Ch.

2 Traffic Flow Fundamentals Spacing‐Speed Relationship for the Linear Traffic Flow Model Basic Freeway Segment Condition: A section of a divided highway having Vertical Alignment: the profile of a road along its center line.
‐ Macroscopic approach looks at the flow in an aggregate sense. It is appropriate for studying (1) Two or more traffic lanes in one direction (1) To determine the elevation (海拔高度) of highway points to ensure proper roadway drainage and an
steady‐state phenomenon of traffic flow. Therefore, macroscopic approach can best describe the overall s , (2) "Uninterrupted" flow  away from the influence of ramps, merging or diverging areas and others. acceptable level of safety. (Elevation = Height above sea plane)
(whole) operational efficiency of the traffic system. (3) Lane width: at least 12 ft wide (4) Level roadways (No slopes) (2)To determine the transition of roadway elevations between two grades.
‐ Microscopic approach considers the response of each individual vehicle in a disaggregate manner. It v  vf , s  ∞ (5) Lateral clearance. Obstacles located at a lateral distance of at least 6 ft from the edge of pavement.
is often used in highway safety study. (6) Vehicular stream consists entirely of passenger cars. (No trucks) (7) Uniform demand
v  0,
‐Space Mean Speed (v): average travel times it takes a group of vehicles to traverse a given length of Design Speed: Average highway speed (AHS) A=G2 – G1
⋯ ‐ The highway segment may consist of subsections that have different design speeds, The AHS is the For A<0, crest
roadway.  harmonic mean of all spot speeds OR average speeds of three vehicles Spacing‐Flow Relationship for the Linear Traffic Flow Model average of these design speeds weighted by the length of each subsection. For A>0, Sag
Proof: ‐ NOT the posted speed limit, just the design speed of the facility
running at different locations at a given instant of time (over a circular road)
‐Time Mean Speed: arithmetic mean of the measured speeds ‐ Under ideal conditions, the capacity of a freeway lane is about 2000 passenger cars per hour (pc/h) for
design speeds of 60 and 70 mi/h and about 1900 pc/h for design speeds of 50 mi/h.
呢個 parabolic function 係代表條路 from side view
Provide: constant rate change of slope=2a=(G2‐G1)/L
‐ Traffic volume [veh/hr]: the actual number of vehicles observed or predicted to pass a given point Imply: equal tangent curve
during a given time interval Related 式:
‐ Rate of flow (q) [veh/hr]: number of vehicles passing a fixed point during a time interval less than 1 vf kj a b G
hour qmax
‐ Traffic density (k) [veh/km] or [vpm]: number of vehicles occupying a given length of lane or 4 If G1. G2 in 3.5%, L is in sta, If G1. G2 in 0.035, L is in ft
where G1. G2 係 Slope, [%], can be +ve or ‐ve
roadway, at an instant of time
G1. G2 都係[ft/station]:每行 100ft 升/跌幾多 elevation[ft]
q [veh/hr] = v [km/hr] X k [veh/km] or q [veh/hr] = v [mph] X k [veh/mi]  q=vk 1 station = 100ft , e.g. sta 95‐80 = sta 94+20, c [ft]
Shock Waves in Traffic Station 意思: 同 reference point 嘅 distance
key: 1. three variables will vary simultaneously, 2. V 係 space mean speed
, Recall: at jam densityv=0, q=0, k=kj , at free flow conditionq=0, k=0
PVI coordinates: , for c=0
Spacing (s) [ft/veh] or [ft]: 車頭 1 同車頭 2 distance
For c = 0,
Headway (h) [sec/veh] or [sec]: time between successive vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway. L, x are in [ft]
(Fixed pt.  1 架車經過, 隔幾多秒先到下架, 計車頭) A in 3.5(%) For crest vertical curve,
5280 / 3600 A<0: Ym<0, Yf<0
/ / /
/ / / 200 For Sag vertical curve,
1 mile = 1.6093 km, 1 foot = 0.3048 m (meter), 1 mile = 5280 ft A>0: Ym>0, Yf>0
800
Space Occupancy: At Level of Service (LOS) E, ratio of volume to capacity = 1.0  value of capacity = max. service flow
Analysis: determine the operating level of service, when the number of lanes and the actual freeway volume 200
are known
Design: determine the number of lanes required to accommodate a given volume under a desired level of
service. K – Value : : the horizontal distance [ft] required to affect a 1% change in the slope.
%
[pc/h/lane]  [passenger‐car per hour per lane] ft | |: x 係 PVC 到 high/ low point 嘅 distance, given high/low points don’t occur at PVC/PVT
MSFi [pc/h/lane]: max service flow under A/B/C/D/E level of service (LOS) ***Equal tangent 意思: PVI is at L/2***
= c [pc/h/lane]: max flow rate for 70/60/50 mph (refer to MSF column) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = braking distance + distance travelled during reaction time
L = length of vehicles []: max ratio of volume to capacity for A/B/C/D/E level of service (LOS)

Time Occupancy: Convert Ideal Lane Flow into Service Flow under Prevailing Conditions/Actual condition
minimum and
q q∗Nfw fhv (i.e.實際 flow rate = ideal flow rate per lane 乘 no. of lanes 再乘 other factors)
desirable SSD
: actual flow rate [veh/hr] (veh 可以係 bus/trucks)/ (真實想 design 嘅 flow rate)/ Service Flow (SF)
where Vs [ft/sec] ∗: ideal flow rate [pc/hr/lane] (pc 只可以係 passenger car) (對 Max Service Flow (MSF))
: number of freeway lanes V1, Vr [ft/s] 要乘 recall: 1mile = 5280ft , g = 32.2 [ft/s2], f 要睇表, G in 0.03
, : adjustment factor with value < 1
depends on number of lanes, lane width, lateral distance from the traveled way to objects, whether the
laterally placed objects are found on one or on both sides of the roadway. When objects are present on both
C is loop detector length sides but are located at different distances, the average distance is used in the Table.
distance to dissipate the patloon= time of dissipation of platoon*speed of downstream platoon
Gap (g) and Clearance (c) Capacity and level of service analysis includes:
Case:
g sec (1) Ability of highway facilities to carry traffic (Capacity) Lateral obstruction
(2) Operational characteristics (Level of Service) of facilities when serving various levels of demand 5 ft on the right
Highway Capacity Method: 3 ft on the left
c ft g sec v ft/sec (1) Design to determine the number of highway lanes required to satisfy a desired level of service;  Take average
(2) Analysis  to estimate the level of service prevailing on a highway given its geometric design and i.e. 4ft on both side
the actual flow conditions.
Free speed: Drivers adopt their desired speed when he is not influenced by other vehicles in the traffic Traffic flow conditions: Factors affecting tr: Age, Fatigue, physical impairment, presence of alcohol (usually tr = 2.5s)
stream. Composition of traffic using the facilities, in general, it is expressed as the proportion of passenger cars, Factors affecting f: poor driver skills, low braking efficiencies, wet pavement
Free traffic condition: defined as a traffic flow in which each vehicle travels at the desired speed of the trucks, buses etc, in the traffic stream. 2 values considered for V1: (1) the design speed of the highway defined as the maximum safe speed
driver, each vehicle is not affected by other vehicles, and subject only to the constraints associated with Roadway conditions: that a highway can be negotiated assuming near worst‐case conditions. (2) the average vehicle running
vehicle and road characteristics. Geometric characteristics of the roadway, such as design speed, horizontal and vertical alignment, speed obtained from actual vehicle speed observation, and usually ranges from 90 to 95 percent of the
number and width of traffic lanes. highway's design speed. Where (1) > (2)
Key: At fixed point, 睇正常交通同塞車, 同一
period pass through fixed pt. 嘅車輛數量 same Level of Service (LOS): measure the degree of congestion on a highway facility Minimum SSD (derived from average running speed) < Desirable SSD (derived from design speed)
Factors affecting: Speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver (operate), safety, comfort and convenience. SSD and Crest Vertical Cure Design (Assume height of driver’s eyes=3.5ft, height of stopping object=0.5ft)
∗ |A| SSD SSD
 Speed‐Flow Curve L , ∵K , L K| | for SSD L
200 ∗ √ 1 √ 2 1329 1329
1329
L 2 SSD for SSD L
|A|
Linear Traffic Flow Model (V 姐係 Vs i.e. space mean speed) Special Question: fw 要知有幾多條 lane 先可以揀 value, 但問題就係問要 design min no. of lane, how?
K‐Value for
Boundary Condition: 1) k=0  q=0, 2) v=0 at kjam, 3) k=0  v=vf where f  free flow Answer: Try N=3 or 4  find value of fw  睇下 final ans(no. of lanes designed) 係咪 3 or 4  if not, try
Crest Vertical
N=2 and find value of fw again. Curves for
minimum and
1 desirable SSD
assumed G=0
/ ‐ , , are the proportions of trucks, recreational vehicles, and buses, respectively, in the in calculation
Peak‐Hour Factor (PHF): to measure non‐uniformity of traffic flow 60 traffic stream (Truck, recreational vehicles 同 bus 佔嘅 proportion) of SSD
‐ , are the passenger car equivalents for trucks, recreational vehicles, and buses. ,which is less
 The ratio of the peak‐hour volume to the maximum rate of flow computed on the basis of an (一架 truck = 幾多架 passenger car) conservative
interval t within the peak hour. (non‐uniformity 升, number of shock wave 升, ‐ve traffic flow impact) For upgrade roadway(上斜): ET, ER, EB >3.0
(peak‐hour volume (V) [veh/hr]: 1hr 有幾多車, max. flow rate (q) [veh/hr]: within 呢 1hr 最多車個幾 For downgrade roadway(落斜): ET, ER, EB <1.5
, , min 有幾多車) i.e. Bus and trucks have larger impact on a
Nonlinear Traffic Flow Model (Greenberg’s Model) PHF  1.0, More uniform traffic flow, PHF  0.0, More peaked (non‐uniform) traffic flow upgrade than on a downgrade
SSD and Sag Vertical Cure Design (SSD is governed by night time condition, day time 唔理)
∙ ∙ q k v ∙ exp ∙ ln [veh/hr] Extemely packed demand So, 可能 upgrade 開 3 條 lane, 但 downgrade
1 1 1 | | .
q v ∙k C , where v , k
/
PHF 1 when t 5min, PHF 1 when t 15min, PHF 1 when t 10min 開2條 L for SSD L, L 2SSD | |
for SSD L,
12 4 6 .
1. involves only one parameter Headlight height=2ft, upward angle =1 degree
2. better goodness‐of‐fit as compared to Linear traffic flow model Service Flow (SF=V/PHF): actual rate of flow for the peak 15‐min period expanded to an hourly Ch.3 Geometric Design of Highways K‐Value for Sag
3. violates the boundary conditions in that zero density can only be attainable at an infinitely high speed. volume and expressed in vehicles per hour.  the design of the visible dimensions (or physical proportions) of streets and highways. Its main Vertical Curves
4. Because of the violation of boundary condition  Modification: Assume ∗ Difference between q and SF: purpose is to provide safe, efficient, and economical movement of traffic. for minimum
q: Observed or measured, for calculation of PHF and desirable
SF: Given V & PHF, calculate SF in design and operations of highways Consideration for geometric design of highway: 1. Functional classification of the roadway being SSD
designed. 2. Traffic volume 3. Design speed 4. Design vehicle dimensions and performance assumed G=0
Procedure for The Calculation of The Capacity and Level of Service (分 Two Parts) 5. Environmental compatibility, Topography 6. Driver behavior, safety consideration 6.1 Design speed in calculation
Capacity analysis under ideal conditions. Geometrically uniform section of a freeway (basic freeway governs the design of the vertical and horizontal curvatures. 6.2 Design hour volume governs the capacity of SSD
segment). Capacity of a freeway under ideal conditions is estimated in terms of passenger‐car required. ,which is less
equivalents. Hierarchies classification: Principal arterialminor arterialcollectorlocal road/streets conservative
Capacity analysis under non‐ideal conditions. Capacity of freeway under non‐ideal conditions is Highway Functional Classification
calculated by modifying estimate of capacity under ideal conditions using some factors. These "mobility" (continuous travel): Local Streets
factors are used to capture the effect of any deviation from the ideal conditions. "accessibility" (direct access to residences and other land uses): Expressway and Freeway
Horizontal Alignment: establish the proper relation between design speed and curvature and
also the joint relationships with super‐elevation and side friction
Equations needed:
R , where e 0.10 in general
V
e f for R R
gR ,

PHF and level of service

D=5729.6/R
A level six lane (three lanes in each direction) highway has a 50-mph design speed with 10
D is degree of
percent trucks, 5 percent buses, 11-ft lanes with obstructions 4 ft from pavement edge (both
curvature sides). The highway currently operates at capacity with a directional peak-hour volume of
2936 veh/hr. If the highway is upgraded to a freeway (70-mph design speed) with a 30-ft
median (with no obstructions on the median side but still having obstructions 4 ft from the
outside traveled edge of the roadway), what will be the maximum directional peak-hour
volume under LOS D? (assume that all lane and traffic related characteristics are unchanged.)
Maximum directional peak-hour volume @ LOS D if upgraded to freeway with 70 mph design
speed. Six-lane highway: fw=0.94, fhv=1/(1+0.1*(1.7-1)+0.05*(1.5-1)=0.913
MSF=1850 pc/hr/lane (LOS D), q=1850*0.95*0.913*4814become one side obstruction
4892 veh/hr=2936/PHF. So, PHF=0.60 4814=V/0.60, V=2888 veh/hr (actual maximum directional
28.65 SSD
1 cos , , where w is the width of lane peak-hour volume @LOS D
Rv
Given: Four-lane urban freeway (2 lanes in each direction) 50 mph design speed Directional
1 1 , where Ms is measured from centre line of the lane
28.65 peak-hour 1950 veh/hr 5% trucks PHF 0.90 11-ft lanes, obstructions 4 ft from pavement edge
Elevation: STA.PC=STA.PI‐T STA.PT=STA.PC+L at median and roadside Rolling terrain
Determine: (a) LOS; (b) how much additional traffic could be accommodated before reaching
Example capacity.
Time-mean velocity and space-mean velocity
One observes a cyclic traffic flow on a road from his table through the coffee shop window.
Three groups of vehicles arrived in the 15min period. Red vehicles arrive with a rate of
5veh/min at speed 50km/hr. Green vehicles arrive at 60km/hr with headway of 30sec. 20
Purple vehicles arrive, each at speed 80km/hr
Volume:
QR =5*60 =300 veh/hr QG =3600/30 =120 veh/hr QP =20*60/15 =80 veh/hr
The time mean speed is: (300*50+120*60+80*80)/500 =57.20km/hr
Consider another person takes a photo for a road segment of length 1000m in a helicopter, he
will find 6 red, 2 green, and 1 purple vehicles. This is derived by considering the density of A two-lane highway (two 12-ft lanes) has a posted speed limit of 50 mph (assume the
each group: maximum side friction coefficient for 50 mph is 0.14) and, on one section, has both
KR =(300veh/hr) / (50km/hr) =6 veh/km ,KG =(120veh/hr) / (60km/hr) =2 veh/km horizontal and vertical curves as shown in Fig.3.10. A recent daytime accident (driver
KP =(80veh/hr) / (80km/hr) =1 veh/km traveling eastbound and striking a stationary roadway object) resulted in a fatality and a
Thus, the space mean speed is Vs =(6*50+2*60+1*80)/9 =55.56km/hr The corner of a building is situated next to a horizontal curve with a radius of 132 ft on a law suit alleging that the 50-mph posted speed limit was an unsafe speed for the curves in
Or the space mean speed is Vs =125/(75/50+30/60+20/80) =55.56km/hr two-lane rural highway. The inside lane is 10 ft wide and the inside edge of the inside lane is 10 ft question and a major cause of the accident. Evaluate and comment on the roadway
Observing a cyclic flow pattern over 1 hour time period with three racing cars (A, B, and C) from the corner of the building. Determine what speed limit should be imposed on this section design.
moving along a circular (ellipsoid) road of 10 km long. Cars A, B and C are running at 100, 150 of the highway (assume coefficient of friction of skid 0.4, 2.5sec).
and 200 km/h, respectively.

Or vs= 1/[1/(10+15+20)*(10*1/100+15*1/150+20*1/200)]=150km/h
Shock wave
You were the driver of the sixth car to be stopped by a red light. Ten seconds elapsed after
the onset of the following green before you were able to get going again. Given that the
release flow was 1200 veh/hr, calculate the release density and the release mean speed.
Assume an average car length L=18ft and a safety margin =2ft (clearance when vehicles
stop).
∆
L= 32+75-16+00=16+75 sta D= ∗ R=5729.58/4.78=1198.5 Rv=1192.5ft

Additional amount of traffic= additional volume not flow rate

Vertical alignment
A vehicular stream at qa=1200 veh/h and ka=100 veh/mi is interrupted by a flag-person for 5
min beginning at time t=t0. At time t=t0+5 minutes, vehicles at the front of the stationary
platoon begin to be released at qb=1600 veh/h and vb=20 mi/h. Assuming jam density kj=240
veh/mi:
(a) plot the location of the front of the platoon versus time and the location of the rear of the
platoon versus time;
(b) plot the length of the growing platoon versus time.
U front= (1600-0)/(80-240)=-10mph Urear= 0-1200/(240-100)=-8.57mph

K=480/6=80<90 in table 3.1unsafe