WARS IN CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

UNIT – I: Korean War

a) Concept, meaning and scope of limited wars

b) Causes of Korean War
c) Main events
d) Role of UNO
UNIT – II: Vietnam War

a) Causes
b) Main events
c) Lessons learnt
UNIT – III: Arab Israeli Wars, 1967 & 1993

a) Causes
b) Main events
c) Role of Air power
d) Lessons learnt
UNIT – IV: Iran – Iraq War

a) Causes
b) Highlights of the war
c) Result and lessons learnt
UNIT – V: Gulf of War I & II

a) Causes
b) Highlights of the war
c) Role of the UN
 UNIT – I: KOREAN WAR

a) Concept, meaning, and scope of limited wars

b) Causes of the Korean War
c) Main events
d) Role of UNO
CONCEPT, MEANING AND SCOPE OF LIMITED WARS
CONCEPT:

The theory of limited war was shaped by the experience of two critical conflicts -
Korea and Vietnam. Korea was responsible for a concept geared to an east-west
confrontation and dependent on the limitation of objectives in order to have any realistic
hope of limiting means. Vietnam introduced a pessimism with regard to the possibility of
limiting means, by drawing attention to inherent tendencies of escalation. By the time of
the Gulf War, therefore, limited war was seen to require a commitment to control on both
ends and means.

CRITERIA TO IDENTIFY A LIMITED WAR:

(a) Geographic Scope: global or world war versus limited or local war;

(b) Ends or Objectives: unconditional surrender or destruction of the opponent versus

limited objectives, such as troop withdrawal or negotiated compromise;

(c) Means: making restrained use of military capabilities or limiting attacks to specific
targets, such as the distinction between counterforce and counter-city attacks.

DEFINITION:
'Limited' in this context is not synonymous with 'small'. There have been attempts to
define 'small wars', but this is a difficult task because there are a number of criteria -
including the number of states involved, forces deployed, ordnance delivered, casualties,
duration, and so on - against which individual conflicts might be measured, and there will
rarely be a uniform result. A 'limited war' must stay within clear political and military
boundaries. A limited war is fought to achieve a limited objective.

SCOPE OF LIMITED WAR:

 SUB-CRISIS DISAGREEMENT – The difference of opinion that arises between

two antagonists.
 CRISIS – Both sides feel that unless some current issues are resolved more rungs of
the Ladder will be climbed. Vague or explicit threats may be made that one will go to
extreme measures rather than back down.
 POLITICAL, DIPLOMATIC AND ECONOMIC GESTURES - An adversary
might recall an ambassador, refuse to facilitate negotiation on other issues, make
overtures to the other side’s enemies, denounce a treaty, etc.
 SHOW OF FORCE – Reserve forces may be mobilized or provocative exercises
carried out.
 MODEST MOBILIZATION – The accompaniment of a show of force with a
modest mobilization, indicating that one is willing, if necessary, to call on more force.
 ACTS OF VIOLENCE – Acts of violence or other incidents intended to harass,
confuse, exhaust, violate, discredit, frighten, or otherwise harm or weaken the
opponent may be manufactured.
 LIMITED MILITARY CONFRONTATIONS – One or both sides may go into
combat alert status. It may seem desirable to demonstrate that a limited war or even an
unthinkable all-out war is becoming thinkable, even probable.
 INTENSE CRISIS – The crisis is now ready to enter an intense stage. Decision
makers are announcing “Unless you back down, we will go to war.”
 LIMITED EVACUATION – The partial evacuation of cities.
 SUPER-READY STATUS – Demonstrates one’s resolve and is intended to weaken
the resolve of the other side.
 LIMITED WAR – A small-scale war waged with conventional weapons.
 SPECTACULAR SHOW OF FORCE – Involves the actual use of major weapons.
 CONTROLLED NON-LOCAL WAR – Major weapons are used to target “sanitary”
targets such as ships at sea or isolated military bases.
 COMPLETE EVACUATION – Each side, believing that it is on the verge of an all-
out war, evacuates major cities.
 SOME KIND OF ALL-OUT WAR – Various degrees of damage could result from
an all-out war. Either side could back down after waging a limited response, or it
could be a protracted war with serious amounts of destruction done to each side.

 AFTERMATH – The result of the crisis could be increased cooperation or increased

competition.
KOREAN WAR:

 Korean War is often called “The Forgotten War”

The Korean War was the time when the Cold War became a global conflict. In 1945,
Korea was freed from the Japanese. US troops stayed in South Korea and Soviet troops
remained in North Korea. The country was split in half at the 38th parallel.

 After the war, the USSR began to pursue communism, which the US saw as a threat
to freedom because of the Communist Manifesto. Because Korea was divided,
America felt that there should be an election to see which form of government the
people of Korea wanted, so that it could be reunited again.
 No agreement was reached on how to resolve the issue of a divided Korea.
 Fall of 1947: US brought this problem to United Nations. On Nov. 14, 1947: the UN
passed a resolution
o free elections should be held,
o foreign troops should be withdrawn, and
o a UN commission for Korea (United Nations Temporary Commission on
Korea) should be created.
 Syngman Rhee was elected as president on August 15, 1948: the Republic of Korea
was established.
 On Sept 19, 1948: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was declared in which
Kim Il-sung was appointed as prime minister.
 As a result, a Communist state was permanently established under the Soviets in the
north and a pro-Western state was set up in the south.

 North Korea (led by Kim II Sung) was Communist.

 South Korea (led by Syngman Rhee) was capitalist.

 On June 30, 1949-Final withdrawal of U.S. troops from South Korea.

 On (January-May)1950 for the first 5 months, the Russians gave the North Koreans
an offensive force-tactical aircraft, armor, trucks, and artillery.

 On April 1950-President Truman requested a complete review and re-evaluation of

America’s Cold War diplomacy strategy. The result was NSC-68 (National Security
Council’s Report-68) was completed.
  The report says that -U.S. should vigorously pursue a policy of
“containing” Soviet expansion. NSC-68 recommended that the U.S.
embark on rapid military expansion of conventional forces and the
nuclear arsenal. In addition, massive increases in military aid to U.S.
allies were necessary.

The price of the measures outlined in NSC-68 was to be about $50 billion.
Truman hesitated to support a program that would result in heavy tax increases
for the American public, particularly during a time of peace. The outbreak of the
Korean War in June 1950, however, prompted action. Truman signed NSC-68 into
policy in September 1950.

 As one State Department official noted, “Thank God Korea came along,” since this
act of communist aggression was believed to be crucial in convincing the public to
support increased military spending.

DOMINO THEORY- “One country falls others will follow”:

 The domino theory would govern much of U.S. foreign policy from the 1950s-1980s.
Many believed that if one country fell to Communism, then others would follow, like
a line of dominoes. While this term wasn’t actually used until 1954, at this point
Truman and others were worried that, if Korea fell, the Communists would capture
Japan.

 “Asia is where the communist conspirators have decided to make their play for global
conquest. If we lose this war, the fall of Europe is inevitable. There is no choice but
victory.” - The US General MacArthur.
 Kim II Sung (North Korea)-seek help from Russia (Stalin) and China (Mao Zedong)
 Syngman Rhee (South Korea)
 In an interview with United Press, in October, 1949, Syngman Rhee boasted that the
South Korean army could take the North Korean capital of Pyongyang within three
days. On November 1st, the New York Herald Tribune reported that the South Korean
War Minister had declared that his army was ready and waiting to push into North
Korea.
 Result: It was a good enough excuse – on June 25, 1950 the North Koreans invaded
South Korea and so the Korean War Began.
MAIN EVENTS:

1. THE PARTITION OF KOREA, 1945

Korea had been a Japanese colony from 1910 to 1945 when it was liberated by Allied
forces at the end of World War Two. Due to concerns over ‘spheres of influence’, the United
States and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Korea into two occupation zones: the
communist Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the US-backed
Republic of Korea (South Korea).

Due to Cold War tensions, the zones became two sovereign states, divided at the
38th Parallel, in 1948. Although the US and the Soviet Union withdrew their troops in 1949,
tension between the two nations continued to mount.

2. INVASION OF SOUTH KOREA, JUNE 1950

On 25th June 1950, North Korean forces crossed the 38th Parallel into South Korea.
Their aim was clear: to reunify the Korean Peninsula as a communist state.

The newly-formed UN called on its members to protect South Korea, with US troops
swiftly deployed. They were joined by the troops of many nations, including Britain, Canada,
Australia, India, Ethiopia, France and the Philippines.

3. LANDINGS AT INCHON, SEPTEMBER 1950

With U.S. and United Nations forces locked in the struggle to break out from the
Pusan Perimeter, Gen. MacArthur put in place what was perhaps the most remembered aspect
of the Korean War: The amphibious landing at Inchon. The operation's codename was
Operation Chromite. The 5th Marine Regiment landed on Wolmi-do Island in Inchon
Harbor on Sept. 15, 1950, with the balance of the 1st Marine Division landing at Inchon. By
late the next day, American forces had overwhelmed the North Koreans and secured the city,
allowing MacArthur to land the balance of the invasion force and to move on to retake Seoul
the following March.

4. THE FIRST TIME JET AIRCRAFT ENGAGED IN BATTLE

When the Korean War broke out, many of the aircraft initially used by the U.S.
military were World War II prop-driven planes, including the B-29
Superfortress bomber and the Mustang fighter with the Navy and Marines flying the
vaunted Corsair fighter. The attacking North Korean forces had Soviet-built jet fighter MiG
15. The U.S. rapidly deployed the F-86 Sabre jet, marking the first time U.S. jet aircraft
engaged in battle. In fact, Korea was the first time the United States Air Force entered into
combat, as it was created as a separate and independent force in September 1947.

The Air Force F-86, the Navy Panther jets and the Marines in the Corsair supported
the heavy bombing campaigns against North Korea. This led to many dogfights in the
northwest part of North Korea dubbed "MiG Alley." By the end of hostilities in 1953, the
F-86 had shot down 792 MiGs with a loss of 76 Sabre jets, for a victory ratio of 10-to-1.

5. CHINA INTERVENES, NOVEMBER 1950

MacArthur’S forces repelled the North Korean Army and rapidly advanced north
across the 38th Parallel into North Korea, capturing the capital Pyongyang. By late
November, they had come within 40 miles of the Chinese border. At this stage, the Chinese
People’s Volunteer Army was deployed in to North Korea to push the UN back into the south.

6. THE BATTLE OF THE IMJIN RIVER, APRIL 1951

The Battle of the Imjin River was the bloodiest battle endured by the British Army
since World War Two. On 22nd April, Chinese forces attacked the British 29th Brigade,
which was supported by Belgian forces along the Imjin River. Heavily outnumbered,
troops of the 1st Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment held their position for three days before
they were forced to retreat amid heavy casualties. 527 men were taken as Prisoners of War by
the Chinese.

The brave actions of British and Belgian forces gave UN forces the chance to
withdraw to a stronger position and block the Chinese advance on Seoul.

7. STALEMATE, 1951-53

The Battle of the Imjin River marked the end of the mobile phase of the war,
demonstrating that the Chinese and North Koreans did not have the capacity to defeat UN
forces. The war entered a period of stalemate, with the UN undertaking a naval blockade and
strategic bombing campaign against North Korea.

US bombs, including napalm, incendiaries and explosives, devastated North Korea,

killing countless civilians and destroying an estimated 85 percent of its buildings.
8. ARMISTICE, JULY 1953

On 27th July 1953, after two years of negotiations, an armistice was agreed between
North and South Korea. While the armistice ended hostilities, no peace treaty has ever been
signed to re-establish relations. In that sense, the war has never ended.

9. LEGACY

The Korean War was one of the first battlegrounds of the Cold War era, yet in
Britain it remains a forgotten conflict, overshadowed by World War Two and the other Cold
War battles that followed it.

But its impact is still felt by those who live with its legacy – from the soldiers who
fought, to the Korean families who remain separated on either side of the 38th Parallel.

ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS IN THE KOREAN WAR:

 The United Nations had already involved itself in the affairs of Korea when in 1947,
before partition, it had declared its intentions that elections should be held for a
government for the whole country and that the United Nations would oversee these
elections to ensure that they were fair.
 On June 25th, 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea by crossing over the
38th parallel with the support of the Soviet Union. The United States immediately
pressed for the United Nations to act. On June 25th the United Nations passed
directives urging for a ceasefire and for all member nations to provide assistance
to the South Koreans.
 The United States of America called for the United Nations to use military force
to remove the North Koreans from South Korea because the United Nations had
ignored the Security Councils’ decision.
 Before June 27th the Security Council had made the decision that North Korea had
broken world peace by invading South Korea. This decision was made on the 25th of
June. Nine out of the eleven members of the Security Council voted.
 One member of the Security Council abstained and the USSR, (Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics) who was boycotting the United Nations at the time.
  The Security Council voted that North Korea broke world peace and the United
Nations should take action. The United Nations then voted on whether the United
Nations would use force to remove the North Koreans from South Korea.
 Sixteen member states would provide troops under a United Nations Joint
Command. The United Nations army would fight with the South Korean Army.
 This United Nations force was primarily dominated by American soldiers even to the
extent of being commanded by an American general – Douglas MacArthur. Douglas
MacArthur was selected because of his work in WWII.

LANDING ON INCHON
Inchon and Principles of War:

 Surprise – Inchon was an unlikely landing site because of strong tides and mud flats.
 Maneuver – Amphibious turning movement.
 Offensive – Had to do something to reverse Pusan situation and gain the initiative
 Objective – Landing at Inchon facilitated capture of Seoul; both the South Korean
capital and the site of important road and railroad intersections.

Douglas MacArthur, the U.S. Commander in Chief, Far East, and Commander in Chief,
United Nations Command (CINCUNC) Plan:

Stage 1: North Korea attacks:

 The Korean War began its invasion on June 25, 1950 as Kim Il Sung's heavily armed
and well-trained North Korean army crossed the 38th parallel -- the border between
the two Koreas at the end of World War II.
  As MacArthur biographer, D. Clayton James describes it, "North Korean artillery and
mortar barrages began hitting South Korean positions along the 150-mile width of the
peninsula, shortly followed by invasion forces totaling over 90,000 troops and 150
Soviet-built tanks that struck in smoothly coordinated assaults into South Korea."
 By mid-July, all South Korean and US forces are pushed into the southeast corner of
the country: The Pusan Perimeter.
 By the night of June 28, Seoul had fallen and the South Korean forces were in
disarray. The United Nations had just passed a resolution recommending that "the
members of the United Nations furnish such assistance to the Republic of Korea
as may be necessary to repel the armed attack and to restore international peace
and security to the area."
 On July 30, President Truman announced that he had "authorized the United States
Air Force to conduct missions on specific military targets in northern Korea [and] a
naval blockade of the entire Korean coast," adding almost as an afterthought,
"General MacArthur has been authorized to use certain supporting ground units."
Army Secretary Frank Pace's assessment was more realistic: "We were into Korea
deep."

Stage 2: Americans pushed to the Pusan Perimeter

 July 5 saw the first battle between American and North Korean troops, and the
Americans did not fare as well as they expected. Unable to slow the enemy advance
 below Suwon, the Americans and South Koreans fought desperate delaying
operations, buying time with blood as more American units were rushed to Korea. By
the end of July, the North Koreans had pushed the U.N. forces to the southeast corner
of the peninsula, where they dug in around the port of Pusan. On July 27, a "grim-
faced and business-like" MacArthur visited Eighth Army commander Walton Walker.
A witness said that MacArthur told Walker, "There will be no Dunkirk in this
command. To retire to Pusan will be unacceptable."
 Gen. Walker gave the "stand or die" order, and over the next six weeks a desperate,
bloody struggle ensued as the North Koreans threw everything they had at American
and ROK (South Korean) forces in an effort to gain complete control over Korea.

Stage 3: Inchon

 We shall land at Inchon and I shall crush them! -- GEN Douglas MacArthur, August
1950.
 With what is widely considered the crowning example of his military genius,
MacArthur completely changed the course of the war overnight by ordering -- over
nearly unanimous objections -- an amphibious invasion at the port of Inchon, near
Seoul. Evidence has indicated that the Chinese Communists, having studied
MacArthur's tactics in World War II, warned the North Koreans to expect such an
attack. Still, they were not prepared. The Americans quickly gained control of Inchon,
recaptured Seoul within days, and cut the North Korean supply lines. American and
ROK forces broke out of the Pusan Perimeter and chased the retreating enemy north.
On September 27, after Washington had consulted with its allies regarding war aims,
MacArthur received permission to pursue the enemy into North Korea. ROK forces
crossed the 38th parallel on October 1, opening a fateful new chapter in the conflict.

The Inchon Landing (Operation CHROMITE) 15 SEPT 1950

Moto:

The Landing

 Seize Wolmi Do “Radio Hill”

 Secure red beach
 Secure blue beach
  Consolidate, and continue into Seoul

 The success of MacArthur's plan was reliant on a strong and coordinated sea, air, and
land force. The Inchon invasion demonstrated how naval forces can be a decisive
factor in littoral operations.
 The 230 ships of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble's Joint Task Force (JTF) 7, with the
aid of Royal Navy and other Allied warships, established superiority in the Yellow
Sea as well as the air over it.
 The success of MacArthur's plan was reliant on a strong and coordinated sea, air, and
land force. The Inchon invasion demonstrated how naval forces can be a decisive
factor in littoral operations. The 230 ships of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble's Joint
Task Force (JTF) 7, with the aid of Royal Navy and other Allied warships, established
superiority in the Yellow Sea as well as the air over it.
 UNIT – II: VIETNAM WAR

https://youtu.be/7tNTh6KlXXU

a) Causes
b) Main events
c) Lessons learnt
CAUSES OF VIETNAM WAR:

The four main causes of the Vietnam War were:

1. The power struggle between France and Ho Chi Minh,
2. The Domino Theory,
3. Cold War politics, and
4. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 1964.

The Vietnam War (1954-1975) erupted during the Cold War. The causes and effects of
the Vietnam War include the ideological battle between communism and democracy. The
Vietnam War was fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The U.S. took the side
of the South Vietnamese against Communist North Vietnamese Vietcong guerrilla
troops. Vietnam was split into a communist North and a democratic South in 1954.

 The causes of the Vietnam War were derived from the consequences of the cold
war.
 One of the major reasons for the Vietnam War was the threat perception by the
United States of America of the threat of Communism across South East Asia.
  The tensions which continued for decades also contributed to the war. For
example, since the late 19th century, the country was controlled by France as part
of its colonial empire. This foreign rule resulted in anger among the Vietnamese
and distrust toward the foreign powers.
 With the end of the second world war, the region was under the dominance of Japan,
however, later it was defeated by the United States of America, and France,
attempted to gain control over Vietnam. This resulted in the rise of communist
revolutionaries, under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese
independence movement. A fierce battle between France and Ho Chi Minh led to
the defeat of France and North Vietnam came under the control of Ho Chi Minh.
 In Geneva, at a conference in 1954, Vietnam was divided by the 17th Parallel.
North Vietnam was a communist republic led by Ho Chi Minh (supported by China,
Soviet Union, North Korea and Cuba). South Vietnam was a capitalist republic led
by Ngo Dinh Diem (suppored by United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia
& New Zealand).
 South Vietnam was ruled like a dictator country when tension between North and
South Vietnam intensified.

COLD WAR POLITICS:

 The Vietnam War was caused by the Cold War between America and China.
North Vietnam got help from Russia and South Vietnam got help from America.
 South Vietnam was involved in the Cold War because it felt threatened by China,
an ally of North Vietnam. As a result, this made them closer allies to the US.
 This began when North Korean soldiers invaded South Korea in 1950. Since
then, there was a battle over who would be in power in Southeast Asia.
America viewed this war as communism versus capitalism, which turned it
into part of the Cold War conflict.
 Domestic politics played a major role in US involvement because many
Americans expected their government to protect them during times of crisis. The
media portrayed communists as evil and made it seem like they were on the
verge of taking over at any moment, so people expected intervention from
Washington.
  Popular opinion was that politicians couldn't show weakness or communism
would spread. This caused an immense amount of public pressure to help South
Vietnam.

 The United States of America favored the Ngo Diem regime to stop the spread of
communism in the South Pacific region. However, the rule of Diem was less liked
by people. With the passage of time, the control of the USA over Vietnam increased
militarily, especially under the Presidentship of John F. Kennedy. In 1963, the rule of
Diem was overthrown and unfortunately, Kennedy was assassinated. He was
replaced by Lyndon Johnson who increased the influence of the USA in Vietnam.
 Johnson was well determined to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam. The
interference of the United States increased particularly after the Gulf of Tonkin
incident of 1964.

DOMINO THEORY- “ONE COUNTRY FALLS OTHERS WILL FOLLOW”:

(IMPORTANT)

 The domino theory emerged during the Cold War and stated that if one communist
country fell to communism, then other countries in its region would too.
 This was the reason for US involvement in Vietnam. The US believed it needed to
fight against communism to maintain peace in East Asia, while North Vietnam
supported communist China and had received aid from them since 1950.
 In 1954 at the Geneva Accords negotiations over Vietnam's future failed when Britain
gave up control of Malaysia despite its promising economy and political stability. A
year later, after successfully removing Diem from office through a coup d'état (an
overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers), American
President Eisenhower asked Congress for an additional $200 million in aid funds
towards protecting Southeast Asia against "the forces of international
communism".
 He asked for this additional money to be sent directly to the three countries most
threatened by communism, which were Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.
Eisenhower stated that if these three countries were lost to communism it could have
serious consequences on the rest of Southeast Asia.
  Even though America was not in direct control over Vietnam it still feared what would
happen when North Vietnam finally took over South Vietnam. This fear lead to
American support in funding guerrilla troops in the North with the hope that
they would overthrow Ho Chi Minh's communist regime.
 In 1955, President Eisenhower signed a treaty of aid with South Vietnam, but by
1963 the Viet Cong were winning battle after battle against the South Vietnamese
Army which led to an increased involvement of US forces.

GULF OF TONKIN- (important)

 The Gulf of Tonkin incident was a major escalation point that propelled the United
States further into the Vietnam War.
 On August 2, 1964, U.S. warships (destroyer USS Maddox, USS Turner Joy) were
attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats in international waters as they conducted
a raid against military targets on Hainan Island as part of Oplan 34-A.
 The U.S., officially neutral in this conflict between South and North Vietnam,
accused North Vietnam of attacking American ships for entering their territorial
waters unannounced and initiated military action afterward under the guise of
protecting its own safety and property.
 Although both sides claimed to be fighting for their independence and freedom
from foreign powers, neither side seemed willing to give up, and soon others such as
China and Russia began supporting the North Vietnamese in the form of
weapons, supplies, and thousands of Chinese troops.
  The event led to increased support for Operation Rolling Thunder, which was
President Lyndon B. Johnson's way of starting the Vietnam War. It also
encouraged Congress to pass legislation such as the "Gulf of Tonkin Resolution-
“to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the
United States and to prevent further aggression.”, which allowed President Johnson
to wage war in Vietnam without needing approval from Congress.

OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER-Vietnam [1965-1968]-(important)

 Operation Rolling Thunder was a military operation conducted by the United

States of America against North Vietnam from 2 March 1965 to 2 November 1968.
 The operation had the aim of destroying North Vietnam's transportation network,
industrial base, and air defenses to support ground operations in South Vietnam.

THE PURPOSE OF OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER:

 The political objectives of Operation Rolling Thunder were to force North

Vietnam's leaders to begin negotiating for peace. It ended up lasting more than
three years and became the longest bombing campaign in U.S history, but it failed at
its goal of defeating North Vietnamese forces or ending their support for Viet
Cong operations against South Vietnam.
 Though President Johnson had ordered Operation Rolling Thunder as a way to
achieve limited war goals without sending in ground troops, he wanted the
bombing campaign to ultimately convince North Vietnam's leaders into
accepting a US-backed ceasefire and political settlement for ending the war by
halting their support for Viet Cong operations in South Vietnam.
 The military objectives of Operation Rolling Thunder during the Vietnam War
were to destroy North Vietnamese transportation and industrial infrastructures as well
as military targets in order to halt communist aggression against South Vietnam.
 The Chi Minh trail, also known as the Truong Son Strategic Supply Route, was
used by North Vietnam to transport supplies and troops throughout the war.
Operation Rolling Thunder didn't bomb the Ho Chi Minh Trail but it succeeded at
bombing many different targets including troop concentrations, airfields, dams and
bridges.
  Though President Johnson had ordered Operation Rolling Thunder as a way to
achieve limited war goals without sending in ground troops. He wanted only a
bombing campaign to surrender Vietnam.
 This led to an extended bombing campaign that lasted more than three years with
many casualties on both sides before it ended up failing at its ultimate goal.

BATTLE OF IA DRANG VALLEY-NOVEMBER 14 - 17, 1965

 The first major battle between American and Vietnamese forces, the Battle of Ia
Drang Valley would be claimed as a victory by both sides, Drang valley Located in
the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, the valley was seen as crucial. Its
People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) supply route into the South.
 A new battle tactic of “air mobility” by deploying American forces largely by
helicopter to stop the supply route (Continuous reinforcements via helicopter and
sustained aerial bombardment decimated the Vietnamese positions)
 U.S. First Calvary Division was used in the battle.

BATTLE OF KHE SANH-JANUARY 21 TO JULY 5, 1968- (not important)

TET OFFENSIVE- JANUARY 30 TO MARCH 28, 1968

(VERY IMPORTANT FOR 3,6 AND 10 MARKS)
 Tet, a traditional Vietnamese holiday celebrating the beginning of a new lunar
year, had normally been observed as an unofficial cease-fire. However, in late 1967,
several North Vietnamese leaders decided that the military deadlock needed to
be broken and hypothesized that a massive offensive throughout the urban
centers of the Republic of Vietnam could usher in a general uprising amongst the
war-weary South.
 In, the early morning on January 30, 1968, 13 cities throughout the central portion
of South Vietnam were attacked by Viet Cong forces. Within 24 hours, further
coordinated attacks were launched on military bases, government facilities,
cities, and towns throughout South Vietnam.
 American Marine base at Khe Sanh continued to fight off attackers, the city of
Huế was stormed by North Vietnamese forces.
  A Viet Cong assault team breached the walls of the U.S. embassy compound in
Saigon. Although all of the attackers were killed, the embassy attack was well-
publicized.
 The overall Tet Offensive was turned back with substantial losses for the North
Vietnamese, and the campaign ended by late March.
 Although many American and The Army of the Republic of Vietnam
(ARVN) servicemen (along with thousands of civilians) were killed or wounded,
the personnel losses for the North Vietnamese were far greater.
 The Viet Cong and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) suffered around 45,000
casualties combined during the Tet Offensive,
 For an American public growing tired of the continual fighting in Vietnam with no
end in sight, Tet was a turning point.
 Any expectations that the war was close to ending were shattered, and past
reassurances from the Johnson Administration and General Westmoreland about
the coming victory in Vietnam seemed dubious, to say the least.
 Heeding public pressure, President Johnson announced on March 31 that he would
limit the bombing of North Vietnam, call for negotiations – and most surprisingly –
not run for re-election in 1968.

BATTLE OF HUẾ-JANUARY 31 TO MARCH 2, 1968

 With the start of the Tet Offensive, a powerful PAVN People's Army of Vietnam
(PAVN) and Viet Cong assault quickly pushed back the scattered ARVN (Army of
the Republic of Vietnam) and U.S. Marine forces.
 The North Vietnamese established control over much of the city, while the
Marines fell back to the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam
(MACV) compound south of the Perfume River.
 Reorganizing, a combined American/ARVN counterattack began to push the
North Vietnamese forces back by increasing American reinforcements, including
elements of the First Cavalry Division supplemented by offshore naval artillery,
land-based howitzers, and air strikes, proved instrumental in retaking the city.

CAMBODIA INCURSION-APRIL 29 TO JUNE 30, 1970- (not important)

LAM SON 719-FEBRUARY 8 TO MARCH 25, 1971- (important for timeline)

  In an effort to prove the capability of the armed forces of South Vietnam, Lam Son
719 was planned as a significant raid on the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos.
 Legally prohibited from entering Laotian territory, American forces provided
logistical support within South Vietnam but the main effort was carried out by
the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and several units of South
Vietnamese marines.
 American forces occupied the abandoned base at Khe Sanh and established a
staging area for the South Vietnamese.
 The South Vietnamese objective was to drive into Laos along the rugged Route 9,
cut into the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and raid the administrative center of Tchepone
before returning back to South Vietnam.
 16,000 ARVN troops were equipped with American supplied tanks and helicopters,
with thousands of American troops operating in support from South Vietnam and
American aircraft providing vital air support.

EASTER OFFENSIVE-MARCH 30 TO OCTOBER 22, 1972

 Launched a few days before the 1972 Easter holiday, the Easter Offensive was a
massive North Vietnamese push against South Vietnam utilizing conventional forces
supplied with tanks and artillery.
 A three-pronged attack using most of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), four
divisions were sent across the DMZ and two more divisions were deployed from
positions in Laos towards Huế and Da Nang.
 President Nixon’s important strategy was to train the South Vietnamese forces.

OPERATION LINEBACKER 1- MAY 9 TO OCTOBER 23, 1972

 Operation Linebacker began as a response to the North Vietnamese Easter

Offensive in March 1972.
 The conventional invasion of South Vietnam by the North created clear supply
routes and mass troop formations, which were easy targets for American air
power.
 American Air Force, Marine, and Navy aircraft carried out a sustained bombing
campaign against these targets, flying more than 41,000 sorties.
 Mine-laying aircraft attacked Haiphong harbor, strategic B-52 bombers hit large
facilities, and tactical bombers hit smaller targets.
  Linebacker played a large role in turning back the Easter Offensive, but 75 American
aircraft were lost. In October 1972, as peace negotiations in Paris began to make
substantial progress, the bombings were cut back.

OPERATION LINEBACKER 2- DECEMBER 18 - 29, 1972

 However, when negotiations broke down in December 1972, Linebacker II was

initiated.
 President Nixon Announced a full-scale air campaign, it included a concentrated
use of B-52 bombers and tactical aircraft. 700 B-52 sorties and 1,000 fighter-bomber
sorties were flown in a campaign lasting less than two weeks.

FALL OF SAIGON (Ho Chi Minh City, formerly known as Saigon) -APRIL 30, 1975
(Black April Day)

 The Paris Peace Accords had been signed in January 1973, and by March 1973 the
American withdrawal from Vietnam was complete, leaving only Marine guards and
an attaché in Saigon.
 On April 29, American forces carried out Operation Frequent Wind, the withdrawal
of all American personnel and many South Vietnamese government workers and
civilians.
 This massive aerial campaign allowed for the evacuation of 7,000 friendly
personnel from Saigon, an effort memorialized by the rooftop evacuation of the
American embassy.
 At the end of the evacuation, North Vietnamese troops stormed the city. The
Vietnam War had come to an end.

LESSONS LEARNED:

 There are many lessons from Vietnam, but three stand out in explaining why the
United States lost the war,
o IGNORANCE,
o ARROGANCE, AND
o THE ABSENCE OF A VIABLE LOCAL ALLY.
 The United States entered Vietnam without an understanding of the country’s
history and culture.
  We did not speak the language or know the people. We viewed Vietnam through the
lens of a Cold War struggle against communism rather than as a national
independence struggles against colonialism and foreign domination.
 We did not realize the extent of the social revolution in Vietnam led by the
National Liberation Front (NLF), which gave land to the tillers and solidified support
for the liberation struggle.
 We did not understand that the war was lost politically before it ever began
militarily.
 Without a local governance system that can win the trust and loyalty of local
populations, external military intervention cannot succeed.

US INVOLVEMENT IN THE VIETNAM: (MODEL EXAM NOTES)

Reason one: Vietnamese independence

Before World War Two Vietnam had been part of the French Empire.

During World War Two it had been invaded by Japan. Ho Chi Minh was the leader of
the Vietminh, a resistance army which fought for Vietnamese independence.

After World War Two Ho Chi Minh captured Hanoi in 1945 and declared Vietnam
independent. The French tried to take control again, but this was unpopular with the people.
They were defeated by the Vietminh at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

Peace was discussed at Geneva in 1954 and the Treaty of Geneva agreed that the
French would leave Vietnam and the country would be split along the 17th Parallel until
elections could be held.

The elections were never held and the country remained divided:

 North Vietnam was a communist republic led by Ho Chi Minh.

 South Vietnam was a capitalist republic led by Ngo Dinh Diem.

Reason two - Civil war

 The Vietminh wanted to unite the country under communist leader Ho Chi
Minh. Many of the South Vietnamese people supported Ho Chi Minh as they
were unhappy with Ngo Dinh Diem.
 War broke out between the North and South. From 1958 onwards, the South
came under increasing attacks from communists in South Vietnam itself. They
were called the National Liberation Front (NLF).

Reason three - The Domino Theory

 This was the belief that if one country fell to communism, it was likely that the
neighbouring one would also fall – similar to a row of dominoes falling over. This had
happened in Eastern Europe after 1945. China had become communist in 1949 and
communists were in control of North Vietnam.
 The USA was afraid that communism would spread to South Vietnam and then the
rest of Asia. It decided to send money, supplies and military advisers to help the South
Vietnamese Government.

Reason four - The weak South Vietnamese Government

 Diem was a corrupt leader who refused to give peasants land. He did not like
Buddhism and treated the mainly Buddhist population badly. As a result, much of
South Vietnam’s population was rebelling against him. The peasants wanted
communism and supported the Vietminh and the NLF.
  In 1963, President John F Kennedy sent 16,000 military ‘advisers’ to help the South
Vietnamese army. Diem’s Government was overthrown. After this, there was no
strong capitalist government in control of the South.

Reason five - The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 1964

 On 2nd August 1964, North Vietnamese boats attacked a US Navy destroyer, the USS
Maddox, patrolling in the Gulf of Tonkin.
 Another attack on the Maddox was reported to have taken place on 4th August.
Weather coditions were poor and there was doubt as to whether a real attack had taken
place.
 However in Washington the attack was presented as a fact and the incident gave the
USA the excuse it needed to escalate the war.
 US Secretary of Defence, Robert McNamara, withheld information about US support
of South Vietnamese raids on North Vietnamese radar stations and other targets in the
period leading up to the attack. Other evidence that suggested the second attack had
not occurred was not passed on to the US Congress.
 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - US Congress gave President Lyndon Johnson permission
to wage war on North Vietnam. The first major contingent of US Marines arrived in
1965.
 For the next ten years the USA's involvement increased. By 1968 over half a million
American troops were in Vietnam and the war was costing $77 billion a year.
 UNIT – III

ARAB-ISRAELI WARS, 1967 & 1993

a) Causes
b) Main events
c) Role of Airpower (operation focus: https://youtu.be/sB8aLlVz_8k )
d) Lessons learnt

Watch the video before you study: https://youtu.be/hHqJ6pgdE-c

CAUSES OF ARAB-ISRAELI WAR-1967

THE SUMMARY OF THE CONFLICT

 The Six-Day War, also known as the Third Arab-Israeli War, was fought between
June 5th and June 10th, 1967 by Israel and neighboring states of Egypt, Syria, and
Jordan.
 After a period of high tension and open Egyptian propaganda of "pushing Jews to
the sea" led by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, the war began on June
5th with Israel's ferocious pre-emptive strike (first strike) against Egyptian
airfields.
 The outcome was a decisive victory for Israel. Israel gained control of the Gaza Strip
and the Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt), the West Bank and East Jerusalem (from
Jordan), and the Golan Heights (from Syria).
 For the first time in Israeli history since 1948, the Jews were able to enter and pray at
the Western Wall where Jordanians in the late 1960s installed public lavatories.
CAUSES OF THE WAR:
 The six-day war was brought on by political unrest and military combat after Israel’s
establishment.
 The invasion was in response to territorial disputes that arose after Israel’s
establishment.
 It was ignited by a series of border disputes between Israel and the Arab
countries.
 The First Arab-Israeli War, which was sparked by Israel’s establishment in 1948,
served as the war’s catalyst.
 This exacerbated the Palestinian refugee dilemma brought on by the armed war.
 Following the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal
Abdel Nasser, more conflict broke out in 1956 under the name of the Suez Crisis.
 Therefore, it is possible to view the Six-Day War as a logical progression of the
ongoing geopolitical split in the Middle East.
 Finally in 1967, Israeli settlements had been raided by Palestinian guerillas with
support from Syria.
 Naturally, the Israeli Army had responded in a furious manner and Israeli troops were
moving toward the Syrian border.
 The reports prompted the Egyptian President to intervene in favor of his Syrian ally,
even though they were ultimately shown to be untrue.
 Egyptian President dispatched soldiers into the Sinai to accomplish this goal,
driving out a United Nations peacekeeping force stationed there.
 The Straits of Tiran, which connected the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba and was
a crucial maritime route for Israel, were cut off for Israeli shipping.
 The international community pleaded with both parties to refrain from beginning a
fight.
 They also requested to reopen the Straits of Tiran in order to defuse tensions
between the Israelis and the Arabs.
 It did not significantly alter Egyptian President Nassar’s current course.
 Without any other option, Israel’s leaders decided to launch their own preemptive
strike in response to the rising Arab build-up.
FIGHTING FRONTS OF THE WAR

 On June 5, 1967, the Israeli Defence Force organized a significant aircraft assault on
Egypt.
 About 200 aircraft took out from Israeli airfields and descended against Egypt
from the north, completely surprising the Egyptian army is called (Operation
Focus)
 Nearly 90% of the Egyptian air force was destroyed on the ground during the
subsequent attack.
 Similar missions were carried out with similar outcomes against Jordan’s and Syria’s
air forces.
 The Israeli air force had gained complete control of the Middle Eastern airspace
by the end of June 5.
 The ground war started on June 5 the same day after the aerial victory was
secured.
 The Israeli army poured through the Egyptian border into the Sinai Peninsula
(REFER MAP) and the Gaza Strip with the assistance of the air force.
 Despite a vigorous defence put up by the Egyptian Army, the combat in the Sinai
proved to be disastrous for Egypt.
 Egyptian forces inflicted many casualties upon them leaving their position untenable
and they were forced to evacuate.
 An artillery barrage by the Jordanians against Israeli positions in Jerusalem signaled
the start of the attack against them.
 Following false rumors of an Egyptian victory, the Jordanians started the
bombardment.
 On June 7, the Israelis launched a counterattack that resulted in the conquest of the
West Bank and East Jerusalem.
 Israeli soldiers commemorated it by praying at the Wailing Wall, one of Judaism’s
holiest locations.
 Finally, during the Six-Day War, Israeli became offensive against the Syrian-held
Golan Heights on the northeastern border of Israel.
 This attack by Israeli forces on the Golan Heights marked the end of the Six-Day War.
  Israeli forces and tanks converged on the Golan Heights starting on June 9, supported
by aircraft support.
 And on June 10, 1967, the Israeli army captured the Golan Heights.

SIGNIFICANT CONSEQUENCES OF THE SIX-DAY WAR OF 1967

 The Arab countries were shocked by how quickly and simply Israel had won the war.
 Israel was in a celebratory mood after capturing the Golan Heights from Syria, the
West Bank, and East Jerusalem from Jordan, as well as the Gaza Strip from Egypt.
 Now Jews could freely pray at the sacred place of the western wall, the conquest of
East Jerusalem was symbolic in nature.
 However, the Israeli Defense Force was overconfident after the Six-Day War, which
would be fatal during the Yom-Kippur War that would break out in 1973.
 The Six-Day War’s success only served to stoke new Arab-Israeli wars.
 The Arab governments agreed to “No peace, No recognition, and No negotiations
with Israel“ in the Khartoum Resolution, which was enacted in August 1967.
 About a million Palestinian Arabs were brought under direct Israeli administration
through the settlement of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
 A growing refugee problem that has persisted to this day was exacerbated by
thousands more people fleeing in the years that followed.

CONCLUSION

A number of international conferences have been held on UN forums to discuss the

conflict’s violence. Dealing with historical rights, security concerns, and Palestinian human
rights has caused division in the modern world. The western world, led by the USA, has
always supported Israel’s claims in the region, while the Arab world has supported the
Palestinian cause. As a result, the struggle continues to influence modern history in the form
of continuous geopolitical conflicts like the one between the United States and Iran, the
country that leads the Muslim world.

EASY NOTES:

THE WAR TIMELINE JUNE 5TH AND 6TH

(OPERATION FOCUS) https://youtu.be/sB8aLlVz_8k

 Early in the morning, the Israeli Air Force launches a series of raids against
Egyptian airfields, attacking 19 bases and destroying aircraft.
 The strikes eliminate 85% of the Egyptian air force. The Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi
air forces attack oil refineries in Haifa Bay and an airfield in Megiddo.
 By evening, Jordan's air force is wiped out, the Syrians lose two-thirds of their total
air strength, and the Iraqi air force loses several planes.
 After two days, Israel has destroyed 400 enemy aircraft, 94% of them on the
ground. Israel loses 26 aircraft in action.
 During this time, Jordanian forces lob thousands of shells into Jewish West
Jerusalem, destroying hundreds of buildings and killing 20 people.

JUNE 7TH

 After successful advances against the Jordanians in and around Jerusalem, and after
24 hours of internal debate and diplomatic outreach, the Israelis take over the Old
City of Jerusalem.
 Before entering the city, Israel PM, Levi Eshkol sends a letter to King Hussein
proposing that Jordan halt its attacks on Israeli territory, agree to a ceasefire, and
begin peace talks.
 There is no response from Jordan.

JUNE 9TH

 Israel begins ground operations against Syrian, hoping to secure its north-eastern
border after nearly two decades of Syrian attacks on the Galilee
JUNE 10TH

 The war ends with Israeli forces in control of the Sinai Peninsula up to the Suez
Canal, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights.

JUNE 19TH

 Israel offers Egypt and Syria return of the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights for a
peace settlement to be negotiated directly.
 In the Golan, Israel offers to withdraw to the international border, not including
territory conquered by Syria in the offer was transmitted through the United States,
but turned down. Egypt and Syria refuse to negotiate with Israel

JUNE 27TH

 Israel officially annexes East Jerusalem. Because of the numerous holy sites in the
Old City, Israel pointedly decides to respect the sensitive nature of these sacred
places, ceding civilian authority over the Temple Mount to the Islamic Wakf authority.
 That day, the Knesset passes the Protection of Holy Places Law, stating: "The Holy
Places shall be protected from desecration and any other violation and from anything
likely to violate the freedom of access of the members of the different religions to the
places sacred to them or their feelings with regard to those places."

SEPTEMBER 1ST NOVEMBER 22ND

The following year:

 Eight Arab heads of state attend an Arab League summit in Khartoum, Sudan, passing
the "Khartoum Resolutions," also known as The Three No's:
 No to peace with Israel
 No to recognition of Israel
 No to negotiations with Israel

NOVEMBER 22ND

 The United Nations Security Council passes Resolution 242, calling for the
"withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent
conflict in exchange for Arab acceptance of Israel”.

THE FOLLOWING YEAR:

  In the year following the Six-Day war, the PLO solidified its position in the West
Bank and Gaza.
 Between September and December of 1968, the PLO launched 61 terrorist attacks
against Israel, mostly against civilian targets, such as factories, movie theaters and
private homes.

HOW THE CONFLICTS RESOLVED:

 Israel had a stronger, better-equipped, and well-trained army of soldiers full of battle
morale and a sense of purpose which led to serious loses on lives and equipment of
the Jordanian, Egyptian, and Syrian army.
 Those loses, confusion between soldiers, and general inability of Arab military leaders
significantly weakened their army which eased Israel's progress in capturing the Gaza
Strip, Sinai Peninsula, West Bank, East Jerusalem, and Golan Heights.
 By June 10th, Israel had completed its final offensive in the Golan Heights, and
ceasefire was signed the day after. Factors described above led to the complete defeat
of the Arab armies.

LESSONS LEARNED:

 Israel demonstrated that it was able and willing to initiate strategic strikes in order to
protect its territory and defeat its enemy.
 Egypt and Syria learned tactical lessons and launched an attack in 1973 (The Yom
Kippur War) in, fortunately, an unsuccessful attempt to reclaim their lost territory.
 The Arab-Israeli conflict was/is/will be one of the issues that affect the whole world,
and for many observers it seems to be an unresolvable until Arab states recognize the
independence and sovereignty but most importantly the existence of Israel and the
fundamental right of Jewish people to their holy land itself.
 ARAB-ISRAELI WAR-1993

ATTHIPATI AH KANUM

KADALYEA ILLAYAM