:20-21)

This means that an innovation can be either a process or a product that indicate a departure from the
previous processes or products. Innovation is not similar to a new product, since it requires a total
departure from previous way of doing things of previous products. Normally, innovations come as a
result of researches and development in science and technology.

In this sense, innovations are essentially in development of science and technology.

 Science is to know why; while Technology is to know how

 Technological Gaps: It refers to the differences in technological development or among countries.

Technological gap differentiates the level of scientific and technological innovations that countries
have.

 Technological Innovation: It refers to new knowledge, products or processes in the production of

goods. In other words technological innovation is considered to be anything that is perceived to be

new in technological arena, eg Analogue broadcasting system compared to digital broadcasting

technology

 Technological invention is the process in which knowledge or skills is not allowed to go outside of
the society instead of it remains inside of a particular society.

 Technological diffusion is referred to the stage in which the imported technology spreads within

the nation and to be used for general use/ application

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  Technological Adoption is referred to the stage in which a technology is selected for use by

individual or organization; people adopt technology when they start using it

 Technological Adaptation is a process whereby imported technology is or modified and used within

the nation according to the local environment.

 Technological dependency is a situation whereby a country cannot develop local technological

capabilities and depend on technology produced from other countries. In other words, a country
is considered to be technologically dependent if it is incapable of adapting imported technology.
Technological dependency is not the same as technological importation. A country can import
technology without being dependent on imported technology. For instance, developed
countries like USA, Britain, Japan, China ect import technology, but the imported technology is
modified and adapted through local technological activity to make it suitable to local
requirement

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER:

Technology transfer is a process whereby technology produced in one part of the world is exported to
other part (country) of the world. It is a process by which technological innovations originating in one
country are exported and used in another country. It involves the movement of machines, equipment,
and expertise from donor country to recipient country.

FEATURES OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

 Technological dependence; it is not ours rather we import from outside eg Richmond machines.

 Third world countries are the users of technology transfer while developed countries are the

producers is determined by developed countries.

 Technology transfer is too expensive and outdated. and

 It leads to unemployment.

METHODS USED FOR TECHNLOGY TRANSFER

An enterprise can acquire or transfer technology through a number of formal mechanisms, which include:
 Buying of machineries and equipments
 Establishment of joint ventures

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  Buying copyrights / Licensing
 Establishment of enterprises in recipient countries
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
 Through the process known as “turn-key packages”. This involves the sale of entire package of

technology including machinery, buildings, management production plans. There is no room for

recipient country to select a component. It was very popular in 1970s.

 Purchase of Equipment: Purchasing of oil refining machines, or gas processing machineries.

Note: Technological transfer is not sufficient for technological development. It must be accompanied by

technological diffusion, adoption and adaptation.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE AND TECHN0LOGY

 As we approach the twenty- first century, several new, more powerful technologies have made
their way into households and offices. Faster communication is made possible through mobile
phones and the Internet. If you look around you, you notice that technology has grown so fast
through the years that the results are quite overwhelming.
 Science, from the Latin word ‘’scientia’’ which means knowledge. It formulates theories and laws.
Technology, from the Greek word ‘’technologia’’ which means the study of art and skill. It uses the
science’s theories and laws to make equipment and apparatus. However, science and technology
work hand in hand to improve the quality of human life. The development of science produced
countless discoveries and inventions which give us positive and negative effects. There are lots of
advantages and disadvantages in which the science and technology can give to people and its
environment.
 Science and technology makes our lives simpler. Works can be done easier through high- tech
machines and equipments. It gives less work for humans and our job can be done faster. It makes
us feel comfortable and easy to live. It also helps us organize our daily activities. Nowadays,
computer is the most useful and popular invention to every people. Some may say that they can’t
do anything without a computer. Some believe, it is a sort of enjoyment. Well, in fact it is true
because computer makes life more enjoyable and through this, we may be able to discover and
explore new things. Using computer is like an adventure. It provides us all the information and is
used to solve mathematical calculations. Through science and technology, it is easier for us to

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 communicate other people. It is also significant in the field of business because transactions and
other events are done through the computer. Science and technology let every people live in an
easy and modern life. It opens the door and allows people to enter into a new world which is fully
developed and well civilized.

 Science and technology is not giving us only the positive side but it also has its disadvantages that
truly affect human life. If we look around the surroundings, it is so crowded, polluted and damaged
which is caused mainly by the existence of invented technologies throughout the world. Its
existence totally affects our mother earth and our natural environment is replaced by new big
buildings and factories that are managed by technology- based owners. Science and technology
also affects our health and lifestyles. Chemicals produced by technology are hazardous to our
health which will likely result to death and diseases. Technology- based persons are indolent
because they are too dependent on it and don’t work anymore. People’s lifestyles changed. The
traditional style of living is deleted and replaced by modern style of living that destructs our culture
and society. If we manipulated technology, then technology also manipulated us. World is being
ran by high- tech machines and innovated equipment that people think it would give us good
effects but rather it generally changed our whole life that we now forget the simple life that our
ancestors left us. Science and technology allows us to finish works without any efforts. It is a bad
influence to us.
 Reflecting on its advantages and disadvantages, we now realize its consequences when used by
us. It is up for us if we protect ourselves from exposure of existing technologies and it is within
ourselves where and what to believe among these effects.
IN SUMMARY SCIENCE AND TEHNOLOY PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING POSITIVE IMPACT TO
HUMANBEINGS
 It has speeded up easiest and fastest communication in the world
 Employment opportunities
 Improvement of social services eg education , health, roads
 Efficiency of work eg computers
 Increasing of life expectancy of human beings,
 Politically, it improves national security, radar and other detecting weapons
 Increasing of production

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NEGATIVE IMPACT
 Destruction of human environment due to air pollution, where industries are producing gases which
in turn is affecting the ozone layer
 Mass killing due to the modern weapons discovered and being used in the civil war
 Unemployment
 Mass poverty
 Moral decay, eg internets and other monographs
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, INNOVATION AND SOCIETY
It should be noted that science, technology and development are closely related. All countries that are
technologically backward they are also lagging behind in socio-economic development. We can categorize
the countries into three categories in technological development.
 The developed countries/ post industrial countries
 The Newly Industrialized countries/ Asian Tigers/ The Dragon countries
 Developing Countries
The Developed Countries: Traditionally, these are the centers of innovation. This category includes
countries of Western Europe, North America and Japan. These countries have reached at the higher levels
of technological development through indigenous technological transformation that has taken place many
years ago. In some cases more than 600 years as the case of Britain which dominated the world for many
years.
The Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)/ Asian Tigers/ Asian Dragons: These are countries that were
formerly classified as less developed, but are becoming rapidly industrialized or technologically, developed.
The first wave of countries to be identified as newly industrializing include Hong Kong, South Korea,
Singapore, and Taiwan (Asian Tigers/ Dragons. These countries underwent rapid industrial growth in the
1970s and 1980s, attracting significant financial investment, and are now associated with high technology
industries. More recently Thailand, China and Malaysia have been classified as new industrializing
countries. These countries have acquired significant scientific and technological development through
imported technology. The countries managed to leap frog the initial stages of technological development
and reached higher levels within a span of few decades.

WHY DID THE TIGERS NATIONS MANAGE TO DEVELOP THEIR TECHNOLOGIES TOO FAST?

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1. Good and implementable policies on technology transfer, diffusion, adoption and adaptation. They
succeeded due to good education system produced within their nations enabled them to adopt the new
technology from outside and the technology experts within their nations were able to learn and adopted
quickly the imported technology. Their education system invested much in science and technology.
2. Political vision and will: The government had strong political vision and will to development of science
and technology. Some governments intervened in the early stages of a nascent industry’s development
to build a critical mass of firms or farmers engaged in technological adaptation. However, where the
industry’s evolution was initiated, most government interventions were fairly moderate even if clearly
industry-specific.
3. Encouraging foreign Investments: The Tigers nations succeeded in their industrialization because they
encouraged more in Foreign Direct Investments from other industrialized states. In Taiwan for instance,
the government sought not only to attract FDI to manufacture electronics, but also to ensure that the
technological capabilities of local firms would rise to match those of foreign firms. By negotiating
contracts and founding joint ventures. Taiwani ensured that technology was transferred smoothly and
seamlessly from foreign to local firms, giving rise over time to a strong, domestically owned electronics
industry. In Malaysia, successive rounds of negotiations, generous fiscal incentives, and other
privileges for investing in the electronics sector, even after Malaysia began to lose its cheap labor
advantage.
4. Facilitating acquisition and dissemination of technologies: They engaged much in research on science
and technologies in order to improve more their former technologies. In this area, various institutions
like Universities and research centers were engaged. Also they prepared local firms to be able to
acquire technology through capacity building of their citizens. Not only of that but also, Taiwan and
Malaysia imposed the local-content regulations in the early stages of development of their electronics
industries to ensure the transfer of technologies from developed countries to local parts and
components firms is controlled. Until 1984, Taiwan assessed tariffs on color TVs and banned imports
from Japan to protect the island’s color TV industry.
5. Promoting Exports: Export-promotion measures enabled industries to develop new markets for
products and helped smaller organizations benefit from exports. For example, Indian organizations
assisted grape producers in finding a market for the produce. Chilean development organizations
helped two industry associations of small and medium-size firms to organize technological diffusion
and marketing for their members. The Chiles’ government helped with the building and promotion of a

41
 national identity for the country’s wine. This way had the following advantages: one, it increased capital
investments in technologies; two, it led competition among the companies which in turn rusted
technological innovation.
6. Developing Industrial Clusters: Where clusters could enhance efficient transmission of information,
governments, often in partnership with firms, invested in cluster-conducive infrastructure. Public
investments in land and utilities were needed to persuade firms to relocate to Taiwan’s pioneering
Hinchey Science Park, which was designed to create an “industrial ecology” in which high-technology
industries could flourish. Other examples include the Penang Cluster in Malaysia, Wine parks to
promote forward linkages from grapes in India, and the software technology parks of India (STPI).
7. Meeting technical Manpower requirements: They encouraged those Diasporas to turn back in their
homes and impart knowledge/ skills to their nations.
8. Rewarding winners, abandoning losers: They rewarded more the winners’ companies and discouraged
the companies’ losers. They believed that “let the weak die and the strong live”
Science and Technology in Africa-Developing World

Africa is the least developed continent in terms of scientific and technological progress. Although different
policies have been employed in African countries to develop science and technology, the countries
underdeveloped and continuous to be technological dependant.

Features;

1. Technological dependence
2. Failure to adapt the transferred technology
3. Importation of hardware technology and not software technology
4. Much of the transferred technology is through loans and grants.
3. SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGYSTRATEGIES/INITIATIVES

AND POLICIES IN TANZANIA

It should be noted that the obstacles to technological development in Africa is absence of clearly defines
policies and strategies to guide and manage the processes of technological development.

 Because identification of the key problems areas is the determinant of S & T choice type and
investment.

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However different initiatives have been undertaken by African Cs since early 1960’s.

a. Institutional framework
b. Policy framework

3.1 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STRAGIES/INITIATIVE IN TANZANIA

Due to the realization of the role of science and technology for socio – economic development, Tanzania
government has implemented different strategies to promote science and technology. The strategies can
be divided into two broad categories.

a. International Strategies/Initiatives
b. Local Strategies/Initiatives

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES/INITIATIVES

Various initiatives have been implemented at international level to promote the development of science and
technology most of these initiatives where had by OAU or UNO through it scientific wing named UNESCO.
Some of the initiates include:-

a. 1963 UNESCO CONFERENCE

In 1963, UNESCO conducted what is called the first United Nations Conference on the Application of
Science and Technology (UNCAST). The conference was held in Geneva and Tanganyika participated.

b. 1974 Dakar Conference

This was a follow up meeting of the Genera Conference. It was attended by the Ministers responsible for
Science and Technology.

c. 1979 United Nations Conference on S and T Development (UNCSTD)

This was a continuation of UNESCO’S Conferences. It was held in Vienna, Austria.

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 d. 1980 Lagos Conference
This was a Conference Organized by OAU. The product of this Conference was the adoption of the “Lagos
Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa: 1980 – 2000. “The declaration called for three
major Actions for effective application of Science namely:-

 Formation of national science and technology policies.

 Establishment of national science and technology systems comprising of ministries and councils for
effective administration and implementation of the national science and technology policies.
 Commitment of funding of R & D activities in Science and Technology to a minimum of 1% FDP
(Set previously by UNESCO) in 1980 to 3% GDP by the year 2000.

NATIONAL STRATEGIES/INITIATIVES

A. Institutional Initiatives

B. Policy Initiatives

A.INSTITUTIONAL INITIATIVES

The government has introduced different institutions to promote the development of S & T. Institutional
initiatives include the following:-

1. Establishment of Tanzania National Scientific Research Council (NSRC). It was established in October,
10, 1968 through parliament Act number 51.

Function.

 Coordinate Scientific Research activities in Tanzania.

2. Establishment of Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH). It was established in
1986 by the Parliament Act No 7 of 1986.

Function

 Coordinate R and D
 Supervise various R and D Organizations.
 Monitoring and Evaluation of R & D activities.

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3. Establishment of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education.

The Ministry was established in November, 1990. It has departments responsible for development of S and
T.

Function

 Coordinate of R and D
 Monitoring of R and D
 Carry out R and D.
Establishment of Ministry of Science, Technology and High Education Establishment in November 1990. It
has deferments responsible for development of S & T.

4. Establishment of other R & D institutions

a. Industry and Energy Research

 Tanzania Industrial Research Organization (TIRDO)

 Tanzania Engineering Manufacturing and Design Organization (TEMAS)
 Tanzania Bereau of Standards TBS
 Tanzania Automotive Technology Centre (TATC)
 Health and Medical Research
 Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment Education (TaTEDO)
b. Food and Agricultural Research

 Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Technology (CAMARTEC)

 Tropical Pesticides and Research Institute (TPRI)
 Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TENC)
 Sokoine University of Agriculture.
c. Natural Resource Research

 Tanzania Forest Research Institute

 Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWRI)
 Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI)
d. Social Sciences Research.

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  National Institute of Social work.
 Economic and Social Research Foundation(ESRF).
B. POLICY INITIATIVES

a. Science and Technology Policy of 1985

It was formulated in response to 1963 and 1979 UNESCO initiatives and Lagos Plan of 1980. This policy
reflected socialist (Ujamaa) orientation towards developments of S & T. With the adoption of structural
reforms in 1986, some of its contents became less valid. Therefore, there was a need of adopting a new S
& T policy.

b. Science and Technology Policy of 1996.

TANZANIA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY

Tanzania had implemented two major science and Technology policies namely the 1985 science and
technology policy that lasted for 11 years and 1996 science and technology policy that is still being
implemented today.

The 1985 Science and technology policy was designed under Ujamaa and Self-reliance policies and
therefore, it was influenced by State – led economy. By 1996, Tanzania had implemented different
economic and social reforms in the name of Economic Recovery Programmes (ERP I and ERP II). The
reforms necessitated changes in the Science and Technology Policy, therefore new policy was adopted in
April 1996.

The basic aim of it is to solve technology related problems that affect the development process and
ensuring that adequate attention and resources are devoted to promote positive contributions that
technological factors can make.

OR

To act as a tool to develop and manage S &T in a manner of consistent with physical and human
endowment

There are many things contained in the Policy that I would request you to go and read. For the purposes of
this Lecture, we would focus on the Strategies to Promote Science and Technology.

46
-gives objectives to specific sectors

-stress the need to train high quality scientists and technologists

-to ensure effective use of S & T throughout the economy.

STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN TANZANIA

Since Science and technology covers as broad area, the policy has cited the strategies basing on the
sectors. i.e The policy had divided development of Science and technology into eight (8) sectors, and
strategies indicated for each sector.

The Sectors indicated in the policy includes:

a. Food and Agriculture

b. Industry
c. Energy
d. Natural resources
e. Environment
f. Health, Sanitation and population planning
g. Transport and Communication
h. Science and Technology Education and Manpower.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

a. Agricultural research
b. Research and development in animal production
c. Agricultural productivity and extension services. Increase agriculture productivity through adequate and well
trained extension officers.
d. Agricultural mechanization
- Establishment and strengthening of agro – mechanization and oxidization centres (e.g. Form Service
Centres) that will perform both the functions of training the farmers in the use of the implements and
seniang, repair and maintenance of tools.

- The use of oxidization will be encouraged while progressively embarking on mechanical or tractor power.

e. Use of agriculture wastes

- Use of animal manure and energy production through agriculture wastes.

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INDUSTRY

a. Encouraging regional and international cooperation among industry research and development
institutions/establishments.
b. Improving mechanisms for technology transfer arrangements (from within and outside the country) with the
view of strengthening domestic design and engineering capacity.
c. Establish and strengthen research and development enterprise links.
d. Inclusion of EIA in any planning of industries in order to overt negative impact of industrial production.
ENERGY

a. Promotion of more efficient use of energy in Transport, domestic and industry sectors.
b. Rehabilitation of the electric power generation, transmission and distribution infrastructure.
c. Rehabilitation and rationalization of the petroleum ……. storage and distribution of electricity at affordable
prices and commensurate with demand.
d. Generation and distribution of electricity at affordable prices and commensurate with demand.
e. Development and promotion of renewable and other alternative energy such as Solar, wind and nuclear
power.
NATURAL RESOURCES

 Developing technologies or adapting those existing for restoration and preservation of forests.
 Promote research and development in wildlife in order to establish their diseases, food value, wildlife
products as well as human impact on the biosphere ecology.
 Research in bee keeping industry in order to modernize it.
 Introduction of new plant species, wherever appropriate, for increased productivity through breeding and
fertilization techniques and agro – forestry practices.
 Protect catchments areas to ensure to ensure continuous supply of water.
ENVIRONMENT

Environmental protection through S & T, S & T cannot develop in depleted environment.

 Establishment of permanent programme for monitoring the status of the environment.

 Increasing public knowledge about the environment and motivating people to use natural resources wisely.
 Devising mechanisms for access to transfer of environmentally safe and sound technologies through
support to endogenous capacity building.
 Incorporation of EIA into procedures for design of development projects.
 Research on resources management systems, species distribution ecology and regulation.

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HEALTH, SANITATION AND POPULATION PLANNING

 Development and application of new tools for the diagnosis and management of the common human health
problems.
 Acquisition, Storage, processing and effective utilization of reliable data on the prevalence of major human
diseases.
 Identification of the most cost effective diseases.
 Development of effective scientific ways of combating drug abuse.
 Strengthening of development and use of appropriate family planning techniques.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

 Development and strengthening of in land waterways, shipping and port management.

 Intensifying the finding of alternative funds for running public vehicles.
 Strengthening railway transportation system.
 Improvement of road transport services.
 Strengthening of air transportation
 Maintenance of satellite and computer technology facilities.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION AND MANPOWER

 Strengthening science and technology education in schools, colleges and Universities though:
- Improvement and review of Science animal and methods at all levels.
- Enhancing and expending training of Science and technology teachers at all levels.
- Development of local production of science kits and laboratory equipments.
- Review of vocational training programmes and technical colleges curricula.
- Review of the University Curricula and programmes to incorporate some scientific and
technological fields.
- Creation of high level centres of leaning for postgraduate training and research in science and
technology.
- Provision of incentives and facilities for scientists and technologists.
- Increase the enrolment of science and technology students at all levels.
Challenges

Policy does not reply to the dual question of technology for what and for whom- problems to set priorities.

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Lack of consistence of national development policy to govern overall socio-economic development; dependence
(foreign financial resources & tecnnology) Vs self reliant socialist economy.

-Or socialist &self reliance policies –entered into partnership with foreign MNC (aiming at profit maximization)

-Introduction of free market economy added contradiction

- Dependence buy equipments abnd spare from abroad, with specialized

personnel to run industries

Financial resources for S&T from external sources to transfer technology the fact that ignored by the TNST Policy
direction I left to the MNC and financial institutions controlled by the western Cs

Emphasis on the use of internal resources to achieve technological development, lack of support and dependence on
assistance.

Lack of critical understanding and awareness of the dynamics of international /external environment and its influence
of the development of S & T-era of free market economy whereby state is /can no longer be the controller /manager ,
but rather private sector.

 Lack of incentives to non specialized and craftsmen, innovations

Suggested Solutions

Identification of appropriate/relevant technology for development e.g focus on rural and agricultural sector

 Put more efforts to assist innovations support R & D on technology

 -effective transportation & communication systems in rla areas to diversify rural economy.

 Able to improve human environment-eradicate hunger, diseases and other problems

 To be creators /producers of technology not only users, that is to adapt or assimilate to suite local
needs/demands.

Challenging Questions
1. Efficient management of technology transfer is critical for reducing poverty in many developing
countries. Discuss this statement.
2. Science and technology are critical for development but can also be a cause for underdevelopment.
Discuss..

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 3. Science, technology and innovations are neglected dimensions of Millennium development Goals
(MDGs) in Africa. Discuss
4. Critically discuss the contention that rural development, in particular agricultural development, will
depend on the extent to which African invests in development of agricultural technologies.

5. Identify major problems hindering effective transfer of technology in the third world countries such
as Tanzania. Provide suggestions on how they can be addressed?

6. Critically examine the impact of globalization on the development of science and technology in the
third world countries.

7. With examples from Africa discuss the challenges and opportunities of international technology
transfer.

8. The argument today by the most leaders of Africa is that a part from the fact that globalization is
here to stay, it has in fact contributed substantially to the socio-economic and political development
of the continent. As a scholar and given your experience with Africa’s development for the past
twenty years give a critical analysis of the theoretical and practical considerations of this statement.

9. It is more than one and half decades today that almost all the countries of Africa have been
implementing the World Bank and IMF sponsored Structural Adjustment Programs. What in your
opinion have been the pros and cons of these programs? Use concrete examples from one or more
countries of Africa to illustrate your choice.

10. Industrialization in many third world countries has so failed to become the engine for economic
growth. What are the main reasons for this and what the prospects for sustainable industrialization
in Africa during this era of globalization and privatization?

MODULE III: INDUSTRY, TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT

INDUSRIES AND TRADE IN TANZANIA: LECTURE 24

PRE-COLONIAL ERA

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Did we have industrial sector in Tanzaia; yes we had

A) Mining and manufacturing sector: common mining activities were found in

-Kagera region (5th c) where Iron ore mining found at Nyirakuba, Msogezi and Kataruka.

-Kilimanjaro region (3rd c B.C) iron ore making at Bombakaburi in Pare areas

-Mwanza region (16th c A.D) iron ore at Rukaranga, Mkundwe, Nyarugusu in Geita district

-Tools used in exploiting these minerals were too primitive eg hoes, stones

B) Manufacturing Industries: included so many items

 Food processing. This included various techniques of food preservation

 Farm tools ie hoes, spades, axes, bush-knives,

 Hunting equipment, fishnets, traps hooks muzzle-loaders

 Baskets and weaving manufacturing

Therefore our ancestors were not idle rather they were hardworking

B) Energy: it supplied for the industries such as firewood and charcoal to smelt the iron ore into iron-

bars

C) Construction: road transport was not common rather there were feeder roads.

COLONIAL PERIOD: At that time Tanzania (Tanganyika) was under Germany rule (1884-1918)

-The Germans started to build the central line and followed British building Mombasa Railway in Kenya.But

the reality the colonialists did not develop African industries, rather they destroyed them by making

technological dependence as stated by Professor Rodney that “around 15th c the level of technological

development between Europe and Africa was almost the same but after the contact between the two

continents underdevelopment of African countries began to set in “

-At this time the agricultural economy was divided into the following;

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 A) Peasant agriculture production: the colonialists left agriculture production under the hands of

peasants and were insisted to grow cash crops more than food crops. Eg cashew nuts, cotton,

coffee, pyrethrum etc

B) Settler agriculture production: in Tanzania we did not have settler dominated economy but it was

found in Kenya areas around Kikuyu highlands.

C) Plantation agriculture production: sugar plantation in Arusha chini, sisal plantation in Morogoro,

Tanga, Tea plantation in Mfindi, Njombe, Lushoto, Rungwe, Kagera)

D) Mineral exploitation industries: The colonialists introduced primary industries in their colonies in

order to reduce the bulkiness of the raw materials so that they could be transported easily to their

homes.

2. Consumer goods industries: In order to feel that they were in Europe the colonialist introduced the

consumer goods industries (luxury goods industries) such as cigarette, beverage industries), food

processing industries, furniture making industries

Infrastructure: Transport during this period was externally poor because it was established purposely

by colonialists in order to transport their raw materials and thus as why the railway ran perpendicular

from Indians ocean to the interior. The ownership of economies system in colonial time mainly was;

 Companies eg IBEACO

 Asians

Evaluation: If you make evaluation of colonial industries in Africa, one can say that, colonial industries were

nothing to play for Africans because those industries introduced in Africa were processing industries.

INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN POST-COLONIAL RULE IN TANZANIA

After independence many African countries aimed at building their economies by changing the

colonial economies to African economy structure, Tanzania in particular, adopted the Import

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 Substitution Industrial Strategy (ISIS) and sometimes it was known as “In-ward-looking Industrial

Strategy”

What did it mean? It meant to manufacture the local commodities and used in side of the country instead of

importing commodities from outside .This strategy was common in USA, Latin America and adopted by

African continent after independence.

Why did we adopt ?

 To minimize the balance of payment

 Assumption of the strategy itself, that we need to have another sector rather than

depending only on agriculture sector.

 Full economic independent. Philosophy of Mwalimu Nyerere that to become full

independent we need to be self-reliant. Nyerere saw that in order to build national

economy, we should introduce two types of economies (agriculture and industrial sectors).

 For the purpose of employment: Industrial sector was possible because of making

employment for the people eg URAFIKI, UFI, SUNGURA, MUSOMA, MWANZA, TWIGA

CEMENT TEXTILES etc)

In order to protect our local industrial goods, the government took the following measures;

 Revenue generation: The government raised the tariffs in trade in order to discourage people to

import the same goods from abroad. The system was very essential in developing country because

it protected “her local industrial goods “unless otherwise her goods would be nothing. Is it possible

now under globalization to protect our local industrial goods?

In order to implement the Import Substitution Industrial Strategy(ISIS), Tanzania in particular, adopted three

years and another five years of development plan for developing all sectors in the country as follows;

 1961-1964( 3 years development plan

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  1964-1969(five years of development plan)

Therefore from 1961-1969, Tanzania implemented (ISIS) and in 1961-1969 Mwatex , kilitex and Urafiki

constructed immediately. The reason behind of introducing these industries was to save foreign currency.

Effects of the strategy (ISIS) Inward-looking strategy

The strategy contributed to the following impact;

1. Inability of the strategy itself to minimize the problem of balance of payment (b/p).The strategy

faced a lot of difficulties like: lack of experts and spear parts. The price of buying spare parts and

importing experts from abroad were higher than the profit gained from the industries.

2. Technological dependency:

The government faced technological dependency because of lack of experts from abroad. Those

imported experts from abroad consumed a lot of money compared to the profit gained of the

industries.

3. Misallocation of the resource invested

The government misallocated the invested resources. It did not consider the feasibility studies and

demands of the industries eg

 The establishment of Tanganyika Packers in DSM while it was obviously that DSM did not

have enough cattle

 The construction of Tanga cement (Tanga) while the phosphate minerals which makes

cement comes from Arusha Therefore the government spent a lot of money for

transporting phosphate from Arusha to Tanga As the day went on this strategy failed and

the government introduced another strategy known as

“Export Substitution Industrial Strategy (ESIS) or Outward-looking Industrial Strategy “

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Export Substitution Industrial Strategy (ESIS) or Outward-looking Industrial Strategy

What did it mean? Was to establish industries that processed products mainly for export for external

markets. This strategy began in 1969-1974 when the Arusha declaration was implemented by the

government. The strategy was emphasized by the implementation of the Arusha declaration which outlined

the following important issues;

 Self-reliance

 Social equality; to avoid disparities among people

 To encourage economic activities through cooperative efforts

 Encouragement of economic cooperation within developing countries, eg SADCC, East African

Community

FEATURES OF OUTWARD-LOOKING STRATEGY

 emphasized more the shifting from import substitution to export substitution strategy

 the public sector was the engine of the industrial sector

 it had low emphasis on industrialized countries

 it aimed to fostering rural development in line with Arusha declaration

EFFECTS OF EXPORT SUBSTITUTION STRATEGY (OUT WARD-LOOKING INDUSRTIES)

 the cost of agriculture commodities was very higher than processing and was similar to other

countries

 It faced a lot of competitive industrial good from abroad.

Due to those problems facing Import Substitution Strategy, the government introduced another strategy

known as “Long Term Industrial strategy (LTIS)

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Long Term Industrial strategy (LTIS)

This was in the form of Basic Industrial Strategy (BIS)

What was the concept of BIS

This was industrial sector which manufacture goods for the majority of people in the country. The

government thought that by establishing these industries will minimize more the social differences among

people, eg cement industries, cloth industries and consumer industries as basic industries for shelter.

What were the objectives?

 To restructure the economy. To change the existing structure by using existing primary products

available in the country eg sisal cotton, minerals and coffee. These should go to manufacture and

then should be sent to outside in the world market.

WHAT WERE THE FEATURES OF BIS

 Capital gods industries: industries intended to make both backward and forward linkage industries.,

e.g. iron and steel industries which manufactured bicycle, Aluminum of Africa (ALAF), Agriculture

manufacturing plant(UBUNGO) and Mbeya cement, UFI for ploughs, spades. The idea here was to

establish our own industries so that we could obtain spear parts for running our home industries

 Intermediate goods industries: were not different from capital goods, but they produced items

which were supposed to be inputs to other industries, eg the Agro-chemistry industries where

minerals such as phosphate which was found at Minjingu (Arusha) was planned to be used for

manufacturing fertilizers.

 Consumer goods industries: intended to feed the majority. Again in October 1996, Tanzania

launched another industrial Policy known as “Sustainable Industrial Development Policy-SIDP

(1996). Go to the internet read the goals, successful, and weaknesses of the policy.

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 a. Innovation system: It refers as the flow of information and technology among people,
firms and institutions in the whole process of generating, diffusion and utilization of
innovations. It is referred to the interaction between the various actors involved in the
initiation, diffusion and utilization of different types/forms of innovation such as product,
methods/techniques, marketing etc
b. Cottage industries: It refers to the kind of industry ( normally small scale ) in which the
manufacturing of goods are carried out in people’s homes while using handcraft
methods rather than machines
c. Technology patent: It is a form proprietary right awarded to the inventor for sole
ownership of technology item (invention or design) for limited period of time. It is an
intellectual property. It is grated as an incentive for those investing their time and
financial resources to come up with inventions or designs and products. As intellectual
property patent can be sold or bought and as such constitutes one of several ways
whereby technology can be transferred between business entities
d. Urban sprawl: is a model of urban growth in which the places of people’s settlement are
located far away from public offices, therefore people are using private / public transport
to travel from their homes to t5he respective offices
e. Manufactured exports: Is the product of manufacturing process where raw materials are
transformed into finished goods. Manufactured goods can be intended either for
domestic market or external markets, therefore, manufactured exports are industrial
goods that are produced and exported to other countries.
a. Balance of payment deficit : Is the ability of the country when her importation is higher than exportation

a. Rural bias development strategy: It a development strategy that focuses on the rural sector and rural areas
(agricultural development, farming, and animal husbandry), ignoring or downplaying the urban sector and urban
areas industrialization, manufacturing, service sector. The state here invest more in rural areas than urban
areas Write short notes on the following items:
b. Urban development: Is the strategies which enable people who are living in urban areas are well improved their
life both politically, economically and socially
c. Tigers/Dragon countries: These are newly industrialized countries which emerged to be the second world
countries. These are Taiwan, Singapore, North Korea south Korea, Malaysia
d. Technological capabilities: Is when a particular country is developing indigenous technology in order to solve the
society’s problems
e. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals with measurable targets and
clear deadlines for improving the lives of the world's poorest people. To meet
these goals and eradicate poverty, leaders of 189 countries signed the historic millennium
declaration at the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000. These goals are; eradication
of poverty and hunger, Universal primary education, promotion of gender equity and
empowerment, reduction of child mortality, improvement of maternal health, combat of HIV?
AIDS/ Malaria, prevention of environmental suitability, development of global partnership for
development

f. Private-public partnership (PPP). This is a collaboration/ partnership efforts between government and private in
provision of social services among people

a. Vertical transfer of technology is when technology is transferred from one entity n to another or from
one place to another. For example technology is transferred from developed country to developing
countries or from dares salaam to Mwanza while Horizontal transfer of technology is when technology

58
 is transferred from research organizations to where it can be used eg research organization like
Universities to industries
b. Food availability is when food is available in the societies at all times both qualitatively and
quantitatively while food utilization is the way the body makes the most of various nutrients in the food
which is the result of good care and feeding practices, food preparation and diversity of the diet and
intra-household distribution of food
c. Mental-resources based industries are industries that utilize the metallic minerals such as gold, silver,
platinum, nickel, iron, tin, titanium and zinc to produce different goods or products. WHILE non-
mental –based industries are industries that utilize non-metallic minerals such as uranium, and
gemstone like diamond, rubies tanzanite etc
d. Import substitution industrial strategy is industrial policy which emphasizes more on manufacturing
industrial goods and to be consumed within the country while export substitution industrial strategy
manufacturing industrial goods mainly for export outside of the country for the sake of getting foreign
currency
e. Technological diffusion is when technology from outside of the country is coming to another country and
spreads to whole societies and to be used by the society while technological invention is the process
in which knowledge or skills is not allowed to go outside of the society instead of it remains inside of a
particular society.
f. Five important elements in the innovation system
a. Government: this is the main actor / element in the innovation system. It plays a
significant roles in the whole process of innovation through formulating policies , laws,
rules and regulations , construction of infrastructures, formulating of institutions, and
providing incentives (
b. Research institutions ( R& D) to conduct research in order to generate scientific
knowledge
c. The media: TVs Radios and other social network newspapers are important area to
provide information accessible to various actors
d. Financial institutions : These includes banks and other microcredits institutions where
researcher may receive funds from them
e. Users: These are users or customers or beneficiaries of innovation
f. Academia ( education institutions ) ; these are institutions which produce human
resources / scientists who are engaging in innovation system
g. Civil society organizations: these are raising awareness among people , providing
trainings
Measures taken by Tanzanian government to promote effective industrialization
a. Allowed the flow of foreign investors in the country
b. To allow the private sector to take a leading role of the economy ( privatization )
c. Government must be a guarantor for domestic enterprises seeking loans from
national and international financial institutions
d. Reduction of interest rates inn commercial banks
e. Government directly provide capital
f. Political stability

CHALLENGING QUESTIONS IN MODULE 2:

1. Compare and contrast import substitution industry from export substitution industry, and which

strategy do you think is more profitable to the another

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 2. Give reason why did import substitution failed in Tanzania ?

MODULE IV: Globalization and Regional Integration

 The concept of Globalization- definitions
 The answer is yes and no. globalization through IMF and World Bank sponsoring SAPs has a

lot conditionality which are bided to these assistances eg devaluation of local currency,

removal subsidize in agriculture sector, cost sharing, minimize government expenditure,

privatization, free markets and multi-party system etc. Their assistances always in order to

complement our development and not to give us real development because have a lot of

strings.

Definitions of the concepts:

1. Regional integration: is the unification of neighboring states working within the frame to promote

free movement of goods, services, factors of production and to coordinate and harmonize their

policies.

2. Regional cooperation: is a process and means by which a group of countries strive to increase
their levels of welfare ie reduction of poverty and economic malaise (problems

BACKGROUND OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND COOPERATION

The background of regional integration and cooperation in Africa started many years ago. It can be traced

back since 1910’s with the establishment of Southern African countries Union (SACU) in the southern

REASONS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF RI & CO

Regional integration has been developed because;

 1. It is viewed as a solution of solving economic problems of the African states. Eg the economic

stagnation of Africa was growing too fast and economic integration has been viewed in terms of

cooperation to widen the markets for member countries and economic issues.

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  2.To solve the problem of political conflict, civil war and political unrest which frequently occur in

Africa eg Sudan-Ecowas, Congo-Great lakes, Uganda-EAC, Somalia- higard countries),

Baregu points out that regionalism has been seen as the best solution to conflicts, the higher the level of

the regions, the lower the degree of conflicts

Is it true that the essence of RI and CO minimizes the political conflicts in Arica?

Answer: sometimes yes or no: SADCC (chiluba and Bakili Muluzi wanted to change their constitution and

SADCC intervened, EAF (Museven succeeded to change the Ugandan constitution, Museven invaded

Congo nothing played by SADCC, ECOWAS failed to resolve political conflict in Ivory coast, Chad, Sudan,

AU fails in Somalia, etc

YES: The Kenyans Conflicts after election 2007, the chairman of AU Kikwete by that time intervened the

conflicts, again 2008 he intervened in Comoro.

Gwakwandi (1996) argues that RI and Co is necessary because it can solve ethnic tensions existing within

states and hence eliminate threats of domination of small groups over the others

3. RI and CO has been seen as a solution to the problem of marginalization of Africa within the

context of global economy. This will happen after the combination between the themselves and

core organizations eg IMF<WB<WHO <FAO< UNESCO UNECEF

THEORIES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

 NEO-FUNCTIONALIST THEORY

The theory is centered on the following ideas “that the society is composed of various groups of interests

and integration process would be better to satisfy their needs.

-Essential thing for neo-factionalist theory is the idea of spill-over according to which integration would

deepen from economic to political and the result would be an integrated union of states.

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-The neo-functionalist theory tries to suggest that RI and CO will lead to technocratic elites and therefore

governance of the union would not be based on ideological grounds, but on pragmatic satisfaction of

interests and technocratic expertise.

 Inte-governmentalism theory:

This is based on the ground that RI and CO always put government together and therefore people can

couple or adopt some changes.

DRIVERS OF RI AND CO

1. External forces of the global trading system:

-The introduction of the global trade system, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was

created more than 50 years ago transformed the WTO which made the exploitation of African

economies.

2. The rise of globalization:

Definitions of globalization; hyper globalize defines globalization as a new stage of human history

in which the states become powerlessness to control their economic and political issues; skeptic

school of thought defines globalization as a big myth which conceal the reality of international

economy ; there is nothing more than searching maximum profit through free market economy and

privatization.

-Globalization uses as technology transfer to dominate the periphery as stated by Charles Copper in

his book known as “A new Europe in the changing the Global system” argues that “technology transfer

in the third world countries is paradox information. The buyers of technology can not in nature know

precisely what they are buying and therefore in the market where the costs are determined by

bargaining power, they may pay more of what they are required to pay”

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-The globalization is increasingly the marginalization African states socially, economically and politically

(this has made African states to formulate economic integration as a solution eg NEPAD, ECOWAS,

COMESA etc

3. The European union’s:

-The European Union’s is the largest trading partner in African states eg UK, Germany, France etc

4. Unilateral initiatives

-These are agreements made between developed countries and African states aiming at running

economic activities. E.g. “US-African growth and Opportunity Act”. Under this Act, one of the

objectives is to produce a chance for Africans export goods to USA’ markets on a non-reciprocal

basis (AGOA)

SUCCESS OFREGIONAL INTEGRATION AND COOPERATION

Regional integration and cooperation member states have been succeeded a lot in terms of;

1. Trade activities

-They have succeeded in terms of having free tariffs on trade. The member states are selling

their goods freely to another country. In order to achieve that free tariffs they have introduced

the following programs:

 Transport program that removes non-physical barriers in order to strengthen transit

facilitation, harmonize customs and improve overall trade efficiency.

Eg the common market for Eastern and southern Africa (COMESA) has harmonized

load limits and load transit charges for its members and introduce a regional guarantee

and third part insurance scheme; the Economic community of West African states

(ECOWAS) and Southern African development Community and coordination (SADCC)

have introduced comprehensive transport facilitation programs

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  EG East African Community which comprises Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda,

Burundi have now succeeded to to formulate the followings

 The East African Court of Justice where is head quarter is In Arusha – Tanzania,

 The East African Legislative Assembly

 Have succeeded to establish the milestones eg Custom unions, common market, The East

African Community Custom Union-the custom union protocol was signed in March 2004 and came

into effect on January 1, 2005. This means that those east African member states are required to

eliminate their tariffs. The implementation of the Custom union protocol will result in increased

intra-trade among partner states, increased competition that will increase consumer’s choice,

reduction of costs, and attraction of foreign direct investment.

 East African Common Market

 The Monetary union and political Federation aren’t yet implemented,

3. Energy:

-The member states have succeeded a lot to minimize energy costs. For instance the member states are

now using regional hydropower policy to share energy across countries.Eg SADCC has been a pioneer by

creating the Southern African Power Pool in August 1995; the ECOWAS (Benin, Cote de Voire –Ivory

Coast, Ghana and Togo) have formed their link known as “ west African Power Pool”

4. Communication

There is a global revolution in telecommunication, technology and growing commercialization and

privatization of national rules of movement of people. There has been done in order to encourage labor

mobility across the countries.

5. Peace and security

They have succeeded a lot to settle/ solve the civil war in Mozambique (SADCC- FRELIMO vs RENAMO;

Angola –MPLA, FNLA under Savimbi Jonas,), East African Federation (Kenyan chaos), African Union
64
(Comoro) and Somalia. In order to maintain peace and security the member states are taking economic

sanction (embargo) to a country which causes critical problems to another country.

 Can African regional integrations fight against globalization? ANSWER NO THEY

CAN’T FIGHT

CHALENGES FACING REGIONAL INTERGRATION:

Although the regional integration and cooperation states are succeeded, they face a lot of challenges;

1. Political conflict/ strife

The political conflicts among the member states are still existing eg Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan

(Darfur), Chad (ECOWAS).

2. Colonial legacy

The member states are still holding the colonial legacy which in terms lead to selfishness among

themselves eg one country considers to be more superior to other country; Anglo-phone countries, Franco-

phone (assimilado) and Portuguese phone.

3. Unequal development

Some member states are rich and others are poor economically. So when it comes to the time of

contribution to their integration some of the poor countries fail to pay; .eg The AU held in Lusaka 2007

some member states of AU failed to contribute their funds and the late Mohamed Gaddaffi of Libya took

their burden for paying all funds.

4. Low level of education of citizens among the member states

This makes some citizens of member states fail to participate / allow the labor mobility. Eg During the time

of opinions pool of East African Federation one of the comments provided by Tanzanian citizens to

Professor Wange’s committee was that, Tanzanians must enter in EAF slowly because Tanzanians are not

educated enough compared to Kenyans.

-If your people are not educated enough under globalization era, then your people will be the looser.
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5 Power Monger

Some African leaders are not ready to leave their power through constitution methods (election). This has

brought political conflicts

6. Religions

Islam and Christians, each side is struggling to rule the government. eg Nigeria Islam (BOKO Haram are

fighting against Christians), the Northern Sudan under Islam and Southern SUDAN 7. 7. Political Union

challenge, the members of this union fear to lose their sovereignty. The fear is that as a Federation the

nation states would cease to have any meaningful powers; that they would be relegated to mere provinces

within the federation. This fear cannot be ignored and mechanism is needed to eliminate such fears. This is

also a political challenge

er Christians are fighting every day ,

Challenging Questions

1. Account for the types and origins of threats causing regional security formation in Eastern

Africa, and propose a viable way to curb the insecurity.

2. Regional integration schemes have different milestones depending on the desire and

consensus by the participating states/ countries. Using the East African Community (EAC),

discuss these milestones and the development opportunities they present to the citizens of the

member states

MODULE V: SOCIAL SEVICES DELIVERY

Social Services Delivery what does it mean? Are a range of public services provided by any national or

regional government organization for its residents? Social services include the benefits and facilities such

as education, food subsidies, health care, and subsidized housing provided by a government to improve

the life and living conditions of the children, disabled, the elderly, and the poor in the national community.

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EDUCATION

There has been considerable progress in Tanzanian primary education following the implementation of the
Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) in2000.Enrollment rates have gone up, according to data
compiled by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC), children are entering school at an earlier age.
Gross enrollment ratios went up from 78 in 2000, to 106 in 2004, surpassing the 2003 Poverty Reduction
Strategy (PRS) target of 90. During the same period, net enrollment went up from 59 to 91, achieving the
PRS target of 905. The number of those completing primary school rose from 71% in 1997 to 79%. An
independent Policy and Services Satisfaction Survey conducted by REPOA in 2003 found that parents are
generally pleased with PEDP, the abolition of school fees and the resulting expansion of enrollment.

Proportions of respondents (82% overall, 77% urban and 83% rural) report finding it “easy” or “very easy “to
obtain a place in primary school for a child7, and the situation appears to have been no different in 2001
and 2003 (82% and 87%, respectively). Nonetheless, the quality of primary education remains concern.
According to the most recent Poverty and Human Development Report of 2005, the number of classrooms
and desks in primary schools has increased, but more qualified teachers and more books are needed to
keep pace with increased enrollment. Data from MoEC indicates that the pupil to teacher ratio has
increased from 54 in 2002 to 59 in 2004, and this ratio varies considerably across different geographical
regions. The differences are even greater when access to trained teachers is taken into account; some
urban areas show a 20% increase in trained teachers, while some rural areas report only a 5% increase.
Moreover, in REPOA’s 2003 Policy and services Satisfaction Survey, almost half (45%) of all parents
interviewed were concerned about poor examination performance, and about 40% mentioned the shortage
of teachers, a lack of textbooks and large classes as still being “major problems”. When asked what the
government should do to improve the education system, over 90% said providing more textbooks was very
important.

Komba, Nkumbi and Warioba (2014) argue that Tanzania has, ever since gaining independence in 1961,
been committed to the Universal Primary Education (UPE). However, by the late 1990s, the primary
education system was in crisis, with fewer than half of Tanzania’s school age population attending primary
school, whilst many of those who were attending were receiving poor quality of education. They further
argue that there are debates as to whether the increases in key quantitative inputs in the education
process, notably classroom construction and teacher recruitment, have been sufficient to compensate for

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the rapid expansion in access to primary education. Furthermore, in addressing the shortage of teachers in
primary schools, MoEVT revised the two year Grade IIIA teacher education program into a one-year
program followed by one- year school based training. There has been much criticism about the new
program. Concern has been raised by the Tanzania Teachers’ Union and academics about the quality of
the teachers produced under the new program. A similar crush program was designed to train
paraprofessional teachers for the Complementary Basic Education program (COBET) to cater for primary
education needs of the out of school children. The concern about these crash programs revolves around
the adequacy of the professional support that the school management can provide to these teachers who
have been prepared in a rush.

On the other hand Mbeba (2014) asserts that the introduction of education programs both PEDP and SEDP
contributed much to the deterioration of the quality of education in Tanzania. He points further that When
PEDP was implemented in 2002; once again a three month college-based program was re-introduced.
Teachers were introduced to teaching and other related courses without subject knowledge. The remaining
time of learning for licensed trained teachers was spent in the schools. The Government admits that within
two years of implementation of the program the demand for teachers had been almost met (URT, 2004).
The idea of SEDP was that within three months teachers will be equipped enough to teach students in their
secondary schools. But, unfortunately, the academic aspect of teacher education was not emphasized
because emphasis was on pedagogy. Therefore, the High School leavers were to undergo three months of
training. In 2006, the MoEVT employed 3,500 crash trained teachers in secondary schools and in the same
year 2006, about 6,000 Form six leavers also joined the same short course at various Teachers Training
Colleges in the country, and later were to teach in secondary schools as licensed trained teachers. The
government also directed them that within five years of licensing teaching, they should upgrade their levels
of education and acquire Diploma certificate or Degree otherwise they would be terminated from
employment (Nyangwe, 2007; Mussika, 2002; Mosha, 2004; Fungo, 2008).

The SEDP resulted in mushrooming of secondary schools at community level. Every community was
encouraged, and very enthusiastically responded by building at least one secondary school to ensure
transition of primary school leavers to secondary school. The education statistics show that Government
secondary schools increased by 332% from 649 in 2003 to 2,806 in 2007 while Non-Government schools
increased by 57% over the same period (United Republic of Tanzania, 2007). Even those communities
previously viewed as education non-enthusiasts, this time emerged with vigour and they built secondary

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schools. Singida Region for example, which statistically had been the poorest region in terms of primary
seven pupil performance, had an increase of over 200 percent of secondary schools in three years (2005-
2007). Shinyanga, another region poorly developed in terms of education infrastructure, interpreted SEDP
as an opportunity to bridge the gap that existed between the region and other regions, by building
community schools more than any other region, in the same period (Mosha, 2004). This move further
exacerbated demand for teachers. As could be expected, the supply and demand of secondary school
teachers was at its worst state Tanzania had ever seen.

WATER
Access to clean and safe domestic water is prerequisite to improved health outcomes. There is a close link
between water supply, sanitation, hygiene practices and diseases, especially cholera. Delivery of
household water continues to be a problem for Mainland Tanzanians. The 2003 Afro barometer survey
found that 52% of respondents thought the government was doing “very” or “fairly “badly in delivering water
to households. Results from the 2005 survey suggest that the situation is deteriorating, particularly in the
rural areas. Overall, 56% of respondents are now dissatisfied. The water situation does seem to have
improved over the last couple of years in urban localities, but the same does not hold for the rural areas,
where dissatisfaction is on the increase. From 2003 to 2005, the percent of urban respondents giving the
government a negative evaluation declined from 54% to 40%, but increased from 51% to 60% among the
rural respondents.

HEALTH AND ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

In general, trends in health show a mixed picture. Recent national data indicate substantial reductions in
infant and under-five mortality. According to indirect estimates from census data, during the period1978 to
2002, infant mortality fell from 137 to 95 per1, 000 live births, and under-five mortality declined from 231 to
162 per 1,000 live births. From the 1999and 2004/05 DHS surveys, infant and under-five mortality declined
from 99 to 68 and from 147 to 112per 1,000 live births, respectively. More effective prevention and
treatment of malaria, increased vitamin A supplementation, and reductions in malnutrition are thought to be
important contributors to improved health outcomes. Immunization rates have also been sustained at a high
level. Yet, there remain substantial urban-rural, regional and socio-economic differences. Rural poor
children are more likely than their urban counterparts to die. Furthermore, maternal mortality is unchanged,
and continues to be very high: 578 women die for every 100,000 live babies born. Effective access to

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quality health care, but especially to emergency obstetric care services, is a prerequisite to ensuring
improved maternal health care. Evidence from several national studies and vulnerability assessments
suggests that many poor people, particularly women and children, fail to access quality health care. There
remain many obstacles, including: health care charges and other “unofficial costs” for drugs and supplies,
as well as unofficial payments; long distances; and inadequate.
Local Government Reforms in Tanzania and Service Delivery
Local Government Reform Program in Tanzania is one among the major reforms in the Public Sector
Reform Program which includes the Public Financial Management Reform Program and The Legal Sector
Reform Program. The Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP) in Tanzania aims to restructure local
government authorities so that they can respond more effectively to local priorities of service delivery in a
sustainable manner. Various sector reform programmes are undertaken in line with the Local Government
reforms to complement the LGRP by focusing on specific sectors. These are such as the Health Sector
Reform and the Primary Education Development Program are subsequently targeted to improve service
delivery directly. (Katera and Ngalewa; 2008)The Tanzania Government Poverty Reduction Strategy
(TGPRS) document clearly spells out these reforms and the main objective being to improve service
delivery to the public. (GOT; 2000). According to Ngwale (2005) and Lukamai (2006), the Local
Government Reforms as part of the major public sector reforms are used as a driving vehicle of
Decentralization by Devolution (D-by-D) policy to strengthen the local government Authorities with the
overall objective of improving service delivery to the public .Thus, made it through transferring power of the
decision making, functional responsibilities, and resource from central government to local government
authority (ibid). Shukuru (2006) however, points out that there have been cases including lack of
involvement of stakeholders in planning process, on the side of the human resources involved in the
process. Article 146 (1) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 also clearly
mandates powers and resources to all Local Government levels to ensure service delivery to the people
there to. This is geared towards making them largely autonomous, democratically governed and deriving
legitimacy through services which they deliver to people in accordance to grassroots level dwellers
priorities as communicated to government decision-makers. These reforms have been implemented but the
questions that remain interesting and relevant to many scholars and stake holders in this area includes;
what has been achieved by these reforms in recent years since when they were adopted and
implemented? Have there been any changes in the provision of basic services to the public? What factors
may explain distinct challenges and improvements in service delivery? Typically, such reform programs

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targeted service delivery primarily through capacity building of the „supply‟ side of service provisioning,
such as institutional strengthening, strategic planning, training and increased budgetary allocations. On all
these accounted reforms public service delivery and management is still plunged with inefficiency and
unsatisfactory delivery of service. Corruption which was declared as the main targeted enemy and
empowering it by establishing a special institution by law seems to be alarming and consolidating its roots
and creating a social class of its own in the country.(Mwanahalisi;2007). Corruption is still widespread, in
spite of the national anti-corruption policies and instruments. Tanzania maintained its position in
Transparency International Corruption Index between 2004 and 2005 (ranked as 96), despite
Government’s apparent commitment to mitigate if not eradicate it, as demonstrated by recent increases in
official support for the apex anti-corruption agency, the Prevention of Corruption Bureau. This condition
undermines the service delivery strategies and economic progress generally and retards the growth of
democratic values of openness and accountability in the use of public resources. Although the Kikwete
Administration appears to re-energize the anti-corruption agenda with fresh exhortations, the agenda still
stands elusive. Abuse of human rights by public officials are still profound and reported by citizens in
service delivery (Mwananchi; 2010). After two decades of generously and massive donor-funded public
sector reforms programmes such as the Sustainable Cities Programme, Local Government reforms as part
of the public sector reforms the quality of urban living is deteriorating with rising incidences of chronic
epidemics (malaria, cholera) and the breakdown of critical public infrastructure deterioration, poor sanitation
and uncollected refuse in major cities, rise of crime rate and other social disorders. The public service
through Local Government is still far from providing the much needed service delivery to the citizens. It was
asserted that public sector reforms would improve the way government institutions operates and hence
improve service delivery as a result of implementing the reforms within public sector. This study is
envisioned to be part of the search for the answers to these questions and contribute for improved service
delivery in the county.
HOUSING AND URBAN PLANNIG
 Planned settlement
 Unplanned settlement
 Causes of these two types of settlement
 Measures taking by the government to address the problem

Challenging Questions Module 6

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 1. The socio-economic developments in Tanzania after the Arusha Declaration had a significant impact
on social services provision. With examples from education or health sector substantiate this
statement.
2. “Privatization of social services in Africa has led to unequal systems of service provision which
reinforce economic and social inequalities”. Using examples from either the education sector discuss
this statement and recommend policy measures that might be useful in redressing negative impact of
privatization of social delivery services.
3. “Liberalization and privatization policies in education and health care delivery systems have led to
growing gap along gender, rural, urban and class line”. Discuss with examples.
4. Critically discuss the contention that “the quality of public education in Tanzania has been declining
over the past two decades”.
5. What steps is the Tanzania government taking to improve the provision of primary and secondary
education in Tanzania? What problems do you foresee in the implementation of such policies?
6. “The persistent health problems in developing countries are partly due to predominance of the
medical perspectives in the definition of health and provision of health care”. Critically examine this
contention.
7. “Globalization through Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) has affected both education and
health sectors delivery systems”. Provide a thorough account of these effects.

Module VI: Contemporary Issues in Development Perspectives

 . Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a
"blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all".[1] The SDGs
were set up in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UN-GA) and are
intended to be achieved by 2030. They are included in a UN-GA
Resolution called the 2030 Agenda or what is colloquially known as Agenda
2030.[2] The SDGs were developed in the Post-2015 Development Agenda as the
future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development
Goals which ended in 2015.
The 17 SDGs are: (1) No Poverty, (2) Zero Hunger, (3) Good Health and Well-being,
(4) Quality Education, (5) Gender Equality, (6) Clean Water and Sanitation,
(7) Affordable and Clean Energy, (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth, (9) Industry,
Innovation and Infrastructure, (10) Reduced Inequality, (11) Sustainable Cities and
Communities, (12) Responsible Consumption and Production, (13) Climate Action,

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(14) Life Below Water, (15) Life On Land, (16) Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions,
(17) Partnerships for the Goals.
Though the goals are broad and interdependent, two years later (6 July 2017) the SDGs
were made more "actionable" by a UN Resolution adopted by the General Assembly.
The resolution identifies specific targets for each goal, along with indicators that are
being used to measure progress toward each target.[3] The year by which the target is
meant to be achieved is usually between 2020 and 2030.[4] For some of the targets, no
end date is given.
To facilitate monitoring, a variety of tools exist to track and visualize progress towards
the goals. All intention is to make data more available and easily understood.[5] For
example, the online publication SDG Tracker, launched in June 2018, presents
available data across all indicators.[5] The SDGs pay attention to multiple cross-cutting
issues, like gender equity, education, and culture cut across all of the SDGs. There
were serious impacts and implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on all 17 SDGs in the
year 2020.[6]
 Intra-state conflict, terrorism, and unconstitutional changes of
government are three of the biggest security issues in Africa to monitor in
2022. These are ongoing concerns, and the continental response (especially
that of the AU Peace and Security Council (PSC)) to these threats will be
closely observed.
 Gender inequality

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