Mathematics 8 2

Introduction:
Hello dear learner! Welcome to our Mathematics 8 class for
school year 2023 – 2024 . Congratulations for making it this
far. It means that you have successfully passed all the
challenging lessons and activities in the previous weeks. Join
your teacher and the rest of the class in discovering the world
of Mathematics 8. Welcome to the last module of the subject.

This module aims to develop solid foundation of Math skill among students, enabling
them to become critical thinkers and problem solvers ready to face the challenges of our
ever-challenging world.

It is self-instructional. You can read, understand, analyze the concepts, do the exercises
and activities, and reflect on the values in every lesson.

If you have some misconceptions or need some help, feel free to ask the assistance of
your subject teacher.

Subject Description:
Mathematics 8 was designed to enable the learners to demonstrate the
understanding and appreciation of key concepts and principles of algebra,
geometry, probability, and applied statistics using appropriate technology and
geared to meet the learning competencies of the K to 12 curriculum. Specifically,
we will discuss the following lessons:
Lesson 1 – focuses on postulates on lines, planes, and angles
Lesson 2 – focuses on congruent triangles
Lesson 3 – focuses on inequalities in triangles
Lesson 4 – focuses on parallelism and perpendicularity of lines
Lesson 5 – focuses on simple probability
Lesson 6 – focuses on measures of central tendency and variability

Learning Competencies:
This module presents lessons in Mathematics for Grade 8 students. At the
Mathematics 8 3
end of this module, you are expected to attain the following competencies:

Twenty Fifth – Thirty Second Weeks

 Illustrates the need for an axiomatic structure of a mathematical system in

general, and in Geometry in particular: (a) defined terms; (b) undefined terms; (c)
postulates; and (d) theorems.
 Illustrates triangle congruence
 Illustrates the SAS, ASA, and SSS congruence postulates
 Solves corresponding parts of congruent triangles
 Proves two triangles are congruent
 Proves statements on triangle congruence
 Illustrates theorems on triangle inequalities
 Applies theorems on triangle inequalities
 Proves inequalities in a triangle
 Proves properties of parallel lines cut by a transversal
 Determines the conditions under which lines and segments are parallel or
perpendicular
 Illustrates an experiment, outcome, sample space and event
 Counts the number of occurrences of an outcome in an experiment
 Finds the probability of a simple event
 Illustrates an experimental probability and a theoretical probability
 Illustrates the measure of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) of statistical
data.
 Calculates the measures of central tendency of ungrouped
 Illustrates the measures of variability (range, average deviation, variance, standard
deviation) of a statistical data
 Calculates the measures of variability of ungrouped
 Uses appropriate statistical measures in analyzing and interpreting statistical data
 Draws conclusions from graphic and tabular data and measures of central
tendency and variability

Mathematics 8 4
Table of Contents

Page No.
Introduction 3
Subject Description 3
Learning Competencies 4
Performance Standards 5
Axiomatic Structure of Geometry and Triangle Congruence
Lesson 1: Postulates on Lines, Planes, and Angles
Lesson 2: Congruent Triangles
Geometric Relationships and Probability
Lesson 3: Inequalities in Triangles
Lesson 4: Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Lines
Lesson 5: Simple Probability
Lesson 6: Measures of Central Tendency and Variability……..
References 34

Performance standards:

 is able to communicate mathematical thinking with coherence and

clarity in formulating, investigating, analyzing, and
solving real-life problems involving congruent triangles using appropriate and
accurate representations, triangle inequalities, and parallelism and
perpendicularity of lines

 is able to formulate and solve practical problems involving probability of simple

events.
 is able to calculate measures of central tendency and variability.

Mathematics 8 5
Lesson 1: Postulates on Lines, Planes, Angles

Time frame: Thirteenth Week

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners are expected to:
 Describe a mathematical system
 Illustrate the need for an axiomatic structure of a mathematical system in
general, and in geometry in particular
 Describe and illustrate the postulates and theorem on points, lines, planes,
and angles.
 Do the assigned task diligently

Why is it necessary to establish undefined

terms?
How are definitions and theorems
established?
How are the postulates on points, lines, and
planes related?

Point, lines, and planes can be represented in various ways. A point is

often visualized as a tiny dot, a tip, or a very small particle. A line is usually
represented by a stroke that is straight and extends infinitely.
A plane is a flat and smooth surface that spreads.

Notice that when defining the three terms above, the use of descriptors end up circling
such that the same terms are being used to define the other. Hence, points, lines, and
planes are regarded as undefined terms.

Mathematics 8 6
 The undefined terms are the basis of axioms and postulates in geometry.
Axioms or postulates are statements taken true even without proof. It consequently
leads to defined terms, which are terms defined using undefined terms, and theorems,
which are statements that can be proven true.

The figure below describes an axiomatic system:

Undefined Terms

Axioms or Postulates

Defined Terms

Theorems

An axiomatic system is any set of axioms used to derive theorems. In the figure
above, theorems are logically derived from defined terms, axioms or postulates,
and undefined terms.

 Postulates on Lines and Planes

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 Here are the postulates on the relationships among points, lines, and planes:

Postulate 1: The Distance Postulate

For every distinct two points, there corresponds a unique positive number.
This number is the distance between two points. (See the figure below)

 In the figure above, distance between A and B is AB.

Postulate 2: The Ruler Postulate

The point of a line can be placed in correspondence with real numbers in
such a way that:
i. for every point on the line, there corresponds exactly one real
number;
ii. for every real number, there corresponds exactly one point on the
line; and
iii. the distance between two points is the absolute value of the
difference of the corresponding numbers.

Example 1: Measure the length of line segment AB

Solution: Apply postulate 2 to solve the problem. Using a metric ruler, align any
point A with exactly one mark of the ruler and get the mark where point B falls. The
length of the line segment AB is equal to the absolute value of the difference of the
two marks.

 AB = l 8 – 4 l = l 4 l = 4
 Hence, the length of line segment AB is 4 cm.

Postulate 3: The Ruler Placement Postulate

Two points on any line or line segment can be paired with real numbers, so
that given any two points A and B, A corresponds to zero and B
corresponds to a positive real number.

You can also apply postulate 3 to solve the given problem above. Using a

Mathematics 8 8
 metric ruler, align point A with the zero mark of the ruler. The
measurement of AB is the mark where B is aligned.

 Thus, the length of segment AB is 4 cm.

Postulate 4: The Line Postulate

Given any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains both
points.

 Through points A and C, line AC can be drawn.

Postulate 5: The Point-Existence Postulate
Every plane contains at least three non-collinear points. A space
contains at least four non-coplanar points.

 Points A, B, C determine plane M.

 Points A, B, C, and D determine space.

Postulate 6: The Flat Plane Postulate

If two points of a line lie on a plane, then the line lies on the same plane.

 If A and B lie on plane M, then line AB lies on plane M.

Postulate 7: The Plane Postulate

Any three points lie on at least one plane, and any three
non-collinear points lie on exactly one plane.

 Points A, B, and C lie on plane X.

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 Postulate 8: Plane-Intersection Postulate
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

 The intersection of plane M and plane X is line l.

Theorem 1: If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point.

 The intersection of lines t and l is point A.

Theorem 2: If a line intersects a plane not containing it, then the
Intersection contains only one point.

 The intersection of line l and plane M is point X.

Theorem 3: Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly
one plane containing both.

 Given point A not on line XY, then both can be contained in any plane M.

Theorem 4: Given two intersecting lines, there is exactly one plane

containing both.

 Intersecting lines l1 and l2 are contained in one plane.

 Postulates on Angles

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 Recall that an angle is defined as the union of two rays having a common endpoint.
Notice that this definition was made using undefined terms. Here are the postulates
on angles:

Postulate 9: The Angle Measurement Postulate

For every angle AOB, there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180.

 The real number that corresponds to angle AOB is 120. Therefore, angle AOB
measures 1200.
Postulate 10: The Angle Addition Postulate
If D is in the interior of angle BAC, then the measure of angle BAC is the
sum of angles BAD and DAC.

 BAC = BAD + DAC

Postulate 11: The Supplement Postulate

If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

 The two angles JKM and LKM form a linear pair. Therefore,
they are supplementary.

Theorem 5: Right Angle Congruence

All right angles are congruent.

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 Theorem 6: Congruent Supplements Theorem
If two angles are supplementary to the same angle
(or to congruent angles), then they are congruent.

Theorem 7: Congruent Complements Theorem

If two angles are complementary to the same angle
(or to congruent angles), then they are congruent.

Theorem 8: Linear Pair Postulate

If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

Theorem 9: Vertical Angles Theorem

Vertical angles are congruent.

A. Use the diagram below to write examples of the following:

1.) Postulate 4 (The Line Postulate)

2.) Postulate 5
(The Point-Existence Postulate)

3.) Postulate 6 (The Flat Plane Postulate)

4.) Postulate 7 (The Plane Postulate)

B. Refer to the figure below to find the measures of the following angles.

Mathematics 8 12
 1.) CYN ________ 3.) EYN ________

2.) CYT ________ 4.) EYR ________

3.)

Activity 3. Let’s do this! (Lesson 1)

Name: __________________________ Grade and Section: ________________

Read and answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.

1.) These are the statements that can be taken true even without proof.
A. undefined terms C. postulates
B. defined terms D. theorems

2.) It is a postulate which states that for every distinct two points, there corresponds a
unique positive number.
A. The Ruler Postulate C. The Line Postulate
B. The Distance Postulate D. The Flat Plane Postulate

3.) It is a postulate which states that if two planes intersect, then their intersection is a
line.
A. Plane-Intersection Postulate C. The Flat Plane Postulate
B. The Plane Postulate D. The Line Postulate

Mathematics 8 13
 4.) It is a postulate which states that for every angle, there corresponds a real number
between 0 and 180.
A. The Angle Measurement C. The Supplement Postulate
B. The Angle Addition Postulate D. The Angle Construction

5.) It is a postulate which states that if two angles form a linear pair, then they
supplementary.
A. The Angle Addition Postulate C. The Angle Measurement
B. The Angle Construction D. The Supplement Postulate

Let’s remember these:

Mathematics 8 14
Lesson 2: Congruent Triangles

Time frame: Fourteenth Week

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners are expected to:
 Illustrate triangle congruence
 Illustrate the SAS, ASA, and SSS congruence postulates
 Solve corresponding parts of congruent triangles
 Prove two triangles are congruent
 Do the assigned task with patience and determination

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3

Compare the sizes and shapes of the following pairs of triangles. Which seems to
have the same shape and size?
Mathematics 8 15
 To be sure, the practical way to know if they are exactly of the
same size and shape, you may cut one triangle and put it on top
of the other. This exactly fit if the proper pair of vertices will be
made.

Two triangles are congruent if and only if their vertices can be paired so that
corresponding sides and corresponding angles are congruent.

Two triangles are congruent if they have the same size and the same shape.

Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles(CPCT) are congruent . CPCT can be

used to solve problems on triangles. There are postulates and theorems that can be
used to prove that two triangles are congruent.

Postulate 12: Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Postulate

If three sides of a triangle
are congruent to the three sides
of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

Postulate 13: Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Postulate

If two sides and the included angle

Mathematics 8 16
 of a triangle are congruent to
two sides and the included angle
of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

Postulate 14: Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Congruence Postulate

If two angles and the included side
of a triangle are congruent to
two angles and the included side
of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

Theorem 10: Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Theorem

If two angles and a non-included
side of a triangle are congruent
to two angles and the
corresponding non-included
side of another triangle,
then the two triangles are
congruent.

Tell whether the pairs of triangle are congruent. State the postulate or theorem
that would support your answer.

Yes or No Postulate or Theorem

(if Yes)
1.)

2.)

3.)

Mathematics 8 17
 4.)

5.)

Name: __________________________ Grade and Section: ________________

True or False. Write True if the statement is correct and False if not.

1.) Two triangles are congruent if they have the same size and
the same shape.

2.) Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are NOT

congruent.

3.) Side-Side-Side (SSS) congruence postulate states that if

three sides of a triangle are congruent to the three sides of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

4.) Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) congruence postulate states that if

two angles and the included side of a triangle are congruent to
two angles and the included side of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

5.) Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) congruence theorem states that if

two sides and the included angle of a triangle are congruent to
two sides and the included angle of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

Mathematics 8 18
 Let’s remember these:

Mathematics 8 19
Lesson 3: Triangle Inequalities

Time frame: Fourteenth Week

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners are expected to:

 Illustrate theorems on triangle inequalities

 Apply theorems on triangle inequalities
 Prove inequalities in a triangle
 Do the assigned task with speed and accuracy

Are triangles always congruent? Do designs in buildings or other infrastructure

require that triangles are always congruent? Buildings sometimes are made using
different shapes and sizes to make them more attractive. One side of the figure may be
shorter than the other or one angle is larger than the other. In this lesson, you will learn
the properties of inequalities of triangles and their applications.

In your study of triangles, you had been dealing only with the conditions under
which you can say that two segments are equal in length, or two angles are equal in
measures. The topic deals with inequalities of segments and angles. These are defined in
terms of the numbers that measure the segments and angles.

Mathematics 8 20
 Here are the properties of inequalities that will provide you with
the bases for deduction involving inequalities.

1.) Addition Property of Inequality (API)

If a > b and c > 0, then a + c > b + c.
If a > b and c < 0, then a + c > b + c.

2.) Subtraction Property of Inequality (SPI)

If a > b and c > 0, then a – c > b – c.
f a > b and c < 0, then a – c > b – c.

3.) Multiplication Property of Inequality (MPI)

If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc.
If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc.

4.) Division Property of Inequality (DPI)

a b
If a > b and c > 0, then > .
c c
a b
If a > b and c < 0, then < .
c c

5.) Transitive Property of Inequality (TPI)

If a> band b> c , then a> c .
If a< band b< c , then a< c
6.) Trichotomy
Given two real numbers a and b,
only one statement holds true in the following:
a< b , a=b , a> b

There are theorems that can be used to prove triangle

inequalities.

o Exterior Angle Inequality

o Triangle Inequality Theorem

o Hinge Theorem (SAS Inequality)

Mathematics 8 21
  Exterior Angle Inequality
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater than the measure of
either remote interior angles.

Example: Find the value of x.

Solution: By the triangle exterior angle theorem, x = 64 + 59 = 123.

 Now it’s your turn. Find the value of x.

x0 = _________

x0 = _________

 Triangle Inequality Theorem

Mathematics 8 22
 It states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than
the length of the third side. When the sum of the lengths of any two sides is equal
to the length of the third side, the three points that are supposed to form the
triangle become collinear, satisfying the segment addition postulate.

AB + BC > AC

AB + AC > BC

BC + AC > AB

Example: Tell whether the given lengths will form a triangle.

a.) 7, 7, 7, b.) 4, 8, 9

Solution:
a.) 7, 7, 7
7+7>7
14 > 7 The lengths will form an equilateral triangle.

 Now it’s your turn to solve for b.

Solution:
b.) 4, 8, 9

 Hinge Theorem (SAS Inequality)

If two sides of one triangle are congruent to two sides of another, but the measure
of the included angle of the first is larger than the second, then the third side of
the first is longer than the third side of the second.

Example: Refer to the given figure. Express an inequality statement

that relates the given pair of sides.

 BD and CD

Mathematics 8 23
 Solution:

 BD > CD

State the following theorems:

1.) Exterior Angle Inequality Theorem

2.) Triangle Inequality Theorem

3.) Hinge Theorem

Name: __________________________ Grade and Section: ________________

Read and answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.

1.) It is a theorem which states that an exterior angle is greater than any of the two
remote interior angles.
A. Exterior Angle Theorem C. Hinge Theorem
B. Triangle Inequality Theorem D. AAS Theorem

2.) It is a theorem which states that he sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle
Mathematics 8 24
 is greater than the length of the third side.
A. SSS Postulate C. Triangle Inequality Theorem
B. Hinge Theorem D. Exterior Angle Theorem

3.) It is a theorem which states that if two sides of one triangle are congruent to two
sides of another, but the measure of the included angle of the first is larger than the
second, then the third side of the first is longer than the third side of the second.
A. Triangle Inequality Theorem C. Exterior Angle Theorem
B. ASA Postulate D. Hinge Theorem

4.) Possible lengths of the sides that will form a triangle.

A. 7, 9, 13 C. 1, 2, 3
B. 3, 5, 9 D. 2, 4, 7

5.) Use the given figure to identify the angle with the greatest measure.

A. 1 C. 4
B. 3 D. None of the above

Let’s remember these:

Mathematics 8 25
Lesson 4: Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Lines

Time frame: Fifteenth Week

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners are expected to:
 Prove properties of parallel lines cut by a transversal
 Determine the conditions under which lines and segments are parallel or
perpendicular
 Do the assigned task with speed and accuracy

Mathematics 8 26
 Railroad tracks illustrate parallel lines. Parallel lines are two or more lines that
never intersect no matter how long they are extended. That is why when asked to verify
parallelism of lines, some resort to lengthening the lines in opposite directions until it is
shown that the lines do not meet. However, there are other much easier and much safer
means to justify parallelism.

Recall form your Grade 7 Mathematics class that when a transversal intersects
two coplanar lines, several pairs of angles are formed. Such pairs of angles are
commonly defined depending on their positions with respect to the transversal (same
side or alternate) and the two given lines (interior or exterior). These pairs of angles
include corresponding, alternate interior, alternate exterior, and same-side interior
angles.

Example 1:

1.) Corresponding angles are two nonadjacent angles on the same side of the
transversal, and which are on corresponding locations. In the figure above,
examples of corresponding angles are angles
1 and 3, and angles 2 and 4.

2.) Alternate interior angles are two nonadjacent angles on the interior of the lines
and are on opposite (alternate) sides of the transversal. Angles 2 and 7 are pairs of
alternate interior angles.

3.) Alternate exterior angles are two nonadjacent angles on the exterior of the lines,
and which are on opposite sides of the transversal. Angles 1 and 8 are alternate
exterior angles.

Mathematics 8 27
 4.) Same-side interior angles are two angles between the lines, located on the same
side of the transversal. Angles 2 and 3 form a pair of same-side interior angles.

 Recall further that when a transversal intersects a pair of parallel lines, the pairs of
angles formed by the intersection have certain properties or relationships, which
can either be congruent or supplementary. These are summarized in the following
theorems. (Note that these properties are only true when the lines cut by the
transversal are parallel).

1.) Corresponding Angles Postulate: if a transversal cuts two parallel lines, the
corresponding angles are congruent.

2.) Alternate Interior Angles Theorem: If a transversal cuts two parallel lines,
the alternate interior angles are congruent.

3.) Alternate Exterior Angles Theorem: If a transversal cuts two parallel lines,
the alternate exterior angles are congruent.
4.) Same-side Interior Angles Theorem: If a transversal cuts two parallel lines,
the same-side interior angles are supplementary.

 In addition to these properties, it is also very necessary to review previous

theorems and postulates on pairs of angles, which also apply for parallel lines cut
by a transversal.

1.) Vertical Angle Theorem: vertical Angles are congruent.

2.) Linear Pair Postulate: Angles pairs forming a linear pair are supplementary.

Example 2:
Refer to the figure below. Given that lines m and n are parallel, identify whether the
following pairs of angles are congruent or supplementary.

Mathematics 8 28
Solution:

a. Congruent. Alternate exterior angles are congruent.

b. Congruent. The given angles are corresponding, which are always congruent.

c. Congruent. Alternate interior angles are congruent.

d. Supplementary. The angles are same-side interior angles.

e. Congruent. Vertical angles are congruent.

f. Supplementary. The angles form a linear pair.

 Proving Properties of Parallel Lines Cut by a Transversal

Study the theorems about parallel lines.

Alternate Interior Angles:

If two parallel line are cut by a
transversal, the pairs of alternate
interior angles are congruent.

Alternate Exterior Angles:

If two parallel line are cut by a
transversal, the pairs of alternate
exterior angles are congruent.

Consecutive Interior Angles:

If two parallel line are cut by a
transversal, the pairs of consecutive
interior angles are supplementary.

Consecutive Exterior Angles:

If two parallel line are cut by a
transversal, the pairs of consecutive
exterior angles are supplementary.

Mathematics 8 29
 Perpendicular Transversal:
If a transversal is perpendicular top
one of two parallel lines, then it is
perpendicular to the other.

 Perpendicular lines are intersecting

lines at a point forming a right angle.

Answer each question below. You may use an extra sheet of paper.

1.) Define parallel and perpendicular lines.

2.) Define transversal

3.) State the theorems of parallel lines cut by a transversal

4.) Sketch two parallel lines cut by a transversal. Label a pair of consecutive interior
angles and alternate exterior angles.

Name: __________________________ Grade and Section: ________________

Read and answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.

1.) These are two or more lines that never intersect no matter how long they are extended.
A. parallel lines C. intersecting lines
B. perpendicular lines D. transversal

2.) It is a line that intersects two or more coplanar lines at two distinct points.
A. transversal C. intersecting lines
B. parallel lines D. perpendicular lines

3.) It is a theorem which states that if two parallel line are cut by a transversal, the pairs of
alternate interior angles are congruent.
A. Alternate Exterior Angles C. Alternate Interior Angles
B. Perpendicular Transversal D. Consecutive Interior Angles

4.) It is a theorem which states that if a transversal is perpendicular top one of two parallel
lines, then it is perpendicular to the other.
A. Consecutive Exterior Angles C. Perpendicular Transversal
Mathematics 8 30
 B. Alternate Interior Angles D. Alternate Exterior Angles

5.) It is a theorem which states that if two parallel line are cut by a transversal, the pairs of
consecutive interior angles are supplementary.
A. Alternate Interior Angles C. Consecutive Exterior Angles
B. Consecutive Interior Angles D. Alternate Exterior Angles

Let’s remember these:

Mathematics 8 31
Lesson 5: Simple Probability

Time frame: Sixteenth Week

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners are expected to:
 Illustrate an experiment, outcome, sample space and event
 Count the number of occurrences of an outcome in an experiment
 Find the probability of a simple event
 Illustrate an experimental probability and a theoretical probability
 Do the assigned task with speed and accuracy

Leo made it to the jackpot round of

a game show on TV where he has a
chance of winning one million pesos.
In the middle of the game, the host
offered him PhP70 000.00 to take
home or to continue with the game.
Will Leo accept the offer or will it be
best to continue with the game?
Mathematics 8 32
 As can be seen from the wheel, there are only three prizes higher than the offer
of PhP70 000.00 (PhP100 000.00, PhP500 000.00, and the jackpot prize. That is 3 out of
11 or lower than what is offered. Hence, it is better for Leo to accept the offer and take it
home because the chances of getting a higher prize are low. This illustrates the
probability of an event.

 Probability is a branch of mathematics that deals with measuring the likeness that
an event will happen. It is primarily concerned with making predictions about the
occurrence of events.

 In the study of probability, certain terminologies need to be understood. These

terminologies include the following:

o Experiment – an activity that can be performed repetitively.

Examples: tossing a coin, drawing a card, rolling a die,
picking a number

o Outcome – refers to the result of performing an experiment

Example: In tossing a coin, the possible outcomes include either
heads or tails.

o Sample space – the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment

Example: In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

o Event – a subset of the sample space. It consists of one or more outcomes

of an experiment.
Example: In drawing a card from the standard deck of 52 cards, some events
include getting a black card, picking a red card, and choosing a face card.

An event may be classified as independent or dependent.

When an outcome of an event is not affected by another event, the two
events are independent. Otherwise, they are dependent.

Example 1: Determine the possible outcomes in the following

experiments, and then write the sample space and the total number
of outcomes.
a. Picking a color from the rainbow

Mathematics 8 33
 b. Choosing a month
Solutions:
a. Sample space (S) = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}
number of possible outcomes n(S) = 7

b. S = {January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August,

September, October, November, December}
n(S) = 12

Example 2: Determine the possible outcomes for the following

events, and then list the elements and the total number
of outcomes.
a. Choosing a single-digit odd number
b. Drawing a king from a standard deck of 52 cards

Solutions:
a. Event (E) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
number of favorable outcomes n(E) = 5

b. E = {king of hearts, king of spades, king of diamonds, king of clubs}

n(E) = 4

 Counting the Outcomes of an Experiment Using Tables and Tree Diagrams

When dealing with probability experiments and events, you need to be careful
in counting the outcomes. One way to do this is by systematic listing. It involves
identifying the outcomes, the listing and counting them. However, there are
instances when this method appears tedious and somewhat difficult especially
when the outcomes require combinations. In these instances, you can use tables
and tree diagrams to count the outcomes.

Example: Rose is ordering a pizza. The store offers a choice of Hawaiian,

pepperoni, or cheese on either regular or thin crust. How many different
combinations of toppings and crust are possible?

Solutions:
Let H represents Hawaiian, P for pepperoni, C for cheese,
R for regular, and T for thin.

o Method 1: Using a table

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 o Method 2: Tree Diagram

 There are 6 possible outcomes or combinations of pizza.

 Fundamental Counting Principle

If event 1 occur in n1 ways and is followed by event 2 that occur in n 2 ways, then
the total number of ways in which both events can occur is n1 x n2.

Notice that in the example (Rose ordering pizza) that there are three ways to
choose a flavor and two ways to choose the type of crust. You can simplify the
counting of outcomes by using multiplication: 3 x 2 = 6 total ways to choose a
combination of flavors and type of crust. This illustrates the fundamental
counting principle.

 Probability of an Event

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 The probability P(E) that an event will happen is determined by the ratio of the
number of favorable outcomes n(E) to the total number of possible outcomes
n ( E)
n(S). In symbols, P ( E )=
n ( S)

The probability of an event happening always takes a value between 0 to 1,

inclusively. A probability value of 0 means an event is impossible to happen
while a probability of 1 means an event is certain to happen. An event is more
likely to happen when the probability is closer 1 while less likely when it is closer
to 0.

Example: In tossing a coin, find the probability of getting a head.

Solutions:
In tossing a coin, there are 2 possible outcomes: head or tail.
Hence, there is only 1 favorable outcome of getting a head.

E = {Head} so n(E) = 1
S = {Head, Tail} so n(S) = 2

Thus, the probability of getting a head in a single toss is

n ( E)
P ( H )=
n (S )

1
P ( H )=
2

Note that a probability value may be expressed by using fraction, decimal,

1
or percentage form. So a probability of can also be expressed as 0.5 or
2
50%.

 Theoretical and Experimental Probabilities

In the example above, you have learned that the probability of getting a head
1
from a single toss of coin is . This value is called theoretical probability,
2
obtained with the use of a formula based on what is possible.

Try to verify this value by conducting an actual experiment following these steps:

Step 1: Get a coin and toss it 10 times.

Step 2: Record the results of each toss by tallying. After you 10th toss,
count the number of times the head appeared and the
number of times the tail appeared.
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 Step 3: Use these records to calculate the probability of getting a
head from a coin toss. You can do thus by finding the ratio of
the number of times the head appeared to the total number of trials.
1
Did your answer match the computed theoretical probability of ?
2

Number of times the Head Number of Times the Tail Appeared

Appeared

The probability value obtained by conducting an actual experiment through repeated trials is
called experimental probability. Often, the experimental probability of an event differs from its
theoretical probability.

 Not it’s your turn. Identify whether the following illustrates theoretical or experimental
probability.

7
a. A coin was tossed 20 times, P ( head )= . _____________
20

2
b. A bag contains 2 blue and 3 red marbles, P ( blue )= . _____________
5

c. A card was drawn from the deck and an ace appeared 3 times after 15 trials,
3 1
P ( ace )= ∨ . _____________
15 5

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Answer each question below. Choose 3 out of 5. You may use an extra sheet of paper to
answer. Submit in NEOLMS. 15 points.

1.) A bookshelf holds 10 different fiction and 8 different fantasy novels. How many
ways can one book of each type be selected?

2.) A pizza shop offers four different crusts, three sizes, and five toppings. How
many different ways can a customer order a pizza?

3.) Matthew has a small bag with 8 blue, 5 red, and 2 yellow marbles. If Matthew
picks at random one marble from a bag, what is the probability that he gets a red
marble?

4.) Anne rolls a die 40 times and an even number shows 18 times. What is the
experimental probability of showing an even number from a roll of die based on
Anne’s experiment?

5.) Theoretical probability gives what is ideal while experimental probability gives
what is real. The experimental probability approaches its theoretical probability as
the number of trials increases. How do you relate this to real life? What value can
you get from this fact?

Name: __________________________ Grade and Section: ________________

Read and answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.

1.) It is a branch of mathematics that deals with measuring the likeness that an
event will happen.
A. probability C. event
B. experiment D. outcome

2.) It is the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment

A. outcome C. sample space
B. event D. experiment

3.) A milk tea shop offers 5 different flavors and 3 different cup sizes. In how
Mathematics 8 38
 many ways can you order a milk tea?
A. 8 C. 3
B. 15 D. 5

4.) Two coins are tossed. What is the probability that two tails appear?
A. 1 C. 1/8
B. 1/2 D. 1/4

5.) If a letter is to be chosen from the word AUGUSTINIAN, what is the

probability of selecting a consonant?
A. 6/11 C. 5/6
B. 5/11 D. 1/2

Let’s remember these:

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Lesson 6. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

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 REFERENCES:

 Advincula, R. L. (2013). Global Mathematics 8. Quezon City, Philippines: The

Library Publishing House.

 Firmalino, S. F., De Gracia, M. B., Jimenez, E. P., & Gureng, P. T. (2017).

Realistic Math 8: Scaling Greater Heights. Quezon City, Philippines: Sibs
Publishing House.

 Oronce, O. A., & Mendoza, M. O. (2019). E-MATH 8 (Revised ed.). Quezon City,
Philippines: Rex Book Store.

 Pascasio, A. A., Ponsones, R. B., Ocampo, S. R., & Tresvalles, R. M. (2017).

Math Ideas and Life Applications (2nd ed.). Quezon City, Philippines: Abiva
Publishing House.

 Tizon, L. T., & Ulpina, J. N. (2014). Math Builders 8. Valenzuela City,

Philippines: JO-ES Publishing House.

 Urgena, J. A., & Canlapan, R. B. (2018). Practical Math 8. Makati City,

Philippines: Diwa Learning Systems.

 Versoza, D., Lopez, B., & Saturno, W. (2018). Our World of Math 8 (2nd ed.).
Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal Group.

 All images and other information used were downloaded from the web
(google.com, freepik.com) and Avatoon app

Prepared by: Ms. Rizalin R. Gubatanga – Math 8 teacher

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