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Glycemic Indices and Glycemic Load of Some Nigerian Foods

Article in Pakistan Journal of Nutrition · May 2008

DOI: 10.3923/pjn.2008.710.716 · Source: DOAJ

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Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 7 (5): 710-716, 2008
ISSN 1680-5194
© Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2008

Glycemic Indices and Glycemic Load of Some Nigerian Foods

E.S. Omoregie and A.U. Osagie

Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, P.M.B. 1154, Benin City, Nigeria

Abstract: The concept of glycemic index (GI) lists food items by virtue of their influence on postprandial
glucose. Though the glycemic index of common food items has been determined, the GI of the popularly
processed and commonly consumed foods in Nigeria is not known. This study determined the GI of ten
processed Nigerian foods and revealed their similarity in the release of glucose on consumption. The food
items tested were made from yam tubers, cassava tubers and local cereals. These foods were served to
human volunteers in several processed forms which resulted in viscous pastes. The GI results are
presented and it is recommended that these processed foods should be discouraged in the regular dietary
plan of people with chronic diseases such as coronary heart diseases, diabetes and cancer.

Key words: Glycemic index, postprandial glucose, processed Nigerian foods, diabetes mellitus and pastes

Introduction between GI and defined components in groups of foods

The concept of glycemic index (GI) was proposed by (Jenkins et al., 1981; Wolever, 1990; Hollenbeck and
Jenkins and colleagues to characterize the rate of Coulston, 1991; Nishimune et al., 1991). Apparently, GI
carbohydrate absorption after a meal (Jenkins et al., values reflect, mainly, how promptly and rapidly glucose
1981). GI is defined as the area under the glucose enters the blood after food ingestion. In Nigeria, the adult
response curve after consumption of 50g carbohydrate population eats foods made from yam tubers (Dioscorea
from a test food divided by the area under the curve after spp.), plantain (Musa spp.), cassava (Manihot spp.) and
consumption of 50g carbohydrate from a control food, locally grown cereals. The dry powdered forms of these
either white bread or glucose. (Wolever et al., 1991). plant storage organs are reconstituted in hot water to
Over the past three decades, the GI of over 800 foods form solid pastes which are swallowed with soup. The
has been determined worldwide and more foods are effects of processing these food items into diet pastes
being tested on weekly basis. The latest update in 2005 on the GI have not been determined.
has 1300 entries derived from published and
unpublished verified sources (Foster-Powell et al., Materials and Methods
2002). However, only limited information is available on Experimental design: Fifty healthy human beings were
African traditional foods. Many factors together, including offered in a single meal, one of the ten food samples.
carbohydrate type, fiber, protein, fat, food form and Blood samples were collected before feeding and
method of preparation, determine the GI of a particular during the 180 min after the meal. Blood glucose was
food (Bjorck et al., 1994, Welch et al., 1987, Wolever et determined. The integrated areas under the
al., 1991). High GI foods elicit, calorie for calorie, higher postprandial glucose response curves were calculated.
insulin levels and c-peptide excretion than low GI foods
(Haber et al., 1997; Jenkins et al., 1987; Wolever and Subjects: Fifty subjects aged between 16 and 40 years
Bolognesi, 1996). The reductions in dietary GI may also (23 male and 27 female) were selected from students
lower the risks for various conditions associated with and staff of the University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
hyperinsulinemia, such as diabetes mellitus (Salmeron
They were clinically normal, non-smokers and non-
et al., 1997) and cardiovascular disease.
diabetic. The subjects were appraised verbally and they
There is need for more research into the GI of our locally
gave their informed consent.
consumed foods in order to produce data that can
effectively enable use of GI along with other dietary
Preparation of experimental diets: The dry powdered
recommendations in the treatment, management and
food samples were purchased from Edaiken Market in
prevention of diseases. There are many proven benefits
of using the GI in nutrition. These include: (i) decreased Benin City, Nigeria. The food samples were powdered
risk of cardiovascular disease; (ii) better diabetes maize, rice, millet, wheat, sorghum, yam and cassava.
management and (iii) more successful body weight These were each sieved to pass through a 100-mesh
management. Inspired in part by a hope to learn to filter and then reconstituted into solid pastes in hot water
predict better, the GI of variants of foods of known GI by a trained cook to ensure consistency (Table 1). The
value, several groups have studied associations pastes obtained were as follows:

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 Omoregie and Osagie: Glycemic indices and glycemic load of some foods

Table 1: Processing and Preparation of the Diet Pastes (Okoh, 1998)

Agricultural Form Pre-Processing Paste Preparation
1. Cassava tuber (Manihot utilisima): Eba/Garri Tuber was homogenized in water. Dry powdered starch was
Cassava Starch The starch was allowed to settle, reconstituted in hot water with addi-
filtered out and dried at 28oC. tion of small quantity of palm oil.
2. Cassava tuber (Manihot utilisima): Tuber was grated and dried then Dry powder was added to boiling
fried in shallow heated pots. water to form a paste.
3. Yam tuber (Dioscorea rotundata): Fresh tuber was sliced into thin pieces. Dry powder was added to boiling water
Amala and sun-dried for 7 days. Dried slices and stirred until a solid paste was .
were milled to powder obtained
4. Maize (Zea mays): Agidi The dry grains were soaked in water Dry powder was added to boiling water
and fermented for about 3 days. and stirred until a semi-solid paste
The fermented grains were milled resulted. Paste hardened further on
and sieved to remove pericarp and cooling.
bran fractions. The starch fraction
was dried slowly.
5. Maize seeds (Zea mays): Clean, dry grains were moistened with Dry powder was added to boiling
Tuwo Masara water and milled. The hulls were rem- water and stirred until a solid paste
oved by aspiration while the endosperm resulted.
and germs were removed by passing
through a sieve leaving the maize grits.
6. Millet grains (Pennisetum The grain was pounded in a wooden Dry flour was added to boiling water
typhoides): Tuwo Gero mortar. The bran was winnowed off. and stirred until a solid paste resulted
The separated grain was then pounded
into flour.
7. Sorghum seeds (Sorghum The moist grain was pounded with a Dry flour was added to boiling water and
bicolor L. Moench): Tuwo Dawa wooden pestle in a mortar until most stirred until a solid paste was obtained.
of the pericarp was removed. The bran
fraction was removed by winnowing.
The dehulled grain was again pounded
to make flour.
8. Rice (Oryza sativa): Tuwo Shinkafa Polished rice was pounded and Dry flour was added to boiling water and
fltered through a sieve. stirred until a solid paste was obtained.
9. Wheat (Triticum aestivum): Semovita Wheat grains were cleaned, conditioned Flour was added to boiling water and stirred
and milled into flour. until thick and consistent paste cooked for
additional 1-2 minutes.
10. Wheat (Triticum aestivum): Semolina Wheat grains were cleaned, conditioned Flour was added to boiling water and stirred
and milled into flour. until thick and consistent paste was obtained.
Paste was cooked for additional 1-2 minutes.

1. Cassava: Starch Determination of blood glucose: All subjects for the

2. Cassava: Eba Garri investigation fasted overnight. Their blood samples were
3. Yam: Amala collected through finger prick using a hypodermic needle
4. Maize: Agidi or lancets. Each blood sample was placed on a test
5. Maize: Tuwo Masara strip which was inserted into a calibrated glucometer.
6. Millet: Tuwo Gero (Accu-Check/One touch) which gave direct readings after
7. Sorghum: Tuwo Dawa 45 seconds based on glucose oxidase assay method.
8. Rice: Tuwo Shinkafa The determination of glucose level was done at intervals
9. Wheat: Semovita i.e. 0 (fasting level), 30mins, 60mins, 120mins and
180mins.
10. Wheat: Semolina
Glycemic index calculation and statistics: Changes in
Preliminary trials were carried out using local foods
blood glucose concentration were calculated separately
prepared in a similar manner from plantain (elubo), yam for each post meal period by using the blood
(pounded yam), cassava (lafun) and fermented cassava concentration before meal (time 0) as a baseline.
(akpu). The processed pastes were analyzed for Postprandial responses were compared for maximum
proximate composition of moisture, ash, crude fat, crude increase and incremental area under the glucose curves
fibre and protein (AOAC, 1983). Carbohydrate was for each food. The integrated area under the
determined by difference. 50g of available carbohydrate postprandial glucose curve was calculated by the
for each test food sample was calculated from the trapezoidal method (Wolever et al., 1987). Area
results of the proximate analysis and the measured increments under the curves for a given food were
portion of the food was served to the subjects. determined for the 3 hour period after the meal. The

711
 Omoregie and Osagie: Glycemic indices and glycemic load of some foods

Table 2: Proximate Analysis of Ten Processed Nigerian Foods (in Dry Weight Percent)
Food Moisture (g% Crude Crude Crude Carbohy-
Components Fresh Weight) Ash (g%) Protein (g%) Lipid (g%) Fibre (g%) drate (g%)
Starch (cassava) 75.10±0.10 1.06±0.06 2.46±0.62 1.55±0.35 2.25±1.75 92.68±0.05
Eba (cassava) 72.00±1.0 1.10±0.07 4.50±0.35 0.58±0.4 2.15±0.12 86.45±0.27
Amala (yam) 65.50±0.50 1.65±0.05 4.47±0.19 0.25±0.05 0.75±0.25 92.88±0.13
Agidi (maize) 84.80±0.24 2.90±0.10 6.82±0.27 0.35±0.05 1.75±1.2 88.18±0.12
Tuwo Masara (Maize) 74.50±0.5 1.63±0.01 9.94±1.91 0.65±0.25 1.7±0.25 86.03±0.03
Tuwo Gero (Millet) 65.00±0.05 1.58±0.01 9.51±0.23 0.45±0.05 1.03±0.03 87.43±0.06
Tuwo Dawa (Sorghum) 60.30±0.25 1.58±0.01 9.28±0.43 0.40±0.05 1.25±0.25 87.49±0.02
Tuwo Shinkafa (Rice) 73.50±1.50 1.65±0.03 9.23±0.43 0.90±0.20 1.0±0.50 87.22±0.12
Semovita (wheat) + 44.70±0.10 2.10±0.60 10.63±0.46 1.00±0.30 1.25±0.25 85.02±0.18
10% corn supplement
Semolina (wheat) 54.90±0.10 2.48±0.08 10.73±0.41 1.50±0.05 1.26±0.38 84.03±0.14
Values are expressed as mean±SEM (n = 3 determinations).

Table 3: Available Carbohydrate in Processed Foods (Serving Table 4: Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load of the Processed
Size) Food
Serving Size Glycemic Glycemic
Samples (Processed) (g) Food Samples Index Load
Starch (Cassava) 162.15 Starch (Cassava) 98.60±2.68 49.30±3.5
Eba (Cassava) 206.50 Eba (Cassava) 82.25±0.05 41.13±3.3
Amala (Plantain) 156.25 Amala (Yam) 84.35±2.68 42.18±4.2
Agidi (Maize) 373.13 Agidi (Maize) 92.30±0.05 46.15±3.1
Tuwo Masara (Maize) 158.00 Tuwo Masara (Maize) 86.80±0.5 43.40±1.5
Tuwo Gero (Millet) 163.40 Tuwo Gero (Millet) 93.60±2.25 46.80±3.4
Tuwo Dawa (Sorghum) 144.00 Tuwo Dawa (Sorghum) 85.30±1.05 42.65±3.2
Tuwo Shinkafa (Rice) 160.90 Tuwo Shinkafa (Rice) 95.30±1.25 47.65±2.2
Semovita (Wheat) + 10% Corn supplement 106.70 Semovita (Wheat) + 95.80±0.28 47.90±2.5
Semolina (Wheat) 131.90 10% Corn supplement
Semolina (Wheat) 95.28 ± 0.04 47.64±1.5
relative glycemic index of each food was calculated as Values are mean ± SEM (n = 3 determinations)
percent of the mean of individual areas under the
glucose response curves. (Wolever et al., 1987) The Glycemic Load of the food samples were calculated
increase in glucose response area was analysed (Table 4). All the test samples are high Glycemic Index
statistically using one way ANOVA and Scheffe’s test foods. Cassava starch gave the highest GI value
(Allison et al., 1995). followed by semovita. In two hours, these foods deliver
as much glucose as the free sugar (control) to the blood
Results system. In the absence of adequate insulin delivery,
The results of the proximate analysis of the test food these foods would certainly overwhelm the sugar
samples are shown in Table 2. The proximate analysis metabolic system. They are thus not considered suitable
on the processed food from wheat, sorghum, rice and or adequate meals for type II diabetics.
maize showed low lipid contents compared to the
analysis of the unprocessed seeds (Ekpenyong, 1973; Discussion
Okoh, 1998). The cereal flours had higher crude protein Before plant foods are consumed by man, they are
content than the tuber flours. From previous studies yam generally processed. The processing methods include
and cassava tubers were naturally low in fat (Osagie and cooking, (i.e. boiling, roasting, frying, steaming, baking,
Opute, 1981; Bradbury and Holloway, 1988). Thus, all autoclaving), drying, mashing, grinding into flour and
the processed powders used in making the fermentation. In this study, the test foods were basically
experimental pastes can be regarded as having low fat dried, ground into flour, sieved and then reconstituted to
content. The two test samples made from cassava tuber paste with hot water. Thus the particle sizes were
(starch) and (eba) differed significantly in crude protein reduced, fine and the starch was retrograded
content. Semolina and semovita are wheat products and (gelatinized) to a variable extent. These treatments might
their proximate composition was similar. have led to their having high glycemic indices (Ludwig,
The serving size for each meal was calculated from the 2003; Bjorck and Elmstahl, 2005). This is similar to
carbohydrate content (Table 3). The glucose reports that increased processing and starch
concentration attained after consumption of the test retrogradation can affect GI (Foster-Powell et al., 2005).
foods and glucose (reference food) are graphically Processing the seeds removes the fiber-rich outer bran
displayed in Fig. 1 - 10. The Glycemic Index and and the vitamin and mineral rich inner germ leaving

712
 Omoregie and Osagie: Glycemic indices and glycemic load of some foods

Fig. 1: Graphical representation showing the glucose Fig. 4: Graphical representation showing the glucose
response area of test food A (Agidi) and response area of test food D (semovita) and
reference food (Glucose D). reference food (Glucose D).

Fig. 2: Graphical representation showing the glucose Fig. 5: Graphical representation showing the glucose
response area of test food B (Amala) and response area of test food E (Semolina) and
reference food (Glucose D). reference food (Glucose D).

Fig. 3: Graphical representation showing the glucose Fig. 6: Graphical representation showing the glucose
response area of test food C (Starch) and response area of test food F (Eba) and
reference food (Glucose D). reference food (Glucose D).

endosperm. This treatment caused reduction in particle increasing the GI. Our study agrees with the finding in
size and faster gelatinization of starch, thereby Kenya where similarly processed maize flour

713
 Omoregie and Osagie: Glycemic indices and glycemic load of some foods

Fig. 7: Graphical representation showing the glucose Fig. 9: Graphical representation showing the glucose
response area of test food G (Tuwo Rice) and response area of test food I (Tuwo maize) and
reference food (Glucose D). reference food (Glucose D).

Fig. 8: Graphical representation showing the glucose Fig. 10: Graphical representation showing the glucose
response area of test food H (Tuwo Millet) and response area of test food J (Tuwo rice) and
reference food (Glucose D). reference food (Glucose D).

and millet flour made into gruel had high GI (Foster- rise in blood sugar, with the result that one is lacking in
Powell et al., 2002). energy and hungry within a short time, thus the desire to
The test foods were swallowed without chewing. eat will arise. If this pattern is repeated, there is the
Chewing normally reduces the particle size of foods and likelihood of gaining weight as a result of constantly
facilitates mixture with salivary amylase, hence reducing eating. The overall effects are that the individual will gain
digestion time of carbohydrates. Despite the direct weight i.e. obesity might result. It could trigger diabetes
swallowing of these test food pastes, they resulted in the in individuals that are prone to the disease, or worsen
same level of blood glucose as the reference sample, the management of the disease (Gilberston et al., 2001).
within two hours. This is in agreement with the fact that Type II diabetes which is associated with insulin
different food products with similar quality and type of insensitivity may also result in elevated blood sugar
carbohydrate form show different glycemic response. levels and increased insulin demand; thus
(Thorsdottir et al., 2005). Since these test foods were overburdening the ability of the pancreas to produce
reconstituted in hot water, the nature of starch insulin. Reports by workers like Salmeron et al. (1997)
retrogradation or the production of resistant starch may have indicated a positive correlation between high GI
be similar. It is desirable that modern food processing and risk of type II diabetes. Again, the consumption of
techniques be modified so as to reduce preparation the processed foods under reference in these studies
time while at the same time preserving slow digestion might have serious health implications in such
properties. diseases like the heart diseases via insulin resistant
The health implications of the high GI of the processed syndrome called metabolic syndrome X (Ludwig, 2003).
foods are that they could cause a fast and short - lived Additionally, high blood sugar levels have been

714
 Omoregie and Osagie: Glycemic indices and glycemic load of some foods

associated with increased blood pressure, blood clot AOAC, 1983. Official Methods of Analysis, 13th Edn.
formation and reduced endothelial dependent blood flow Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
(Ludwig, 2003). Washington, DC., pp: 755-800.
In recent years, the GI has been transformed by its Bjorck, I. and H. Elmstahl, 2005 . The glycemic index:
popularizers from a potentially useful tool in planning Importance of dietary fibre and other food
diets for diabetic patients to a key player for the properties. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 62: 201-206.
prevention of diabetes, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular Bjorck, I., Y. Granfeldt, H. Liljeberg, J. Tovar and N.G.
disease and even certain cancers in the general Asp, 1994. Food properties affecting the digestion
population. The debate concerns whether such a and absorption of Carbohydrates. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,
transformation is justified. That is, whether it is wise and 59: 6995-7055.
reasonable to set as a public health policy for the entire Bradbury, J.H. and W.D. Holloway, 1988. The chemical
population the avoidance of certain foods because of composition of tropical root crops. ASEAN Food J.,
their high GI. To explore this question, one needs to 4: 3-31.
examine the supporting data, their quantity and quality, Ekpenyong, T.E., 1973. Problems of maize quality
their relation to causation and the possible presence of improvement. W. Afr. J. Biol. Appl. Chem., 16: 3-8.
confounders. Foster-Powell, K., S.H.A. Hoh and Brand-Miller, 2002.
There are 2 theories about how high - GI foods increase International tables of glycemic index and glycemic
food intake. The first is that it is a result of the elevation load: Am. J. Clin. Nutr,. 76: 5-56.
in glucose and the second, more commonly expressed Frost, G., A. Leeds, G. Trew, R. Margara and A.
recently, is that it is the result of a high insulin response. Dornhorst, 1998. Insulin sensitivity in women at risk
This high insulin response has been related to several of coronary heart disease and the effect of a low
phenomena including increased food intake leading to glycemic index diet. Metabolism, 47: 1245-1251.
obesity (Roberts, 2000), hyperinsulinaemia leading to Gilbertson, R., S. Evans, C. Brand-Miller, P. Chondros, A.
insulin resistance (Frost et al., 1998), cell exhaustion Thornburn and G. Werther, 2001. The effect of
leading to type 2 diabetes (Salmeron et al., 1997), flexible low glycemic index dietary advice versus
dyslipidemia leading to coronary heart disease (CHD)
measured carbohydrates exchange diets on
(Liu et al., 2001) and unknown factors leading to certain
glycemic control in children with type 2 diabetes.
kinds of cancers.
Diabetes Care, 24: 1137-1143.
The foods tested in this study were selected to represent
Haber, G.B., K.W. Heaton, D. Murphy and L.F. Burroughs,
the nutritional variability that adult Nigerians consume.
1979. Depletion and disruption of dietary fibre.
Many of them suffer from chronic diseases such as
Effects on satiety, plasma-glucose and serum-
coronary heart diseases, obesity and diabetes. Direct
insulin. Lancet, 2: 679-682.
relationship of these diseases to consumption of high
Hollenbeck, C.G. and A.M. Coulston, 1991. Effects of
GI foods will require further enlarged and long-term
dietary carbohydrate and fat intake on glucose and
studies. There is also need for more research into the GI
of our locally consumed foods in order to produce data lipoprotein metabolism in individuals with diabetes
that can effectively enable use of GI alongside other mellitus. Diabetes Care, 14: 774-785.
dietary recommendations in the management and Jenkins, D.J., T.M. Wolever, R.H. Taylor, H. Barker, H.
prevention of diseases. In conclusion, this study could Fielden, J.M. Baldwin, A.C. Bowling, H.C. Newman,
assist food manufacturers and processors to develop a A.L. Jenkins and D.V. Goff, 1981. Glycemic Index of
greater range of low-GI processed foods from African foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate
farm produce. The findings have obvious importance in exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 34: 362-366.
formulating rational dietary and therapeutic goals for Jenkins, D.J.A., M.J. Thorne, T.M.S. Wolever, A.L.
diabetic patients and others with clinical conditions Jenkins, A.V. Rao and L.U. Thompson, 1987. The
necessitating carbohydrate restriction. effect of starch-protein interaction in wheat on the
glycemic response and rate of in vitro digestion. Am.
Acknowledgement J. Clin. Nutr., 45: 946-951.
1
We are grateful to our students (Atomatofa, E.U., Ibeji, Liu, S., J. Manson and M.J. Stampfer, 2001. Dietary
C.U., Awe, K., Omoregie, M.O., Akpeh, P.K. and glycemic load assessed by food-frequency
Uwaomah, N.) for their assistance with the organization questionnaire in relation to plasma HDL-cholesterol
of the studies. and fasting plasma triacylglycerols in
postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 73:
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