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Project Design for
Geomatics Engineers
and Surveyors
Project Design for Geomatics Engineers and Surveyors, Second Edition, continues
to focus on the key components and aspects of project design for geomatics and land
surveying projects with the goal of helping readers navigate the priority issues when
planning new projects. The second edition includes new materials on surveying and
UAV, and it is thoroughly updated to keep current with the recent technology and ter-
minology. The two new chapters capture new developments in the rapidly emerging
use of remote sensing and GIS in aerial surveys, mapping, and imaging for small-to-
medium-scale projects, as well as modern practices and experiences in engineering
surveying.
• Provides a simple guide for geomatics engineering projects using recent and
advanced technologies.
• Includes new content on spatial data collection using GIS, drones, and 3D
digital modeling.
• Covers professional standards; professional and ethical responsibilities; and
policy, social, and environmental issues related.
• Discusses project planning including scheduling and budgeting.
• Features practical examples with solutions and explains new methods for
planning, implementing, and monitoring engineering and mining surveying
projects.
Undergraduate and graduate students, professors, practicing professionals, and sur-

veyors will find this new edition useful, as well as geospatial/geomatics engineers,
civil engineers, mining engineers, GIS professionals, planners, land developers, and
project managers.
Project Design for
Geomatics Engineers
and Surveyors
Second Edition
Clement A. Ogaja, Nashon J. Adero,

and Derrick Koome
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Second edition published 2023

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2023 Clement A. Ogaja, Nashon J. Adero, and Derrick Koome
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
First edition published by CRC Press 2020
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ogaja, Clement A., author. | Adero, Nashon Juma, author. | Koome, Derrick, author.
Title: Project design for geomatics engineers and surveyors / Clement Ogaja, Nashon Adero, Derrick Koome.
Other titles: Geomatics engineering
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. |
Revised edition of: Geomatics engineering : a practical guide to project design / Clement A. Ogaja.
Boca Raton : CRC Press, c2011. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Summary: “Project Design for Geomatics Engineers and Surveyors, Second Edition”, continues to focus on
the key components and aspects of project design for geomatics and land surveying projects with the goal
of helping readers navigate the priority issues when planning new projects. The second edition includes
new materials on surveying and UAV, and it is thoroughly updated to keep current with the recent tech-
nology and terminology. The two new chapters capture new developments in the rapidly emerging use of
remote sensing and GIS in aerial surveys, mapping, and imaging for small-to-medium scale projects, as
well as modern practices and experiences in engineering surveying”–Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022046427 (print) | LCCN 2022046428 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032266794 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032285160 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003297147 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Surveying. | Geomatics. | Project management. | Geographic information systems.
ISBN: 978-1-032-26679-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-28516-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-29714-7 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003297147
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface (Second Edition)......................................................................................... xiii
Preface (First Edition)............................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................xvii
Authors.....................................................................................................................xix
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations.......................................................................xxi
PART I Overview
Chapter 1 Project Design Process..........................................................................3

1.1 Understanding Project Requirements.........................................3
1.1.1 Scope, Time, and Budget..............................................3
1.1.2 Design Framework........................................................ 4
1.2 Information Gathering................................................................5
1.2.1 Existing Sources............................................................5
1.2.1.1 Survey Control Data......................................5
1.2.1.2 Existing Photography....................................6
1.2.1.3 Existing Maps................................................6
1.2.1.4 Plans and Legal Property Descriptions.........7
1.2.1.5 Agency Contacts and Interviews...................7
1.2.2 Ground Information......................................................7
1.2.2.1 Reconnaissance..............................................8
1.2.2.2 Surveys...........................................................8
1.3 Design Approaches.....................................................................9
1.3.1 Workflow Design...........................................................9
1.3.2 Schematic Design........................................................ 10
1.4 Scheduling and Cost Estimating.............................................. 11
1.4.1 General Steps in Geomatics Projects.......................... 11
1.4.1.1 Steps in a GNSS Control Survey Project..... 12
1.4.1.2 Steps in a Topographic Mapping Project..... 13
1.4.1.3 Steps in a Boundary Survey Project............ 14
1.4.1.4 Steps in a GIS Project.................................. 14
1.4.1.5 Steps in Aerial Survey/Mapping Project..... 15
1.4.2 Project Scheduling...................................................... 15
1.4.3 Cost Estimating Principles.......................................... 16
1.5 Writing Proposals..................................................................... 18
Bibliography........................................................................................ 19
Exercises..............................................................................................20
v
vi Contents
PART II Contemporary Issues
Chapter 2 Standards and Specifications...............................................................25

2.1 Definitions................................................................................25
2.2 Application Modes of a Standard.............................................25
2.3 Units of Measure......................................................................26
2.3.1 Metric Scales...............................................................28
2.3.2 Conversion Factors .....................................................28
2.3.3 Mapping Scales...........................................................28
2.4 Accuracy versus Precision........................................................28
2.4.1 GNSS Accuracy Measures.......................................... 29
2.4.2 Examples of 2D Accuracy Measures.......................... 31
2.4.3 3D Accuracy Measures............................................... 32
2.5 Equipment Specifications......................................................... 32
2.6 Limits of Closure......................................................................34
2.7 Least Squares Analysis............................................................. 35
2.8 Mapping and GIS Standards.................................................... 36
2.8.1 Map Scale.................................................................... 36
2.8.1.1 How to Interpret Numerical Map Scales........ 37
2.8.2 Map Resolution........................................................... 37
2.8.3 Map Accuracy............................................................. 38
2.9 Classical Surveying Standards.................................................40
2.10 GPS Surveying Standards........................................................ 41
2.11 Other Standards........................................................................44
Bibliography........................................................................................ 45
Exercises..............................................................................................46
Chapter 3 Professional and Ethical Responsibilities........................................... 49

3.1 Know What You Do................................................................. 49
3.1.1 Typical Work Activities............................................... 49
3.1.2 Work Conditions.......................................................... 50
3.1.3 Qualifications.............................................................. 51
3.2 Ethics and Professional Conduct.............................................. 51
3.2.1 Principles..................................................................... 51
3.2.2 Rule Ethics and Social Contract Ethics...................... 53
3.2.3 FIG Model................................................................... 54
3.3 Individual and Team Responsibilities...................................... 56
3.3.1 Regarding Your Work................................................. 56
3.3.2 Regarding Your Boss................................................... 56
3.3.3 Regarding Associates and Colleagues........................ 56
3.3.4 Communicating Your Ideas......................................... 57
3.3.5 Staying Technically Competent.................................. 57
3.3.6 Managing Your Time.................................................. 58
Bibliography........................................................................................ 59
Exercises..............................................................................................60
Contents vii
Chapter 4 Policy, Social, and Environmental Issues........................................... 61

4.1 Policy Issues............................................................................. 61
4.1.1 Professional Qualifications.......................................... 61
4.1.2 Access to Public Information and Records................. 61
4.1.3 Mandatory Filing Requirements and Fees.................. 62
4.1.4 Best Practice Guidelines, Rules, and Procedures....... 63
4.1.5 Land (Development) Policies...................................... 70
4.1.5.1 Local Land Use Regulations....................... 71
4.1.6 Environmental Policy and Regulations....................... 72
4.1.6.1 Example 1: Environmental Land Use
Restrictions.................................................. 72
4.1.6.2 Example 2: Specially Protected Areas........ 72
4.2 Social and Global Issues........................................................... 73
4.2.1 Project Stakeholders.................................................... 74
4.2.2 Bureaucracy and Ethical Considerations.................... 75
4.2.3 Worldwide Land Registration Systems....................... 75
4.3 Environmental Issues............................................................... 76
4.3.1 Sustainable Development............................................ 76
4.3.2 Environmental Impact................................................. 77
4.3.3 Green Design............................................................... 78
4.3.4 Case Examples............................................................ 79
Bibliography........................................................................................ 82
Exercises.............................................................................................. 83
PART III Planning and Design
Chapter 5 Boundary Surveys............................................................................... 89

5.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 89
5.2 How Are Boundary Lines Established?................................... 89
5.3 Boundary Types and Boundary Markers.................................90
5.4 Boundary Survey Design and Procedures................................ 91
5.4.1 Information Gathering................................................ 91
5.4.1.1 Encroachments and Gaps............................92
5.4.1.2 Research of Land Records...........................92
5.4.1.3 Title Search.................................................. 93
5.4.1.4 Adjoining Property...................................... 93
5.4.2 Analysis of Information.............................................. 93
5.4.2.1 Monuments..................................................94
5.4.2.2 Discrepancies...............................................94
5.4.2.3 Fieldwork Preparation..................................94
5.4.3 Boundary Survey......................................................... 95
5.4.3.1 Fieldwork..................................................... 95
5.4.3.2 Office Work.................................................97
viii Contents
5.5 Legal Considerations in Boundary Determination..................97

5.5.1 Conflicting Title Elements........................................... 98
Bibliography........................................................................................99
Exercises............................................................................................ 100
Chapter 6 Control Surveys................................................................................. 101

6.1 General Considerations.......................................................... 101
6.1.1 Project Scope and Requirements............................... 101
6.1.1.1 Number and Physical Location of
Project Points............................................. 101
6.1.1.2 The Layout of Project Area....................... 101
6.1.1.3 Accuracy and Datum of Control................ 102
6.2 GNSS Control Surveys........................................................... 102
6.2.1 Individual Site Considerations.................................. 102
6.2.2 Continuously Operating GNSS Networks................. 103
6.2.2.1 GNSS Processing Using Online Services......105
6.3 Typical Workflow of a GNSS Project..................................... 107
6.3.1 Station Recon............................................................ 107
6.3.2 Existing Control........................................................ 108
6.3.3 Equipment Inventory................................................. 108
6.3.4 Field Data Sheets....................................................... 108
6.3.5 Training and Management........................................ 109
6.3.6 Evaluate Site Characteristics..................................... 109
6.3.7 Determine When Difficult Monuments
Must Be Visited......................................................... 109
6.3.8 Coordinate and Supervise......................................... 109
6.3.9 Work Up Detailed Observation Plans....................... 110
6.3.10 Control Network Optimization................................. 110
6.4 Designing a GNSS Survey Network....................................... 111
6.4.1 Standards and Design Criteria.................................. 111
6.4.2 Station Locations, Distribution, and Access............. 112
6.4.3 Plan of Project Points................................................ 113
6.4.4 Design by Least Squares and Simulation.................. 114
6.4.4.1 Computation of GDOP and Its Effect
on the Position Results............................... 116
6.4.4.2 Use of Predicted GDOP Maps................... 117
6.4.4.3 Network Design Terminology................... 117
6.4.4.4 Summary of Procedures for Design by
Simulation.................................................. 118
6.5 GNSS Observation Planning and Optimization..................... 118
6.5.1 Forming GNSS Baselines and Loops........................ 118
6.5.2 Finding the Number of GNSS Sessions.................... 119
6.5.3 GNSS Optimization.................................................. 121
6.5.3.1 How Are the Elements of the Cost
Matrix in Table 6.4 Interpreted?................ 127
Contents ix
6.5.3.2 Calculating the Optimal Session Schedule........128

Bibliography...................................................................................... 128
Exercises............................................................................................ 129
Chapter 7 Topographic Surveys......................................................................... 133

7.1.1 Project Scope and Requirements............................... 133
7.1.1.1 Sample Topographic Survey Request........ 134
7.1.2 Other General Considerations................................... 134
7.1.2.1 Topographic Survey Planning Checklist...... 134
7.1.2.2 Rights-of-Entry.......................................... 136
7.1.2.3 Sources of Existing Data........................... 136
7.2 Project Control for Topographic Surveys............................... 136
7.2.1 Establishing Control at a Project Site........................ 138
7.2.2 Project Control Densification Methods..................... 139
7.2.3 Extending Control from a Local Project or Network.....140
7.2.4 Extending Control from a Distant Network.............. 140
7.2.4.1 Using Online GNSS Processing
Services...................................................... 141
7.2.5 Approximate Control for an Isolated Project............ 141
7.3 Map Scale and Contour Interval............................................. 143
Bibliography...................................................................................... 145
Exercises............................................................................................ 146
Chapter 8 GIS Application................................................................................. 149

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 149
8.2.1 Data Requirements.................................................... 150
8.2.2 Level of Accuracy..................................................... 150
8.2.3 Existing Information................................................. 152
8.3 System Design Process........................................................... 155
8.3.1 Selecting a GIS System............................................. 155
8.3.2 Designing a GIS System............................................ 156
8.4 Input Data from Fieldwork..................................................... 157
8.4.1 Utilizing GNSS for Fieldwork................................... 157
8.4.1.1 Why Use GNSS?........................................ 157
8.4.1.2 Defining Data Collection Goals and
Objectives.................................................. 159
8.4.2 Basic Data Dictionary Concepts............................... 159
8.4.3 Other Methods........................................................... 161
8.4.3.1 Using Maps to Approximate Coordinates.....161
8.4.3.2 Traditional Surveying................................ 163
8.4.3.3 Digitizing Coordinates.............................. 164
8.4.3.4 Address Geocoding................................... 164
x Contents
8.5 Other Sources of GIS Data..................................................... 164

8.5.1 Augmented Reality Informatics................................ 165
8.5.2 Remote Sensing and Earth Observation Services..... 165
8.5.3 AI and Big Data......................................................... 165
Bibliography...................................................................................... 167
Exercises............................................................................................ 168
Chapter 9 Unmanned Aerial Systems Surveys/Mapping.................................. 169

9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 169
9.2.1 UAS Laws.................................................................. 169
9.2.2 Project Scale and Location........................................ 170
9.2.3 Mission Planning and Flight Considerations............ 173
9.2.4 Ground Control Points.............................................. 176
9.2.5 Post-Flight Processing............................................... 177
9.2.6 Deliverables............................................................... 178
9.3 Standard UAS Operating Procedures..................................... 178
9.3.1 Pre-Flight Operations................................................ 178
9.3.2 During Flight Operations.......................................... 180
9.3.3 Post-Flight Operations............................................... 181
9.3.4 Emergency Procedures.............................................. 181
9.3.5 Incident Reporting..................................................... 182
Bibliography...................................................................................... 182
Exercises............................................................................................ 182
Chapter 10 Engineering and Mining Surveys..................................................... 185

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 185
10.2.1 Fundamental Principles and Concepts...................... 185
10.2.2 Common Instruments and Accessories..................... 186
10.2.3 Exposition Using a Case Study on Tunnel Surveys........188
10.3 Transferring Controls............................................................. 190
10.4 Considerations for Setting Out and Deformation Monitoring.....191
10.5 Mining Surveys...................................................................... 192
10.5.1 The Future of Mining Surveys.................................. 192
10.5.2 Classical and Emerging Features of
Mining Surveys......................................................... 193
10.5.3 Policy, Legal and Regulatory Aspects in
Mining Surveys......................................................... 195
Bibliography...................................................................................... 197
Exercises............................................................................................ 197
Contents xi
PART IV Proposal Development
Chapter 11 Estimating Project Costs................................................................... 203

11.1 Introduction............................................................................ 203
11.2 Elements of Costing................................................................204
11.3 Unit Price Schedules..............................................................204
11.4 GNSS Survey Cost Estimating...............................................206
11.4.1 Sample Cost Estimate for GNSS Services................206
11.4.2 Sample Scope of Work for GNSS Services...............209
11.4.2.1 Specifications and Accuracy Standards.....209
11.4.2.2 Sample Scope of Work..............................209
11.5 Topographic Survey Cost Estimating..................................... 213
11.5.1 Sample Cost Estimate for Topographic Survey........ 213
11.5.2 Sample Scope of Work for Topographic Survey....... 216
11.6 Aerial Survey and Mapping Cost Estimating......................... 218
11.6.1 Cost Phases of Mapping Operation........................... 218
11.6.2 Sample Scope of Work.............................................. 221
11.6.3 Sample Cost Estimate............................................... 223
Bibliography...................................................................................... 223
Exercises............................................................................................224
Chapter 12 Writing Geomatics Proposals............................................................ 225

12.1 Introduction............................................................................ 225
12.2 How to Write a Winning Proposal......................................... 226
12.3 Layout of the Proposal............................................................ 227
12.4 Managing the Writing Process............................................... 228
12.4.1 Getting Started.......................................................... 228
12.4.2 Assigning Individual and Team Responsibilities...... 228
12.4.3 Outlining the Process................................................ 229
12.4.4 Incorporating Revisions and Feedback..................... 229
12.4.5 Submitting the Proposal............................................ 229
12.4.6 Things to Avoid......................................................... 229
12.5 Sample Proposal Format........................................................ 230
12.5.1 Cover Letter............................................................... 230
12.5.2 Title Page................................................................... 232
12.5.3 Table of Contents....................................................... 233
12.5.4 Executive Summary.................................................. 233
12.5.5 Bios/Resumes............................................................ 234
12.5.6 Scope of Work and Approach................................... 234
12.5.7 Schedule and Budget................................................. 235
12.5.8 Fee............................................................................. 236
12.5.9 Related Experience.................................................... 236
12.5.10 Appendix................................................................... 236
Bibliography...................................................................................... 237
Exercises............................................................................................ 237
xii Contents
PART V Appendices
Appendix A: Resource Guide for Geomatics Projects...................................... 241

Appendix B: Sample Geodetic Standards.......................................................... 245
Appendix C: Glossary of Terms.......................................................................... 267
Index....................................................................................................................... 271
Preface (Second Edition)
This is a second edition of the book titled Geomatics Engineering: A Practical Guide
to Project Design. The goal of this second edition is to build on the first edition with
the theme of project design processes, professionalism, and pertinent issues, and not
necessarily on the theory of topical areas of the geomatics discipline. New material,
including two chapters, a section, and an appendix, has been added and existing
chapters have been updated to keep them current with the updated information and
terminology. All grammatical and typographical errors have been diligently cor-
rected throughout all the chapters.
The second edition retains the objectives outlined in the first edition. The key
components and aspects of project design for geomatics and land surveying projects
are presented with the goal of helping the reader navigate the priority areas of atten-
tion when planning new projects. It guides readers through the project design and
request for proposal process commonly used for soliciting professional geomatics
and land surveying services. To better align with this objective and for a better repre-
sentation of the subject matter, the book title has been changed to Project Design for
Geomatics Engineers and Surveyors, Second Edition.
The Table of Contents is updated to add two new chapters and updates to existing
chapters as well as other necessary minor changes such as the use of the acronym
“GNSS” to replace “GPS”, where necessary, for example in the text of Chapters 1,
2, 6, 7, 8 and 11. A glossary of terms used in geomatics and survey projects is also
added in the appendix. New information has been added in Chapter 8 to discuss other
sources of GIS data (Section 8.5).
The two new chapters are intended to capture new developments in, and the rap-
idly emerging use of, unmanned aerial systems (UASs) for aerial surveys/mapping/
imagery involving small-to-medium-scale projects, as well as the modern practice
and experiences from engineering and mining surveys. Mining surveys are gaining
currency in a world growing more conscious of the escalating need to balance min-
eral extraction with environmental and social responsibility for sustainability, action-
able location-based intelligence, and shared visual maps at scale, being key elements
of sound multicriteria decision support.
Use of the term “GNSS” instead of “GPS” is necessary because GNSS (Global
Navigation Satellite System) implies a multi-constellation global navigation satellite
system which includes GPS (American GNSS), GLONASS (Russian GNSS), Galileo
(European GNSS), and BeiDou (Chinese GNSS). GNSS receivers and products are
now commonplace as used by surveyors and geomatics professionals.
xiii
Preface (First Edition)
Most of the courses in surveying and geomatics engineering curriculum have been
designed for the students to develop a progressively increasing knowledge base and
related practical skills in specific fields, such as land surveying, geodetic surveying,
GIS, and photogrammetry. In design and senior design classes, students learn how
to synthesize the knowledge and skills acquired in several different courses toward
the planning, design, implementation, and management of comprehensive geomatics
engineering projects. This requires that they understand the scope of work, correctly
interpret the required standards and specifications for accuracy, and the scheduling
and budgetary constraints. Students learn how to evaluate design requirements as
well as economic and social considerations. A 2009 survey of books available reveals
the lack of any text devoted to principles of design and professionalism in surveying
and geomatics engineering.
This text, therefore, has been written to focus attention on (1) the overall proj-
ect design process including scheduling and budgetary constraints; (2) standards
and specifications for accuracy; (3) professionalism and ethical responsibilities; (4)
policy, social, global, and environmental considerations; (5) project cost estimating
process; and (6) writing of proposals in response to the request for proposal (RFP)
process commonly used for soliciting professional geomatics engineering services.
It is intended to introduce readers to some of the issues in solving modern geomatics
engineering problems and to provide the practitioner with a frame of reference.
The nature of the book makes it a senior- or graduate-level text, and it has been
written for those who already have a basic understanding of material that appears in
any undergraduate book on land surveying and geomatics engineering. A complete
explanation of theory, measurement, or conduct of field procedures is beyond its
scope. Readers unfamiliar with such theory or procedures should consult appropriate
sources of information, peers, or professionals for assistance.
The book is organized into four parts, and each chapter includes exercises to help
engage in critical thinking and problem solving:
• Part I reflects, as much as possible, the natural progression of project design

considerations, including how the planning, information gathering, design,
scheduling, cost estimating, and proposal writing fit into the overall scheme
of project design process.
• Part II presents the details of contemporary issues such as standards and
specifications; professional and ethical responsibilities; and policy, social,
and environmental issues that are pertinent to geomatics engineering
projects.
• Part III shows the important considerations when planning or designing
new projects. Although the primary goal is to demonstrate planning and
design considerations for the entire field of surveying and geomatics engi-
neering, it has been necessary to be selective and to give greater weight only
to some topics.
xv
xvi Preface (First Edition)
• Part IV focuses on the proposal development process and shows how to put
together a project cost estimate, including estimating quantities and devel-
oping unit and lump-sum costs.
Few books are written that include only the ideas of the author, and this book is no
exception. The education and support I have received from the following institu-
tions is almost immeasurable: the University of Nairobi (Kenya), the University of
New South Wales (Australia), Geoscience Australia, and California State University
(Fresno). I also acknowledge the help and support from my colleagues and students
of the California State University and the support of individuals from other organiza-
tions, in particular, the assistance provided by Belle Craig and Jerry Wahl (both of
BLM of the U.S. Department of Interior). Last, but not least, I am most indebted to
my family (wife Julie, daughter Alicia, and son Joshua) for their never-ending sup-
port, patience, and understanding.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my family (wife Julie, daughter Alicia and son Joshua) for
tolerating the time spent away from them on evenings, nights, and weekends while
preparing this book; and above all, to Almighty God for being the source of strength
and inspiration in everything I do. Much appreciation to my two co-authors for con-
tributing two new chapters, and to anonymous reviewers for their time spent reading
the manuscript and providing valuable comments and suggestions. I would like to
extend my sincere thanks to all individuals and various institutions for copyright
permissions to use their images and artwork in both the first edition and this edition;
the institutions, teachers, and professors who provided education that shaped my
life; various employers and co-workers who provided opportunities to contribute and
learn; my parents for bringing me into this earth; and all who provided moral support
and encouragement.
Clement A. Ogaja
xvii
Authors
Clement A. Ogaja h as worked in various capacities as a professor, researcher, and
geodesist in the United States, Australia, and Kenya. He earned the B.Sc. degree in
surveying from the University of Nairobi in 1997 and Ph.D. in geomatics engineering
from UNSW Sydney, Australia, in 2002. In addition to his three books, Geomatics
Engineering: A Practical Guide to Project Design (CRC Press), Applied GPS for
Engineers and Project Managers (ASCE Press), and Introduction to GNSS Geodesy:
Foundations of Precise Positioning Using Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(Springer), he is the author and co-author of several research papers published in inter-
national scientific journals and conference proceedings. He has extensive experience
in education, research, and private industry having worked for Geoscience Australia,
California State University, Topcon Positioning Systems, NOAA’s National Geodetic
Survey, and as a land surveyor with Aerophoto Systems Engineering Company in
Kenya. Dr. Ogaja’s primary interest is researching the applications of GPS/GNSS
and Geomatics technologies to solving engineering and societal problems.
Nashon J. Adero, a lecturer at Taita Taveta University, Kenya, is a geospatial and

systems modelling expert. He teaches core units of Engineering Surveying, Mine
Surveying and GIS, and support courses in facility management, sustainability, com-
munication in science and engineering, and research methodology. He has acquired
extensive cross-sector experience as a tunnel surveyor, a GIS manager, and a lead
consultant for government agencies and private organizations. He also trained and
worked as a policy analyst at the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and
Analysis (KIPPRA), under a postgraduate training program in economic model-
ing and public policy research and analysis. His doctoral research at the Technical
University and Mining Academy at Freiberg focused on mining surveys and geospa-
tial models for mine planning. He earned an M.Sc. degree in resources engineering
from Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) in 2006 and B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in
surveying from the University of Nairobi in 2000. He is author, co-author, and co-
editor of several articles, books and book chapters, conference proceedings, policy
papers, technical reports, and media articles on geospatial technologies, environ-
mental sustainability, decision support models, and skills development. In 2021, he
co-edited The Future of Africa in the Post-COVID-19 World, a peer-reviewed book.
Derrick Koome earned a B.Sc. degree in geospatial engineering from the University
of Nairobi. He briefly worked in a busy geospatial firm in Nairobi (Nile Surveys and
Geo-solutions) and by the time he left he was its Chief Surveyor. He started his own
land survey practice soon after (Cheswick Surveys) which is based in the outskirts of
Nairobi, Kenya. Koome is a live wire with the use of geodetic GPS and total stations,
as well as all the geometric calculations and software involved. When his eye is not
behind a telescope, he loves to write articles about surveying. One of these articles was
republished in an Australian magazine.
xix
List of Acronyms
and Abbreviations
2D Two dimensional
3D Three dimensional
ACSM American Congress on Surveying and Mapping
ALTA American Land Title Association
AR Augmented reality
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASPRS American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
AUSPOS A free online GPS data processing service provided by
Geoscience Australia
BLM Bureau of Land Management
BM Benchmark
CAD Computer aided design
CADD Computer aided design and drafting
CALTRANS California Department of Transportation
CEP Circular error probability
CORS Continuously operating reference station
CSRS Canadian spatial reference system
DEM Digital elevation model
DGPS Differential global positioning system
DInSAR Differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar
DOP Dilution of precision
DRMS Distance root mean square
DTM Digital terrain model
ECEF Earth centered earth fixed
EDM Electronic distance measuring
EEO Equal employment opportunity
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FGCC Federal Geodetic Control Committee
FGCS Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee
FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee
FIG International Federation of Surveyors
GCP Ground control point
GDOP Geometric dilution of precision
GIS Geographic information system
GPS Global positioning system
GNSS Global navigation satellite system
HDOP Horizontal dilution of precision
IAG International Association of Geodesy
xxi
xxii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
ICSM Inter-governmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping

(Australia)
IGS International GNSS Service
ITRF International Terrestrial Reference Frame
MSL Mean sea level
NAD83 North American Datum 1983
NGS National Geodetic Survey
NMAS National Map Accuracy Standards
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NSRS National Spatial Reference System
NSSDA National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy
OPUS Online Positioning User Service
PC Point of curvature (beginning of curve)
PDA Personal digital assistant
PDOP Position dilution of precision
PI Point of intersection
PLSS Public Land Survey System
PPM Parts per million
PPP Precise point positioning
PT Point of tangency (end of curve)
QBS Qualifications-based selection
RF Representative fraction
RFP Request for proposal
RINEX Receiver Independent Exchange format
RMS Root mean square
RMSE Root mean square error
RTK Real time kinematic
SBAS Satellite based augmentation system
SPC State plane coordinate
TDOP Time dilution of precision
UAS Unmanned aerial system
UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle
USACE US Army Corps of Engineers
USGS US Geological Survey
UTM Universal transverse mercator
VCV Variance-covariance
VDOP Vertical dilution of precision
Part I
Overview
1 Project Design Process
1.1 UNDERSTANDING PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

1.1.1 Scope, Time, and Budget
Project design, whether by workflow or schematic, requires an understanding of the
project requirements. Almost everything significant that we do in life can be consid-
ered a project (e.g., buying a house, training to run a marathon, completing a degree
at university, and job search), so we are all familiar with projects in general terms.
A project is defined as a temporary, unique endeavor undertaken to create a unique
product, service, or result. It is an exception, that is, it is not routine. Within a proj-
ect, tasks are related to one another and to the end result of the project. A project
has specific goals and deadlines and operates under the constraints or restrictions of
scope, time, and budget.
The following is an example of a project:
A company, AA Consultants, has been contracted by the City of Palm Desert to pro-
vide an up-to-date record of survey of the Highway 111 Corridor within the City of
Palm Desert to be used as a baseline for future jurisdiction surveys. The project is to be
completed by July 15, 2010 and has a contract value of $76,000.
Why is this considered to be a project? It is temporary, unique, and not a routine

activity. It is based on a specific contract and has a defined end. It has a specific goal
and the activities to be defined to reach that goal will be interrelated to produce the
end result—the record of survey. The constraints of scope (“produce an up-to-date
record of survey”), time (“to be completed by July 15, 2010”), and budget (“a contract
value of $76,000”) are defined.
These three constraints represent the essential elements of any project:
1. Scope (what) is the work of the project, leading to the product (result, out-
come, service, deliverable, and performance).
2. Time (when) defines the schedule of the project, with start and end dates for
the project as a whole, and the tasks and milestones.
3. Cost (how much) is defined by the resources used in the project (people,
systems, equipment, data, and facilities).
Each of the three constraints is directly related to the other two (Figure 1.1). When
they are carefully planned and managed accordingly, the project is considered “in
balance,” also known as “balancing the triad.”
DOI: 10.1201/9781003297147-2 3
4 Project Design for Geomatics Engineers and Surveyors
FIGURE 1.1 The triad of project constraints.
1.1.2 Design Framework
Project design is the basis upon which an approach to solving a problem is developed,
together with the time and cost estimates (Figure 1.2). There can be a workflow
design or a schematic design, or even a mix of both for the same project. A workflow
design outlines the logical sequence or procedures that must be followed to accom-
plish the required goals. A schematic design includes the physical plan such as of a
survey network. This book does not emphasize either of the two approaches because
every project is different. In Part III of the book, we will discuss some important con-
siderations of planning and design, which incorporate both the workflow processes
and schema.
Before a project design can occur, some entity or client determines that a project
is necessary and sends out a request to potential consultants. Interested consultants
prepare proposals and submit them to the client. The client selects a winning pro-
posal, and the work begins. At the heart of every proposal are the project design and
a corresponding time and cost budget.
In the above example, a project design by the AA Consultants would have
occurred somewhere between invitation to submit a proposal (i.e., prior to the
award of the contract) and project initiation. This would entail, for instance, putting
together a project plan by the AA Consultants, in line with the scope, schedule, and
budget of the project work required to deliver desired results. On that basis, the AA
Consultants submits a proposal to the client, who then evaluates the proposal and
awards or denies the contract.
FIGURE 1.2 Project design framework.

Project Design Process 5
Project design requires gathering, synthesizing, and analyzing information with

enough objectivity and detail to support the project decision that makes optimum use
of resources to achieve desired results.
1.2 INFORMATION GATHERING

A typical geomatics project involves gathering field information and measurements
(field data is collected by ground surveys, aerial surveys, or by a combination of
these two methods). The project information is used in locating, designing, and
constructing civil infrastructure; establishing control for land boundary records
and geographic information systems; mapping for engineering and land develop-
ment; establishing baseline data for disaster monitoring; site feasibility studies; and
so forth. Information gathering generally consists of (1) an examination of existing
information about the project and (2) the physical gathering of ground information.
Both information-gathering actions are of equal importance, and careful attention to
detail during this process can often result in substantial savings in time and effort.
1.2.1 Existing Sources
Before any type of survey project occurs, perform a search for existing information.
For the most part, the information described next can be obtained from government
agencies. However, do not limit the search to these agencies. Much valuable infor-
mation may be available from private consulting firms that have worked on similar
projects. Sources of information that are helpful during the course of a survey may
include survey control data, construction plans, existing photography, existing maps,
plans and legal property descriptions, local landowners, and agency contacts.
1.2.1.1 Survey Control Data

Horizontal and vertical control are crucial to performing an accurate and correct
survey. Wherever practically possible, base the survey on horizontal coordinates and
vertical elevations from established control points (e.g., in the United States, use
first-order or second-order National Geographic Survey [NGS] control points). The
horizontal and vertical control information can be obtained by contacting agencies,
such as NGS, directly or by doing research using a variety of Internet resources, such
as Google.
Here are examples of the control information to gather:
Horizontal control: Monument name, location (state, country, etc.), year the
monument was established, coordinates (geodetic or plane), coordinate
system (e.g., SPC, UTM), geodetic datum (e.g., NAD83, ITRF), order of
accuracy, station recovery/condition notes, azimuths and distances to neigh-
boring monuments, and any other pertinent information.
Vertical control: Monument name, location (state, country, etc.), elevation (in
feet or meters), order of accuracy, date established and by whom, station
recovery/condition notes, and any other pertinent information.
1.2.1.2 Existing Photography

The use of photography as a source of preliminary project information is somewhat
limited. General project layouts can usually be obtained from readily available maps
rather than from photographs. On the other hand, existing aerial photographs for a
current project can often be used by the photogrammetric engineer. If the control
points that are referenced in the photography can be reestablished by a ground sur-
vey, the photographs may be usable. The existence of old aerial photographs often
indicates the presence of aerial maps. In construction projects such as highways,
final construction reports may also be a source of helpful photographs. Aerial pho-
tographs are usually available from agencies or private consulting firms. However,
there is also vast amount of information on the Web that could lead to various other
sources of photographic information, including commercial. So, you could easily
browse your way into existing digitized photographs or even LIDAR data for height
information just by a stroke of a few keywords.
1.2.1.3 Existing Maps

If the project is in the United States, you generally have 7½ or 15-minute quadrangle
(topographic) maps available covering the desired project limits. These maps are
available from both the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) offices or its Web site, and
from many private vendors for a minimal fee. They provide a wide variety of control
and terrain information.
For most types of geomatics projects, there exist a variety of available maps. By
using these maps, much of the field gathering of information can be reduced.
Generally, whether the project is located in the United States or another country,
you can do an Internet search using the keywords from information provided under
each agency listed next to locate the availability of existing maps for the project area.
A list of agencies that provide maps containing survey information within the United
States includes:
USGS: The USGS provides access to quads, topographic, and index maps;
benchmark locations, level data, and table of elevations; stream flow
data and water resources; geologic maps; horizontal control data; monu-
ment locations; seismological studies; and aeronautical and magnetic
charts.
NGS: The NGS provides access to topographic maps; coastline charts; bench-
mark locations, level data and table of elevations; horizontal control data;
state plane and UTM coordinates; and monument locations.
Bureau of Land Management: The Bureau of Land Management provides
access to township plots, showing land divisions; and state maps, showing
public lands and reservations.
Department of the Army: The Department of the Army provides access to
topographic maps and charts, aeronautical charts, and hydraulic and flood
control information.
Department of Transportation: The Department of Transportation provides
access to easements, right-of-way maps, and permits for bridges in navi-
gable rivers.
Department of Agriculture: The Department of Agriculture provides access to

soil charts, maps, and maps; and forest resource maps including topography,
culture, and vegetation classification.
Postal Service: The U.S. Postal Service provides access to delivery maps by
counties (showing rural roads, streams, etc.).
Local governments (state, county, city): The local governments provide access
to street and zoning maps; drainage and utility maps; horizontal and vertical
control data.
1.2.1.4 Plans and Legal Property Descriptions

As-constructed plans can be an excellent source of preliminary information, espe-
cially if dealing with a civil infrastructure project such as roads, highways, or bridges.
Depending on the composition of the construction plans, a surveyor may obtain the
position and condition of existing control points, right-of-way monuments, bench-
marks, and construction monuments. If it is desirable to use the existing centerline
stationing and location, the centerline control points (such as PC and PT) can be
obtained from the as-constructed plans. The horizontal alignment information is also
often obtained from these plans. Other information available from as-constructed
plans includes the types and location of drainage systems, structures and special
features, property descriptions, and boundary lines.
Legal property descriptions, survey records, and reports provide information con-
cerning the identity and location of property corners. Ties to property corners, which
are commonly carried out during cadastral surveys, are also useful for route design
and right-of-way projects.
1.2.1.5 Agency Contacts and Interviews

Before any surveying activity begins on a project, contact the local representatives
of any concerned agency (stakeholder). The agency contact may be able to provide
additional information about the availability of existing survey data and the type of
ground survey that may be appropriate. The second purpose of contact is to inform
the agency that a survey is about to be performed, and for this, briefly describing the
intended surveying activities is necessary.
The contact also provides a means to interview the stakeholders on any special
requirements or restrictions, such as limitations on cutting vegetation, noise require-
ments, property access permissions, environmental restrictions, recreational uses,
scenic routes, and so forth.
Affected property owners should also be contacted. A letter to the property owner
asking permission to enter property for survey work is recommended. Retain any
signed documents for the project records. Where contact cannot be made or permis-
sion granted, try other ways rather than trespassing.
1.2.2 Ground Information
The type of survey that can be used to gather ground information for a project area
can be divided into two categories: reconnaissance and preliminary field surveys,
and the actual field surveys.
1.2.2.1 Reconnaissance
A reconnaissance survey is the examination of a large area to determine the overall
feasibility of the fieldwork portion of a project. The following are some of the many
goals of such a preliminary survey:
• To assess the accessibility of the project area

• To assess the existing project controls and their conditions
• To assess the feasible or alternative project points
• To assess the feasible or alternative project routes
• To assess the feasible or alternative field methods or techniques
• To assess environmental conditions such as existence of a wetland
• To assess the intervisibility of desired project points
• To assess the sky visibility at desired project points.
Aerial photographs, maps, and images acquired from a preliminary research of the
project area are often useful. In rare cases, it may be necessary to carry out prelimi-
nary field surveys to gather planning data for the main survey.
The evaluation of feasible alternatives (i.e., a comparison of the project design,
e.g., in terms of the project point locations, data collection methodologies, and alter-
natives) in sufficient detail is necessary to decide the most feasible cost-effective
solution.
1.2.2.2 Surveys
The types of information gathered during field surveys can be divided into three
categories: planimetric, topographic, and cadastral.
1. Planimetric: Planimetric data consists of natural and political boundaries,

natural vegetation, and cultural items such as signposts, trees, and build-
ings. Using ground surveying techniques, these items are located relative
to survey control monuments. Specific items are surveyed with side shot
measurements taken from these control points. Only the horizontal posi-
tioning (coordinates) for each point is required to plot the item on a plani-
metric map. However, when using total station surveying equipment, it is
recommended that the elevation of each point be obtained. This additional
data aids the plotting of contour intervals during the topographic mapping
process.
2. Topographic: Topographic information gathering begins where planimetric
information leaves off and consists of obtaining horizontal coordinates and
vertical elevations of ground points. The intent of topographic data gather-
ing is to obtain enough ground points to accurately describe the general
relief of a specific area.
There are three methods of mapping a given area with topographic shots.
The first is to use alignments and cross sections. An alignment is usually
a straight line connecting ground control points. For such a line, you can
establish points at given intervals, say 20 m, with the spacing of these points
generally based on the type of land features and relief along the route or
as otherwise guided by the project requirements. Cross sections are taken

perpendicular to the alignment at these regular intervals, and all the points
in the project essentially form a grid of coordinates that can be used to con-
struct a contour map.
The second method is the use of radial surveying. The instrument is
set up on a point with known elevation, and coordinates and readings are
taken in a radial pattern around the instrument. Major break(line)s in the
terrain (such as edges of shoulders, catch points, and drainages) are usually
strung together in a series of sequential shots. These data points are called
breaklines (or discontinuities) and are treated differently from other random
shots. A general description of the terrain can then be obtained, using a
digital terrain model (DTM) to build an accurate contour map.
The third method is the use of aerial photography and photogrammetric
techniques such as LIDAR to plot topographic data.
3. Cadastral: A cadastral survey is used to locate property boundaries and
monuments and determine the respective coordinates. This information
may be obtained disregarding elevation. Because property and right-of-way
documents are often based on the actual location of cadastral monuments,
the points can be verified by running traverses through them or by using the
mean of two independent side shots.
1.3 DESIGN APPROACHES

1.3.1 Workflow Design
Careful planning at the beginning of a project will help you avoid hours of unneces-
sary work and redundant tasks. The following basic steps can be followed to carry
out a geomatics project:
1. Project goals: What is the purpose of the project? What is the spatial extent
(and ground resolution) of the study? What type of data do you need to
achieve your goals? What are the sources of these data, and what are the
appropriate types of data to answer the project questions?
2. Methodology: Constructing a logical flow sequence that details the project
steps will make the success of the project more likely. What types of proce-
dures and analyses will you perform? A project plan should include: (1) an
outline of procedures required for data collection or gathering, (2) a logical
sequence of procedures to be performed, and (3) a list of all the information
and data required for each step.
3. Data and resources: Before you embark on the project, you should do an
inventory of the data requirements and sources of information. Even with
the widespread availability of digital data on the Internet, many projects still
require data collection, input, and integration. For instance, in a Geographic
Information System (GIS) project, check if the data are already in digital
format or whether you have to scan paper maps or input data from other
sources. What software systems and equipment are required, and are they
available?
4. Analysis: What is the measure of confidence in the project? Often you will
find that once a project is started, there is a need to revise the procedures
originally intended. A preanalysis may be necessary to control the project
in terms of time, cost, and accuracy constraints. In addition, once the data
collection and analysis are complete, you should evaluate the accuracy and
validity of the results. If applicable, a repeat of fieldwork may be required.
5. Presentation: Results should be presented in a format suitable for the cli-
ent, organization, or the audience, such as PowerPoint presentation, journal
paper, written reports, field notes, maps, GIS system, CADD files and draw-
ings, and other digital media.
1.3.2 Schematic Design

A schematic design and preanalysis will allow experimentation with different vari-
ables so as to meet or exceed the project (accuracy) requirements.
Case in point: What are the benefits of network design for a GNSS survey, given
that the accuracies of individual GNSS baselines are a function of satellite geometry
and not survey network geometry?
The short answer is that network design helps to provide a measure of confidence
in the planned survey before you enter the field. That measure of confidence is a
function of the network design. The design variables with which you can experi-
ment a GNSS survey network design include: (1) the number and physical location
of survey points, (2) the number and types of observations to be measured, and (3)
the observation standard deviations (standard errors) you expect to achieve in the
field. Altering any one of these variables will change the estimated confidence of
the survey project. Network design allows you to perform what-if analysis on these
variables so that you can estimate how you will do in the field.
A preanalysis of GNSS survey network design will help you achieve the following
project design goals:
1. Performing the project in a cost-effective way: Can the survey be performed

with fewer points on the ground, while still meeting accuracy requirements?
Further, if you could select locations on the ground that was easy to gain
access to and make observations from, and still be able to meet accuracy
requirements, wouldn’t that be beneficial?
2. Determination of the field procedures and equipment needed to achieve
accuracy requirements: This could be something as simple as using a more
accurate total station or perhaps changing your field procedures a bit to
achieve better accuracy (e.g., making terrestrial measurements during the
cooler times of day, better instrument/target setups, making additional mea-
surements, etc.).
3. Determination of whether you should take on the project: Based on the
accuracy requirements, you may decide that given the nature of your equip-
ment and/or crew, you may not be able to meet the requirements and there-
fore should pass on the project.
Network design allows you to achieve these goals by providing you with estimates
of the accuracy that will be achieved given the input observation types, their stan-
dard deviations, and station locations in the survey. After an initial design, you may
discover that the accuracy estimated will not meet the survey requirements. Using
an iterative process of changing out the variables, you may find a way to satisfy the
accuracy requirements.
Before bidding on a new project, you might initially set up an elaborate design
with many different observation types built in. After running the design and satisfy-
ing the confidence requirements, you might then scale back the network with fewer
stations and observations. After running the design again, you may happily discover
that you are still within the accuracy requirements of the project, but now the project
will cost less to perform.
Next, you might consider using only GNSS for the project. However, after run-
ning your proposed network through the design process, you might discover that a
problem has emerged that cannot be fixed through GNSS alone. In fact, you may
need to add terrestrial observations for some portion of the project in order to stay
within accuracy requirements. This might occur in an area in which you have poor
satellite visibility or in an area in which the points you need to establish are only a
few hundred meters apart. Perhaps only the terrestrial equipment can give you the
accuracy you need in these areas.
After the design is completed, you will have created a blueprint for the field crew.
That blueprint will tell them roughly where to locate the stations, the types of obser-
vations to measure at each station, and the level of accuracy needed for those obser-
vations. You could conceivably use GNSS in one section of the project, a 10-second
total station in another section, and a 1- to 2-second total station in yet another sec-
tion of the project. Through the use of network design, you can determine how the
survey should proceed.
The most important element is achieving “in the field” what you designed in the
office. If you are unable to measure angles to ±5 seconds or measure distances to
±0.004 m (as specified in the design), then your project will probably not meet the
expectations derived from design. Bottom line: Don’t be overly optimistic about what
you can achieve in the field.
1.4 SCHEDULING AND COST ESTIMATING

1.4.1 General Steps in Geomatics Projects
In scheduling of geomatics projects, it is helpful to first understand the overall pro-
cess in completing a specific project. Here we will look at five case examples. But
first, let us summarize the common types of geomatics projects.
GNSS survey: GNSS surveys use portable receiving antennas to gather data
transmitted from satellites, which are used to calculate the position of the
object being located on the surface of the earth. The receiving antennas can
be miles apart and still obtain very accurate data. GNSS surveys are used
to establish coordinate control points for projects such as for State Plane
Coordinate Systems, large boundary surveys, and subdivision surveys.

They can also be used to collect data for GIS/Land Information Systems,
such as the location of streets, homes, businesses, electric, phone and gas
utilities, water and sewer systems, property lines, soil and vegetation types,
water, and courses. This data can be used in future planning, preservation,
and development.
Topographic survey: A survey locating improvements and topographic fea-
tures such as elevations of the land, embankments, contours, water courses,
roads, ditches, and utilities. This survey can be used in conjunction with a
location survey in order to prepare a site design map, a subdivision map, or
an erosion control plan.
Boundary survey: A survey of the boundary of property according to the
description in the recorded deed. Interior improvements, such as buildings
and drives, are not located. Any improvements along the boundary affecting
the use of or title to the property are located, such as fences, drives, utilities,
buildings, sheds, and streets. Missing corner markers are replaced. A map
showing the boundaries and improvements along the boundaries is prepared.
Location survey: A boundary survey with the additional location of all the
interior improvements. Missing corner markers are replaced. A map show-
ing the boundaries and improvements is prepared. This type of survey may
be required for the acquisition of a loan.
Site planning survey: This survey uses a boundary and topographic survey
as a base to design future improvements. It can be a design for a house, a
residential subdivision, a store, a shopping center, a new street or highway,
a playground, or anything else.
Subdivision survey: This often includes a topographic survey of a parcel of
land, which will be divided into two or more smaller tracts, lots, or estate
division. This can also be used for site design of lots, streets, and drainage.
It is for construction and recording.
Construction survey: Using surveying techniques to stake out buildings, roads,
walls, utilities, and so forth. This includes horizontal and vertical grading,
slope staking, and final as-built surveys.
ALTA/ACSM survey: This is a very detailed survey (mainly in the United States)
often required by lending institutions. The request for this survey must be
in writing and be included with all of the deeds and easements affecting the
property, along with the deeds to adjoining properties. A list of items to be
located as noted in the ALTA/ACSM publication can be included.
The typical steps to be taken during a particular project can be defined on the basis
of the type of project, a subdiscipline or technology focus. This will be illustrated by
the following five case examples.
1.4.1.1 Steps in a GNSS Control Survey Project

1. Determine the scope of the project.
2. Determine project requirements (accuracy, number of stations, spacing,
etc.) from both the scope and relevant standards.
3. Research station information for existing horizontal and vertical control

stations.
4. Determine suitability of existing control for GNSS observations and select
those stations that are required to meet standards for the project.
5. Select sites for new project stations ensuring clear access to satellite signals
and no multipath problems, set new survey monuments, and prepare station
descriptions.
6. Design the project layout (network).
7. Determine number and type of receivers (single or dual frequency; P-code,
C/A-code, etc.) required to meet project specifications.
8. Plan observation schedules (station observation time accounting for satellite
availability, ensure redundancy, etc.).
9. Conduct GNSS observations and complete observation log.
10. Download data from GNSS receiver(s) and make backup copy.
11. Receive and process data at central processing location.
12. Review all data for completeness.
13. Perform minimal constrained adjustment.
14. Review results for problem vectors or outliers.
15. Reobserve problem vector lines, if necessary.
16. Perform constrained adjustment and review results.
17. Incorporate precise ephemeris data if appropriate.
18. Prepare final report with all sketches, maps, schedules, stations held fixed
(including coordinates and elevations used), software packages used, station
description, final adjustment report, and list of coordinates.
1.4.1.2 Steps in a Topographic Mapping Project

2. Determine scale and accuracy requirements (map scale, contour interval,
product resolution/accuracy, etc.).
3. Research project information (existing control, satellite imagery, aerial pho-
tos, LIDAR data) and available resources (equipment, personnel).
4. Design the project layout and decide the data collection methods that can
meet project requirements.
5. Determine number and observation types required to meet project specifi-
cations, if applicable.
6. Plan observation schedules, if applicable.
7. Conduct observations (topo/aerial survey(s)) and/or gather project data (sat-
ellite imagery, digital orthophotos, LIDAR data, DTM/DEM, etc.).
9. Perform aerial photo triangulation, if applicable.
10. Perform digital photo rectification, if applicable.
11. Process and review all data for completeness.
12. Generate map and contours and check map for correctness and completeness.
13. Correct map and/or reobserve problem areas, if necessary.
14. Prepare final map and a final report with all pertinent sketches, schedules,
stations used, software packages used, and list of coordinates.
1.4.1.3 Steps in a Boundary Survey Project

2. Research project information (i.e., search existing survey records, titles,
notes, descriptions, maps, photos, and any other pertinent data).
3. Design the project layout and decide the data collection methods that can
meet the boundary control requirements.
4. Plan observation schedules, if applicable.
5. Conduct field observations.
7. Compute locations of missing boundary monuments.
8. Review all data for completeness and accuracy.
9. Reobserve problem areas, if necessary.
10. Prepare map with notes and descriptions (including coordinates, distances,
bearings) and a final report with all pertinent notes, sketches, schedules,
stations used, and software packages used.
1.4.1.4 Steps in a GIS Project

2. Identify project goals: What is the purpose of the project? What is the
research question? What is the spatial extent and ground resolution of the
project? For example, if a soils map is the answer to the question, what is the
spatial distribution of soils in the locality?
3. Identify the data and information needs. What type of spatial data do you
need to achieve the project goals? What are the sources of these data, and
what are the appropriate types of data to answer these questions?
4. Determine data accuracy requirements.
5. Identify sources of existing data and information.
6. Perform an inventory of data and sources of information. There is wide-
spread availability of digital data; however, GIS projects are still essentially
about data collection, input, and integration. Check if the available data are
already in digital format. Will you have to scan paper maps or input data
from other sources? Will fieldwork be necessary?
7. If applicable, identify target features that will be located and how they will
be located. The project goals and objectives should guide the identification
of target features and information to be gathered about the target features,
as well as ideal ways to represent or symbolize them (e.g., point, line, and
polygon) for GIS analysis.
8. Select or design the methodology for data collection, and data analysis
and integration. What types of data analyses will you perform? Overlays?
Statistical regressions? Spatial interpolations?
9. Collect data or carry out field observations as applicable.
10. Process and/or compile input data for the GIS system.
11. Analyze GIS input data.
12. Evaluate accuracy and validity of results.
13. Revise procedures, if practical and necessary.
14. Prepare results in a suitable format (e.g., digital, paper, or other media) and
a final report on procedures and software packages used.
1.4.1.5 Steps in Aerial Survey/Mapping Project

1. Determine the scope (scale and location) of the project.
2. Carry out mission planning, such as to determine aircraft type (e.g., the
most suitable unmanned aerial system [UAS]), define flight parameters, and
check the local weather forecasts (predictions) for the project’s location.
3. If using a UAS/drone, research information on pertinent local laws and
regulations.
4. Define ground control points for georeferencing the aerial survey/mapping.
5. Determine processing software application and workflow.
6. Carry out the flight mission.
7. Download and process data.
8. Prepare results in a suitable format for deliverables such as dense point
clouds, digital elevation models, orthomosaic, and contours.
1.4.2 Project Scheduling
A project schedule is necessary so that a provisional budget can be developed. It is
a plan of activities (milestones) and their timeframe. In other words, it is concerned
with when things occur over the course of a project. It includes the processes required
to ensure timely completion of the project. Figure 1.3 shows an illustration of a proj-
ect schedule using a Gantt chart.
Every project must have at least one deadline, and usually there are more deadlines
imposed during the course of the project based on specific tasks that are required to
complete the project. The tasks are placed in the order in which they will be carried
out, with interdependent tasks properly planned out. It is also important that the proj-
ect objectives have been accounted for (e.g., the client’s completion date) and suitable
resources (people and equipment) are available for the planned tasks.
Project scheduling also serves as a check on the project’s viability. If it cannot be
completed successfully to meet the client’s deadline(s), for example, a renegotiation
of scope or schedule or budget may be required. In addition, missing tasks that were
originally overlooked may be identified during the project scheduling stage.
Although a project schedule can be prepared by one person, it is more
effective if it is developed with a project team when possible. The person who
understands each task or a set of tasks best will have the best understanding of
the sequence in which the tasks should be performed and the best estimate of
the duration of each task. These estimates can then be calibrated by the project
leader or manager.
Sometimes it is necessary for schedule planning to enlist the help of people other
than the project team. Subcontractors can provide their own estimates, but it may
be necessary to negotiate with them in order to meet the required schedule. Other
managers within the organization or external experts can provide input, particularly
if they have worked on similar projects.
FIGURE 1.3 A project schedule showing timeframe of interrelated activities.
The first step in developing a project schedule is to list all the specific tasks to
be performed in the project to produce the required deliverables. The next logical
steps include: (1) identify predecessors for all the tasks, (2) estimate durations (work
periods to complete) for all tasks, (3) identify any intermediate and final dates to be
met (constraints), (4) identify all activities outside the project that will affect the per-
formance, and (5) put all the tasks on a time scale (Gantt chart).
1.4.3 Cost Estimating Principles

Cost estimating is concerned with how much the project will cost to complete. The
prerequisites are that project resources are planned in a timeframe as explained in the
previous section. Having developed a project schedule, resource costs are calculated
to produce a cost estimate for the project. The cost estimate can subsequently be used
to develop a cost budget.
The three general stages of cost estimating that a project manager needs to end up
with a baseline cost budget are as follows:
1. Plan project resources: Determine what resources (people, equipment,

materials) are needed in what quantities to execute the project tasks.
2. Estimate resource costs: Develop an approximation of the cost of the
resources needed to complete the project tasks to produce a cost estimate.
3. Budget costs: Allocate the resource costs to the project tasks over the length
of the project to produce a cost budget.
Information on project resources can be obtained from the scope statement, the list
and description of tasks and their estimated durations, and ultimately the project
schedule. Another source of information could be the organization’s archive of past
projects; files on similar past projects should have good data on who and what were
used to accomplish similar tasks and what they cost. In some organizations, there
could also be a “resource pool” from which relevant skills for the project could be
identified. Sometimes experts could come from other organizations. At this stage, it
is also important to ensure that policies and procedures of the project host organiza-
tion are taken into account in resource planning. Such policies include, for example,
policies related to length and type of work week and work day, holidays and vaca-
tions, and hiring of consultants or contractors.
Once the resource items are identified, their costs can be estimated. Typically, the
largest cost item is labor (i.e., the people who will be doing the project work). The
amount of time each member will be spending on each task must be determined, the
unit cost figured out, and the cost of labor totaled. Other resources whose expenses
are applied to the project cost include equipment, materials, travel and living, sub-
contracts, training, and so forth. When doing the project costing it is also important
to distinguish between the direct costs and the indirect costs.
Direct (or variable) costs can include
1. Labor: The cost of the time of the people who will work on the project
2. Specialized systems and software: The cost of systems or software pur-
chased for the project or time-based charge for their usage
3. Equipment: The cost of tools or equipment purchased for the project or a
time-based charge for equipment use
4. Materials and supplies: The cost of materials used on the project (e.g., mon-
umentation, plotter, and paper)
5. Travel and living: The cost of travel carried specifically for the project (e.g.,
travel to and from a field site in terms of vehicle mileage, airfares, and cost
of accommodation and meals while in the field)
6. Subcontracts: The cost of subcontracts for completing project work
7. Fees: Fees charged specifically for work on the project (legal fees, financial
fees, agent fees for international work, title search fees, etc.)
8. Courier, postage, and freight costs for the project.
Indirect costs are the costs that do not specifically relate to a particular proj-
ect. Sometimes referred to as fixed costs or overhead costs, they represent the
costs of operating a business that provides the services for the project. These costs
are shared among all projects that are carried out in an organization. They may
include
1. Facilities: The cost of providing the physical location for carrying out proj-
ect work, and cost of shared resources used for such operations. Examples
include office space, telephone, computer systems, equipment repair and
maintenance, Internet access, journal subscriptions, and professional

training.
2. Overhead labor: Administration costs, human resources, marketing/sales,
and other staff who support the project, but are not directly charged to the
project.
3. Other requirements specific to the project location such as taxes.
Indirect costs are allocated to projects in many different ways, often on a percentage
basis depending on the size of the project or using some other criteria. Most organi-
zations would have a standard policy on how this is done.
Finally, the budget cost estimate will incorporate a risk assessment for the proj-
ect. Based on the risk assessment, budget contingencies can be applied to allow for
some flexibility in budget management when and if problems occur during project
execution. A common practice is that some managers will include a contingency
of, say, 10%, on every project. This practice has its drawbacks, for instance, a ten-
dency to manage to the limit of the total budget, rather than to the budget as planned
without contingency percentage added. Another drawback is that the business might
gain a reputation for always overestimating the budget. For proper costing, a list of
potential problems and their impact on the project can be outlined to justify budget
contingencies.
A cost budget is prepared based on the cost estimate of all resources required to
complete the project. A cost budget is a detailed, time-phased estimate of the costs
of all the resources required to perform the project work over the entire duration. In
other words, it takes the cost estimate and spreads it over the budget schedule, based
on the timing of the project tasks.
1.5 WRITING PROPOSALS

Each project should be preceded by a detailed description of what is to be accom-
plished, together with a proposal or estimate of the time and cost required.
(Morse and Babcock, 2007, 325)
Businesses, small or large, customarily respond to RFP (request for proposal) to win
projects for their survival. In that process, it is important to understand the cus-
tomer’s problem and the elements of strategy that make a winning proposal. The
steps to developing a proposal include (1) understanding the project requirements; (2)
planning, intelligence gathering, and design; (3) scheduling and cost estimating; and
(4) writing the proposal.
A well-written proposal should have the following attributes: (1) evidence
of a clear understanding of the project (client’s problem); (2) an approach, pro-
gram plan, or design that appears to the client well suited to solving the problem
and likely to produce desired results; (3) convincing evidence of qualifications and
capability to carry out the project; (4) convincing evidence of dependability as a
consultant or contractor; and (5) a compelling reason to be selected (i.e., a winning
strategy).
Understanding the project (client’s problem) is the key to writing a successful

proposal. Some firms strategically identify new opportunities long before an RFP
is issued. They prepare for new opportunities and estimate the resources and capa-
bilities that will be required to meet expected future needs of potential clients. Such
preparation may include, for example, developing the necessary technical skills and
acquiring other needed resources in advance.
Having identified or received (and reviewed) an RFP, a bid or no-bid decision is
made based on the understanding of the requirements of the project, and the capabili-
ties of the firm and those of the competitors. A preanalysis of design (incorporating
the budgetary constraints) can be applied to decide whether to bid or not to bid.
If a decision is made to bid, then the proposal preparation must pay very close
attention to the language of the RFP. An RFP typically includes a cover letter, a state-
ment of scope of work (which specifies work to be performed), the required schedule,
specification of the length and content desired in the proposal, any pertinent stan-
dards and specifications, and the required deliverables.
In response to an RFP, a written proposal should include an executive summary,
the capabilities (or strengths) of the firm, work schedule and a cost budget, and proj-
ect deliverables. The proposal should project a professional image as much as pos-
sible—exercise proper writing skills, include graphics where necessary, and consider
the legal aspects of the project. However, do not do the whole project during the
proposal!
In general, the expected contents of a proposal will include
1. A management proposal discussing the company, its organization, its rel-

evant experience, and the people proposed to lead the project
2. The technical proposal outlining the design concept proposed to meet the
client’s needs
3. The cost proposal including a detailed cost breakdown, but often also dis-
cussing inflation, contingencies, and contract change procedures.
In Chapter 12, we will look at further details on writing geomatics proposals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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EXERCISES
1. Explain the following terms and phrases:
i. Project scope
ii. Project constraints
iii. “Balancing the triad”
2. Which of the following is not a survey network design goal?
a. Performing survey project in a cost-effective way
b. Determination of the field procedures and equipment needed to achieve
accuracy requirements
c. Determination of whether you should take on the project
d. To gain experience for future tasks
3. Network design (e.g., for a GNSS survey) allows for experimentation with
different variables (such as point locations, observation types, and expected
accuracies) to estimate the “confidence” of a survey project. It would be
most appropriate to carry out this important task:
a. Before bidding on a project
b. After completion of the fieldwork, but prior to office computations
c. After learning that the project is going to cost more than you intended
d. Before submitting the final reports of the project
4. Designing a pipeline with minimum cost. This question involves using
geometry and differential calculus. It requires that you determine the most
cost-effective pipeline route in connecting various wells in an oil fertile
area. Figure 1.4 shows a schematic view of the wetland and the correspond-
ing simplified rectangular model. In this problem, we are connecting a pipe-
line from a well at point A to another well at point B. Costs are associated
with material (cost of pipe of $1.50/foot) and terrain type (normal terrain
FIGURE 1.4 Plan view of the wetland pipeline project.

installation cost of $1.20 per foot). Installation in the wetland requires

an additional track hoe at a cost of $60/hour. In a 10-hour day, the track
hoe can dig approximately 300 feet of trench, and thus there is an additional
cost of:
$60/hr
= $2/ft. (1.1)
30ft/hr
This gives a wetland installation cost of $4.70 per foot. Three routes are
considered (labeled 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 1.4):
Route 1: Cost = 2.7(d1 + d2 + d3)
Route 2: Cost = 4.7 ( d1 − d3 )2 + d22
Route 3: Cost = 2.7 x + 4.7 ( d1 − d3 − x ) + d 22 ,
2
0 ≤ x ≤ d1 − d3
A possible solution for the third route is to optimize the cost function on
a closed interval, that is, find the derivative of the cost function and sub-
sequently find the global minimum of the derivative. This can be done by
setting the derivative equal to zero and solving for x.
Assume the following values for the coordinates of wells at points A and
B (Table 1.1) and the rectangular model representing the wetland (Table 1.2):
Suggested solution procedure:
i. Compute the dimensions of the rectangular model in feet
ii. Compute numerical values for d1, d2, and d3 of the pipeline route
iii. Calculate the optimum value for x
iv. Calculate the global minimum cost for Route 3
v. Find the most cost-effective route. Is it any of the following?
a. Route 1 costing approximately $89,100.00
b. Route 2 costing approximately $78,223.59
c. Route 3 costing approximately $80,100.00
TABLE 1.1
Coordinates (in feet) of Wells at Points A and B
Point N E
A 62,000 45,000
B 48,000 54,000
TABLE 1.2
Rectangular Model (in feet)
N E
70,000 45,000
43,000 45,000
70,000 54,000
43,000 54,000
5. If the coordinate information and the rectangular model for the wetland
in Figure 1.4 were not available, and the client asked you to provide them
using data from actual field surveying procedures, what specific questions
would you ask to define the scope for such a task? Having defined the scope,
what existing information sources would you consider? What surveying and
mapping methods could you use to collect field information, if necessary?
Give reasons for your answers.
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Project Design for Geomatics Engineers and Surveyors, Second Edition

Book · March 2023

Clement Ogaja Nashon Adero

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Undergraduate and graduate students, professors, practicing professionals, and sur-

Clement A. Ogaja, Nashon J. Adero,

Second edition published 2023

and by CRC Press

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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

First edition published by CRC Press 2020

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-032-26679-4 (hbk)

Chapter 1 Project Design Process..........................................................................3

PART II Contemporary Issues

Chapter 2 Standards and Specifications...............................................................25

Chapter 3 Professional and Ethical Responsibilities........................................... 49

Chapter 4 Policy, Social, and Environmental Issues........................................... 61

PART III Planning and Design

Chapter 5 Boundary Surveys............................................................................... 89

5.5 Legal Considerations in Boundary Determination..................97

Chapter 6 Control Surveys................................................................................. 101

6.5.3.2 Calculating the Optimal Session Schedule........128

Chapter 7 Topographic Surveys......................................................................... 133

Chapter 8 GIS Application................................................................................. 149

8.5 Other Sources of GIS Data..................................................... 164

Chapter 9 Unmanned Aerial Systems Surveys/Mapping.................................. 169

Chapter 10 Engineering and Mining Surveys..................................................... 185

PART IV Proposal Development

Chapter 11 Estimating Project Costs................................................................... 203

Chapter 12 Writing Geomatics Proposals............................................................ 225

Appendix A: Resource Guide for Geomatics Projects...................................... 241

• Part I reflects, as much as possible, the natural progression of project design

Nashon J. Adero, a lecturer at Taita Taveta University, Kenya, is a geospatial and

ICSM Inter-governmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping

1.1 UNDERSTANDING PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

Why is this considered to be a project? It is temporary, unique, and not a routine

FIGURE 1.1 The triad of project constraints.

FIGURE 1.2 Project design framework.

Project design requires gathering, synthesizing, and analyzing information with

1.2 INFORMATION GATHERING

1.2.1.1 Survey Control Data

1.2.1.2 Existing Photography

1.2.1.3 Existing Maps

Department of Agriculture: The Department of Agriculture provides access to

1.2.1.4 Plans and Legal Property Descriptions

1.2.1.5 Agency Contacts and Interviews

• To assess the accessibility of the project area

1. Planimetric: Planimetric data consists of natural and political boundaries,

as otherwise guided by the project requirements. Cross sections are taken

1.3 DESIGN APPROACHES

1.3.2 Schematic Design

1. Performing the project in a cost-effective way: Can the survey be performed

1.4 SCHEDULING AND COST ESTIMATING

Coordinate Systems, large boundary surveys, and subdivision surveys.

1.4.1.1 Steps in a GNSS Control Survey Project

3. Research station information for existing horizontal and vertical control

ICSM Inter-governmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping