CHAPTER 2

DIFFERENT METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic/chapter, you must be able to:

1. Define deception detection

2. Determine the different methods of detecting deception
3. Determine the events in the invention of the different methods of
detecting deception.

Lesson 2.1 Definition of Deception Detection

Deception detection refers to the investigative practices used to

determine a person’s truthfulness and credibility. This is largely determined
through the consideration of certain behavioral and physiological cues as well
as larger contextual and situational information (Paul Ekman Group LLC, 2021).

Lesson 2.2 Methods Used To Detect Deception

While historians are not entirely sure where or when deception detection
practices originated, it is clear that humans have been trying to figure out how
to tell if someone is lying for centuries. Fortunately, the methodologies have
evolved drastically over time, shifting first from non-scientific testing (i.e., Salem
Witch Trials) to more biologically-oriented ones (i.e., phrenology and
graphology). Today’s deception detection generally combines behavioral
psychology (i.e., human observation) and technology (i.e. polygraphs and
artificial intelligence) (Paul Ekman Group LLC, 2021).

Source:https://www.paulekman.com/deception/deceptiondetection/#:~:text=Today's%20deception%20

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

1
detection%20generally%20combines,in%20the%20face%20and%20body.

Lesson 2.3 Early Method of Detecting Deception

Definition of Ordeal

A severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of experience,

A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected to physical
tests, as carrying or walking over burning objects or immersing the hand in
scalding water, the result being considered a divine judgment of guilt or
innocence. It is also a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval
Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning “Miraculous decision.” Ordeal is also an ancient
method of trial in which the accused was exposed to physical danger which was
supposed to be harmless if he was innocent (Hipolito, Manwong and Sarmiento,
2010 p. 134).

Trial by Combat

Originated from India and one of the examples of this: A rich man or
accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight
the loser adjudged guilty of crime (Manalo, 1992 p.3).

The Method of the Ordeal

It is significant that, with little exception, the historical accounts of detecting

deception from the days of Christ through the Middle Ages are the history of the
Ordeal. Superstition so swayed the minds of people that it was rule for them to
ask for the ordeal to prove their innocence. The accuser was not looking
evidently, for suspicious clues in the face or actions of the individual, for
apparently the psychology of deceit did not exist, Even the religious of Europe,
as late as the 16th Century taught that proof innocence or guilt would be
furnished from on high in a variety of mystical modes .People did not consider
that proof of innocence lay within or on the surface of suspect himself.
1. Red hot iron ordeal - Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North
Bengal; Accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times (9) unless
burned sooner; If burned, he is put to death. Not only that (licking the
iron), he is also made to carry the metal into his hands. It is doubtful
whether the ordeal is meant to determined the physiological changes
occurring in description for if this so, many false observations must have
been made.
2. Ordeal by balance - Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India; Scale of
balanced is used; In one end of the scale, the accused is placed in the
other end, a counter balance; The person will step out of the scale
listened to a judge deliver an extortion is the balance and her back in.
If he were found to be lighter than before then he should be acquitted.
3. Boiling water ordeal - Used in Africa; the method was that the subject
will plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into
the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test without a
murmur. And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

2
 tine the next afternoon. The one who by that time had lost some or
showed blisters would prove the thief (Point out who is the one who steal
among his tribe mates).
4. Ordeal by rice chewing - Practiced by Indians; It is formed with a kind
of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations; The person on
trial eats, with his face to the and then spits upon an eyeful leaf; If the
saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth swell or he trembles,
he is declared then a liar.
5. Ordeal of the red water - Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa; The
ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water is used; The accused is made to
fast for twelve hours; The swallow a small amount of rice; Then he will
be imbibed in dark colored water. This water is actually an emetic and if
the suspects ejects all the rice, he is considered innocent of the chare,
Otherwise, the accused is guilty.
6. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal -The accused first fasted for
12 hours and the given small amount of rice to ear followed by large
amount of black colored water. If the concoction was vomited, the
accused was pronounced innocent; Otherwise, guilty. And practiced by
“West African Regions”.
7. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused,
whoever lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated from India
and one of the examples of this: a rich man or accuser could hire
somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight the loser is
adjudged guilty of crime.
8. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical test.
9. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by a
priest – if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced
in Nigeria and India.
10. Eating Ordeal of Corsnead- Practiced in China, and Alexandria, Egypt.
Involves partaking of food where the accused was given dry rice to
swallow.
11. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, the
Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused from
swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the European countries.
12. Ordeal of the Bier - Practiced in Australian and European Countries.
The corpse was brought on a bier of boughs after which natives would
ask the corpse if it has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft,
the bier was supposed to know more and if the sorcerer show killed him
was present, the corpse will touch him.
13. Ordeal by heat and fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare
footed through a fire; if he remains unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced
in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and early England.
14. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water - The accused was forced to dip his
hands into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If he
remains unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.
15. Ordeal of Red hot Needle - Red hot needle was drawn through the lips
of the accused, if innocent; no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced
in Wanaka, East Africa.
16. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together in the

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

3
 same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further
elimination followed. Practical in Siam.
17. Ordeal by Combat - Accuser and accused report to a duel where the
winner was adjudged innocent. Those not proficient in weapons and
those who could not afford to do so could hire champions in the field to
do the fighting for them. This type of ordeal is vividly dramatized in the
movie “Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title (became the only
legal ordeal). Practiced in England, time of “King Henry III”.
18. Test of the Cross ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made
to stand with arms crossed on their breasts. The one who endured the
longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced
in Europe.
19. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - Psychological theory, the donkey placed in one
room alone and observed it, and if the donkey cried is a judged of guilty
of crimes, because deep in side and conscience he is guilty (Manalo,
1992 pp. 3-5).

Other Countries Which Practiced Ordeal

1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and
both were lightened at the same time.
2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed
on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the
litigant whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the winner.
3. Greece - A suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of
suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was in line with the blade as
supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine providence.
4. Nigeria - The priest greased a clock’s feather and pierced the tongue of
the accused. If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the
accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another
Method (same country) Pour corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused
who was supposed to remain unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over
the hand of the accused with he usual requisites for guilt or innocence
(if remain unharmed, he is innocent).
5. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water was
commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound
(hand and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank,
he was hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If the
floated, he was deemed guilty and burned to death.
6. The “Hereditary Sieve” Method - It is mentioned by Hans Gross his
famous books in Criminal Investigation in which beans were thrown into
a sieve (bigao) as the name of each suspect was called. If the beans
jump of the sieve, the owner of the name is innocent. If the beans remain
in the sieve, the person named is the thief (Delizo, 2015 pp.172-173).

Lesson 2.4 Detecting Lies Through Observation Methods

1. Through Facial Expression

a. Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of forehead.
b. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs and elevation of upper

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

4
 eyelids.
c. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, distrust, etc.).
d. Twitching of the lips.
e. Excessive winking of the eyes.
f. Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eyes”.
g. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple
due to dryness of throat and mouth.
h. Quivering of nose or nostrils.
i. A peculiar monotone of the voice.
j. A forced laugh.
k. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another

2. Through Postural Reaction

l. Fidgeting, tapping or drumming of fingers on the chairs or the
other surfaces.
m. Swinging of legs or one leg over the other.
n. Unnecessary movements of hands and feet (like scratching, nail
biting, thumb or finger sucking).
o. Pulsation of the artery in the neck.
p. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body.

3. Thru Cause -Effect Process, such as the Stimulation-reaction or

response test (Panganiban and Calang, 2011 pp. 11-12)

Lesson 2.5 Detection Through Regular Police Methods

Police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process to the

following: The “five Wives and One Husband” (5 W’s and 1H) which stand for:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, and HOW. The “Three Eyes” (3 I’s) which
stands for: Information gathering – through record Check, Surveillance and
Intelligence Check, Investigation – through Interrogation or Interview for
Admission or Confession, Instrumentation or Criminalistics (Police Sciences)
with the use of the different Investigative Forensic Sciences such as Medico
Legal or Forensic Medicine, Forensic Chemistry, Police or Investigative
photography, Forensic Ballistics (Firearm Identification), Questioned
Documents Examination, Dactyloscopy, Police or Investigative
Communication, Polygraphy /Deceptography (Panganiban and Calang, 2011
p. 12).

Lesson 2.6 Other Deception Detection Technologies

Voice Stress Analysis (VSA)

Voice stress analysis (also called voice risk analysis) uses computers to
compare pitch, frequency, intensity and micro tremors. In this way voice
analysis "detects minute variations in the voice thought to signal lying." It can
even be used covertly over the phone, and has been used by banking and
insurance companies as well as the government of the United Kingdom.
Customers are assessed for truth in certain situations by banks and insurance

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

5
companies where computers are used to record responses. Software then
compares control questions to relevant questions assessed for deception.
However, its reliability has been debated by peer-reviewed journals. "When a
person lies, an involuntary interference of the nerves causes the vocal cords to
produce a distorted sound wave, namely a frequency level which is different
from the one produced by the same person when telling the truth." Several
studies published in peer reviewed journals showed VSA to perform at chance
level when it comes to detecting deception. Horvath, McCloughan,
Weatherman, and Slowik, (2013), for example, tested VSA on the recordings
of interrogation of 74 suspects. Eighteen of these suspects later confessed,
making the deception the most likely ground truth. With 48% accurate
classification, VSA performed at chance level. Several other studies showed
similar results (Damphousse, 2008; Harnsberger, Hollien, Martin, & Hollien,
2009). In 2003, the National Research Council concluded “Overall, this
research and the few controlled tests conducted over the past decade offer little
or no scientific basis for the use of the computer voice stress analyser or similar
voice measurement instruments” (National Research Council, 2003)

Electroencephalography (EEG)

EEG refers to recording of electrical activity through attached electrodes

affixed on the scalp of a subject. EEG is used to measure the voltage
fluctuations that results from ionic current flows within the brain’s neurons. In a
medical context, the EEG is often used to diagnose various diseases, such as
epilepsy, sleep disorders, encephalopathy, and brain death.
Electroencephalography, or EEG, measures brain activity through electrodes
attached to the scalp of a subject. The object is to identify the recognition of
meaningful data through this activity. Images or objects are shown to the
subject while questioning techniques are implemented to determine
recognition. This can include crime scene images, for example. Perceived
trustworthiness is interpreted by the individual from looking at a face, and this
decreases when someone is lying. Such observations are "too subtle to be
explicitly processed by observers, but does affect implicit cognitive and affective
processes." These results, in a study by Heussen, Binkofski, and Jolij, were
obtained through a study with an N400 paradigm including two conditions
within the experiment: truthful faces and lying faces. Faces flashed for 100ms
and then the participants rated them. However, the limitations of this study
would be that it only had 15 participants and the mean age was 24 (Heussen,
Binkofski and Jolij, 2010).

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measures brain activity

by detecting changes associated with blood flow (Huettel and McCarthy, 2009).

This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal
activation are coupled. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that
region also increases (Logothetis, Pauls, Auguth, Trinath, Oeltermann, 2001)

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

6
 Many polygraph researchers have focused on the test’s predictive value in
identifying a person’s guilt. The newest method used in deception detection is
fMRI. First introduced in 1990, the fMRI uses magnetic fields to measure
changes of blood flow in a particular region of the body. When a subject is being
deceptive, there would be a significant change in blood flowing to the brain.
This is because the subject will first acknowledge the truthful responses, and
then formulate a lie, completing a process that causes the brain to be more
active. In addition, fMRI technology could explain which parts of the brain are
active when subjects use artificial memories. Functional magnetic resonance
imaging is a technique used for multiple purposes which shows the uses of
oxygen by the brain, allowing for the identification of which portions of the brain
are using more oxygen, and thus being used during a specific task. This is
called the Blood Oxygen Level Dependent or BOLD hemodynamic
response. The first model of the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was built
by Raymond Damadian and his colleagues in 1976. It revolutionized the field
of anatomical study by providing images in real-time and 3-D models of human
parts. The technique is also used in drug development, a wide-variety of
research efforts, and diagnostically. Studies using functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) have shown that it has potential to be used as a
method of lie detection. While a polygraph detects changes in activity in
the peripheral nervous system, fMRI has the potential to catch the lie at the
'source'. To use an MRI as a lie detector, an fMRI should be used by placing a
magnetic band as a scanner on a subject's head. However, the neurobiological
systems that relate to lying are currently poorly understood. The current
consensus is that faced with a forced choice paradigm, in which a subject has
the choice of telling the truth or spontaneously generating a lie, lying can be
distinguished due to increased prefrontal and parietal lobe activity. More
specifically, the superior medial and inferolateral prefrontal cortices show net
activation in the process of spontaneous lie generation (which involves
suppression of the truthful response as well as generating a conceivable lie).
There also is evidence of increased activation in the anterior cingulate
cortex when lies are told.The fMRI shows the use of oxygen by the brain,
allowing for the identification of which portions of the brain are using more
oxygen during a specific task. By studying the brain images, researchers are
able to map the systematic procedure the brain went through to produce the
action or decision. Subjects are often offered monetary incentive if they can
successfully deceive the process in hopes of generating a 'real world' scenario.
Using this method, an initial 2005 study on individuals ( not group averages as
previous studies) without pattern recognition and automation showed that lies
can be distinguished 78% of the time.That statistic has risen, in one study, to
100% when predicting a lie in an individual when baseline lie/truth levels were
closely studied with training from pattern recognition technology (machine
learning). fMRI does rely upon the individual remaining still and safeguards in
the analysis such that the questions can not be gamed by the participant
(Ganis, 2010).

Attempts to introduce fMRI lie detection evidence in US Federal and State

courts have been unsuccessful. In 2007 on episode 93 of the TV
program MythBusters, the three members of the build team attempted to fool a
non-automated fMRI test done by Cephos Corporation. Although two of the

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

7
members were unsuccessful at fooling Cephos, the third member was able to
successfully fool Steve Laken of Cephos, according to this member by keeping
his mind in constant activity. The one out of three failure rate suggested that
fMRI-based lie detection required further development. Also in 2007, the
University of Pennsylvania group, used fMRI to test a Washington Post
journalist Joel Garreau. The reporter was asked to pretend to apply for a job
using a resume that included among other true items, three specific
biographical items that were false. The test was able to detect two out of three
items the reporter lied about. In 2016, the University of Pennsylvania group
found that under similar experimental conditions, fMRI was 21% more likely to
detect a lie than the polygraph (Ganis, 2010).

Cognitive Polygraph

Recent developments that permit non-invasive monitoring using functional

transcranial Doppler (fTCD) technique showed that successful problem-solving
employs a discrete knowledge strategy (DKS) that selects neural pathways
represented in one hemisphere, while unsuccessful outcome implicates a non-
discrete knowledge strategy (nDKS). A polygraphic test could be viewed as a
working memory task. This suggests that the DKS model may have a correlate
in mnemonic operations. In other words, the DKS model may have a discrete
knowledge base (DKB) of essential components needed for task resolution,
while for nDKS, DKB is absent and, hence, a "global" or bi-hemispheric search
occurs. Based on the latter premise, a 'lie detector' system was designed as
described in United State Patent No. 6,390,979. A pattern of blood-flow-velocity
changes is obtained in response to questions that include correct and incorrect
answers. The wrong answer will elicit bi-hemispheric activation, from correct
answer that activates unilateral response. Cognitive polygraphy based on this
system is devoid of any subjective control of mental processes and, hence, high
reliability and specificity; however, this is yet to be tested in forensic practice
(Njemanze, 2005).

Event-relate Potentials (ERP)

Event-related potentials assess recognition, and therefore may or may not

be effective in assessing deception. In ERP studies P3 amplitude waves are
assessed, with these waves being large when an item is recognized. However,
P100 amplitudes have been observed to have significant correlation to
trustworthiness ratings, which the importance of will be discussed in the EEG
section. This, along with other studies leads some to purport that because ERP
studies rely on quick perceptual processes they "are integral to the detection of
deception." (Heussen, Binkofski and Jolij, 2010)

Eye-tracking

John Kircher, Doug Hacker, Anne Cook, Dan Woltz and David Raskin
have developed eye-tracking technology at the University of Utah that they
consider a polygraph alternative. This is not an emotional reaction like the
polygraph and other methods but rather a cognitive reaction. This technology
measures pupil dilation, response time, reading and rereading time, and errors.

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

8
Data is recorded while subjects answer true false questions on a computer.
They have found that more effort is required by lying than giving the truth and
thus their aim to find indications of hard work. Individuals not telling the truth
might, for instance, have dilated pupils while also taking longer to answer the
question.
Eye-tracking offers several benefits over the polygraph: lower cost, 1/5th of the
time to conduct, subjects do not need to be "hooked up" to anything, and it does
not require qualified polygraph examiners to give the test
(Psychologialscience.org., 2010).

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy also detects oxygen and activity in

the brain like the fMRI, but instead it looks at blood oxygen levels. It is
advantageous to the fMRI because it is portable, however its image resolution
is of less quality than the fMRI (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology
(UK), (2012).

Brain Observations

Electroencephalography is used to detect changes in brain waves.

Cognitive chronometry, or the measurement of the time taken to perform mental
operations, can be used to distinguish lying from truth-telling. One recent
instrument using cognitive chronometry for this purpose is the timed
antagonistic response alethiometer, or TARA. Brain-reading uses fMRI and the
multiple voxels activated in the brain evoked by a stimulus to determine what
the brain has detected, and so whether it is familiar (Niedermeyer and da Silva,
2004)

Electroencephalography (EEG) is an electrophysiological monitoring

method to record electrical activity of the brain. It is typically noninvasive, with
the electrodes placed along the scalp, although invasive electrodes are
sometimes used, as in electrocorticography, sometimes called intracranial EEG
(Niedermeyer and da Silva, 2004)

Electrophysiology is the branch of physiology that studies the electrical

properties of biological cells and tissues. It involves measurements
of voltage changes or electric current or manipulations on a wide variety of
scales from single ion channel proteins to whole organs like the heart.
In neuroscience, it includes measurements of the electrical activity of neurons,
and, in particular, action potential activity. Recordings of large-scale electric
signals from the nervous system, such as electroencephalography, may also
be referred to as electrophysiological recordings. They are useful
for electrodiagnosis and monitoring (Carter and Shieh, 2010).

Electrophysiology is the branch of neuroscience that explores the electrical

activity of living neurons and investigates the molecular and cellular processes
that govern their signaling (Carter and Shieh, 2010).

Nonverbal behavior

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

9
 People often evaluate lies based on non-verbal behavior, but are quick
to place too much merit in misleading indicators, such as: avoidance of eye
contact, increased pauses between statements, and excessive movements
originating from the hands or feet. Non-invasive lie detection using non-verbal
behavior is performed by the Silent Talker Lie Detector. Silent Talker monitors
large numbers of microexpressions over time slots and encodes them into large
vectors which are classified as showing truthful or deceptive behavior by
artificial intelligence or statistical classifiers. Silent Talker research has been
peer-reviewed in the Journal of Applied Cognitive Psychology and in
the Journal of Neural Computing and Applications. The architecture was
invented between 2000 and 2002 by a team at Manchester Metropolitan
University (Akehurst and Koehnken,1996).

Another computer-based system for detecting

spontaneous microexpression is being developed at Oxford and the University
of Oulu by teams directed by Tomas Pfister. Traditionally, micro-expressions
are very difficult to recognize through automated facial expression analysis
because of their short duration and involuntariness. Their short duration means
only a very limited number of frames are available for analysis using a standard
25fps camera and their involuntariness means eliciting a particular expression
to add to a comprehensive training database requires considerable time and
psychological insights. To counteract the short-video length, the team
used temporal interpolation to achieve a higher number of frames and Multiple
Kernel Learning to improve classification. The end result was the Spontaneous
Micro-expression Corpus (SMIC), which consists of 77 micro-expressions
taken from 6 subjects. This is the first system that is able to recognize
spontaneous facial micro-expressions with reliable accuracy, approximately
70% compared to the 50% by trained human analysts. As such, it will be a
valuable tool for future computer vision studies geared towards automating the
process of lie detection (Akehurst and Koehnken,1996).

Lesson 2.7 Scientific Method Detecting Deception

It is the method of gathering and knowing from the Subject about the
crime dispute or the question of issue employing the use of machine or device,
drugs or substances and other accessory means. Most of the tests are not
reliable to be true and thus the information gathered is not admissible in court
as evidence but only important to be used for further investigation (Manalo,
1992 p. 6).

1. Lie Detector Test

A test used to record the physiological changes associated with lying

subject. The polygraph machine will record the blood pressure, respiratory rate
and the skin resistance to electricity in a chart paper. Although the polygraph
has been used extensively as an investigative aid in assisting law enforcement
agencies in reducing the number of suspects in a particular offense and also
used as pre-employment examination in business and industry, there are about

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

10
5 percent of the test that are inconclusive because of the draw backs. Some
test showed positive results and yet the subject innocent and other test gave
negative results to a guilty subject. In business and industry, the device is used
to inquire deliberate falsification of application and other documents, illicit use
of drugs, and thefts of money or merchandise from the previous employers. In
spite of the drawbacks and unreliable results that it may not be admissible in
courts, modifications and improvements in the machine have been done. In
some countries like in the United States, the results of the test as evidence is
steadily moving towards the direction of admissibility in court, while the
Philippines, it is still not admissible in court (Manalo, 1992 pp. 6-6a).

2. Administration of Truth Serum or Narco-analysis

This is a detecting deception method using narcotic or anesthetic drug

in order to get information from the subject (Manalo, 1992 p. 6a).

Truth serum

Truth drugs such as sodium thiopental, ethanol,

and cannabis (historically speaking) are used for the purposes of obtaining
accurate information from an unwilling subject. Information obtained by publicly
disclosed truth drugs has been shown to be highly unreliable, with subjects
apparently freely mixing fact and fantasy. Much of the claimed effect relies on
the belief of the subjects that they cannot tell a lie while under the influence of
the drug (Kapoor, Chugh, Kapoor, Sinha, 2008).

Drugs used- (Truth Serum)

1. Hyocine hydrobromide
2. Sodium amytal
3. Penthotal
4. Seconal and other barbiturates
5. Methedrine
6. Methyl Phenidate
7. Droperidol
8. Scopolamine
9. Tricholoroethylene (Anesthetic drug) (Manalo, 1992 pp. 6-6a).

Principle involved:

The drug is injected hypodermically or intravenously at a certain

repeated dosage or if Tricholoroethylene is used should be taken by inhalation
at a certain amount when the point was reached where there was released of
inhibition and subsequently released of repressed materials from the mind, the
tendency of the subject is then asked questions by in interrogator. The tendency
of the subject is to reveal in crime. The used of this method in criminal
interrogation is not advisable because of the following reasons:

a) Administration of this drugs is dangerous

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

11
 If not properly administered, it may kill the subject or damage the
brain or spinal cord in such a manner that the subject will be turned like
vegetable.

b) Unreliable results
The information gathered from the subject is not reliable to be true.
If the subject gave false information under narcosis

c) It deprived the subject of his own free will to speak freely

d) The information taken from the subject under narcosis is not

admissible, in court as evidence.

e) Very few doctors agree in the use of drugs for criminal investigation
unless use for diagnosis and treatment of ailment (Manalo, 1992 pp.
6a-6b).

3. Use of Alcoholic Beverage

Alcohol in the form of alcoholic beverage maybe used as a deception

detection method. Usually the hard liquor is the one preferred but other soft
liquors may also be used provide it served the purpose. The subject is made to
drink the liquor in divided amount up to the point of loss of control of the mind
and thus released of inhibitions. The subject will be asked questions and the
tendency of the subject is to forget alibis and sometimes unveiling the secrets
of crime. The information taken from the subject under the influence of alcohol
is also not admissible in court as evidence because of the involuntary condition
of the subject, however, it maybe, admissible if the subject can recall his
statement when he was under the influence of alcohol when confronted again
((Manalo, 1992 pp. 6b-6c).

4. Stimulus Association Test

In this test, the subject will be interviewed, wherein a group of stimulus

words or subjects or persons will be presented to the subject. He will then be
instructed to answer the questions quickly as possible. The time interval
between each relevant question and the answer were noted down as well as
the reaction of the subject to the stimulus words as well as the reaction of the
subject to the stimulus words or objects or persons related to the crime. The
interval and the reaction of the subject will be studied by the interrogator. A
person presumed to be guilty will usually make a mistake or will have a long
time interval in answering questions. He may manifest hesitation in answering
critical questions and especially when the weapon used in the commission of
crime will be shown to him. There will also be inconsistencies in his answers or
responses to the stimulus (Manalo, 1992 p. 6c).

This test is also not reliable as a deception detection method because of

the following reasons:

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

12
 a. A person like the recidivist and really guilty may defeat the test by
telling lies.
b. Sometimes, the test requires the use of intelligence in answering
questions.
c. A nervous person who is innocents and may have long time interval
in answering questions and may even have signs and symptoms of
guilt (Manalo, 1992 pp. 6c-6d).

5. Use of Hypnotism

The hypnotism finds its way in criminal investigation by hypnotizing the

subject and then questions will be asked when the subject is under hypnosis.
The subject is under the control of influence by the hypnotist and therefore the
information gathered is devoid of the subject’s own free will to speak making it
not admissible in court (Manalo, 1992 p. 6d).

Formative Assessment

1. This refers to the investigative practices used to determine a person’s

truthfulness and credibility.
A. Discovery C. Innovation
B. Deception Detection D. Recognition
2. Refers to a severe test of character or endurance.
A. Trial C. Nightmare
B. Torment D. Ordeal
3. It is also a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin
“Dei Indicum” meaning:
A. Good Judgment C. Miraculous Decision
B. Wise Judgment D. Justice
4. Refers to an ordeal where the accused found to be lighter than before
then he should be acquitted.
A. Ordeal by balance C. Weighing Scale Ordeal
B. Stability Ordeal D. Ordeal of Gauge
5. This ordeal is refers to a fight between the accuser and the accused,
whoever lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty.
A. Trial by Ordeal C. Trial by Combat
B. Trial by Torture D. Ordeal by Combat
6. The accused was put into a severe physical test.
A. Test of Ordeal C. Trial by Warfare
B. Test of Agony D. Trial by Torture
7. The accused was compelled to walk bare footed through a fire; if he
remains unhurt then he is innocent.
A. Ordeal by Heat and Fire C. Trial by Heat and Fire
B. Trial by Walking in Fire D. Firing Squad Ordeal
8. The accused was forced to dip his hands into the boiling water or oil and
ask to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt then he is innocent.
A. Ordeal by Lubricant C. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water
B. Trial by Boiling Oil or Water D. Oil or Water Trial

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

13
 9. The accuser and accused each were made to stand with arms crossed
on their breasts. The one who endured the longest was deemed to have
told the truth, the other, is the liar.
A. Test of the Cross Ordeal C. Ordeal of Cross Trial
B. Trial by Cross Ordeal D. Test of the Cross Trial
10. The donkey placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey
cried is adjudged of guilty of crimes.
A. Test of the Donkey’s Tail C. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
B. Trial by Donkey’s Ordeal D. Ordeal of Donkey’s Trial

Summative Assessment

11. Which of these countries are practicing ordeal wherein the accuser and
accused were given each identical candle and both were lightened at the
same time.
A. Greece C. Nigeria
B. Burma D. Europe
12. This countries are practicing ordeal wherein a suspended axe was spun
at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever
was in line with the blade as supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the
divine providence.
A. Greece C. Japan
B. Philippines D. China
13. Are practicing ordeal wherein the accuser and accused were presented
by shell fish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the
shell fish and the litigant whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the
winner.
A. Korea C. Borneo
B. Australia D. Turkey
14. The priest greased a clock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the
accused. If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused
was deemed innocent.
A. England C. USA
B. Nigeria D. Israel
15. Uses computers to compare pitch, frequency, intensity and micro
tremors.
A. Speech Strain Examination C. Voice Stress Analysis
B. Voice Strain Analysis D. Speech Stress Analysis
16. Refers to recording of electrical activity through attached electrodes
affixed on the scalp of a subject.
A. Electroencephalography C. Electroencepolygraphy
B. Electroencephotography D. Electric encephalography
17. Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood
flow.
A. X-ray C. Deep Brain Stimulation
B. Brain Analyser D. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

14
 18. He manufactured the first model of the magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).
A. Raymond Damadian C. Steve Laken
B. Joel Garreau D. Henry Mill
19. Recent developments that permit non-invasive monitoring
using functional transcranial Doppler (fTCD) technique.
A. Analog Polygraph C. Perceptive Polygraph
B. Digital Polygraph D. Cognitive Polygraph
20. This technology measures pupil dilation, response time, reading and
rereading time, and errors.
A. Eye-tracking C. Optical Device
B. Optical Polygraph D. Optical Instrument
21. Detects oxygen and activity in the brain.
A. Cognitive chronometry C. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
B. Electrophysiology D. Electroencephalography
22. Detect changes in brain waves.
A. Cognitive chronometry C. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
B. Electrophysiology D. Electroencephalography
23. The branch of physiology that studies the electrical properties of
biological cells and tissues
A. Psychophysiology C. Electric physiology
B. Electrophysiology D. Neurology
24. A test used to record the physiological changes associated with lying
subject
A. Stimulus Association Test C. Lie Detector Test
B. Truth serum D. Observation method
25. This is a detecting deception method using narcotic or anesthetic drug
in order to get information from the subject
A. Polygraph Test C. Use of Hypnotism
B. Silent Answer Test D. Administration of Truth Serum

Chapter 2 References

Akehurst and Koehnken (1996). "Lay persons' and police officers' beliefs
regarding deceptive behavior". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 10 (6):
461–471. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(199612)10:6<461::aid-
acp413>3.3.co;2-u.

Carter. M. and Shieh, J. S. (2015) Electrophysiology. Guide to Research

Techniques in Neuroscience. Date Retrieved January 11, 2021 from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/electrophysioloy

Heussen, Y., Binkofski, F., and Jolij, J. (2010). "The semantics of the lying
face – An EEG Study". International Journal of Psychophysiology. 77
(3): 206. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.06.006

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

15
Kapoor, P.; Chugh, Y.; Kapoor, A. K.; Sinha, U. S. (2008). "Torture, terrorist
and truth serum". International Journal of Medical Toxicology & Legal
Medicine. 10 (2).

Manalo, C. E. (1992). Handbook on polygraph (lie-detector) and examination

techniques. Philippines College of Criminology. Sales St., Sta. Cruz,
Manila, Philippines

Njemanze, P. C. (2005). "Cerebral lateralization and general intelligence:

Gender differences in a transcranial Doppler study". Brain and
Language. 92 (3): 234–239. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.532.5734.
doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2004.06.104. PMID 15721956. S2CID 12440401.

National Academy of Sciences (2021). Alternative Techniques and

Technologies. National Academies Press. Date Retrieved February 7,
2021 from https://www.nap.edu/read/10420/chapter/8

National Research Council (2003). The Polygraph and lie detection. committee
to review the scientific evidence on the polygraph. Division of Behavioral
and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National
Academic Press.

Niedermeyer E.; da Silva F.L. (2004). Electroencephalography: Basic

Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-5126-1.

Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (UK) (2012). "Detecting

Deception". . Retrieved 26 April 2012.

Paul Ekman Group LLC (2021). Deception detection. Date Retrieved

February27, 2021 from
https://www.paulekman.com/deception/deception-
detection/#:~:text=Today's%20deception%20detection%20generally%2
0combines,in%20the%20face%20and%20body.

Psychologialscience.org. (2010) "Education psychologists use eye0tracking

method for detecting lies".

Rodriquez, C. S. (2015). The essentials of polygraphy and lie detection.

ChapterHouse Publishing Incorporated., Novaliches, Quezon City.

Forensic 321 : Lie Detection Techniques

16