What is the difference between Ra and RMS?

Ra and RMS are both representations of surface roughness, but each is calculated differently. Ra is
calculated as the Roughness Average of a surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys. RMS is
calculated as the Root Mean Square of a surfaces measured microscopic peaks and valleys. Each value
uses the same individual height measurements of the surfaces peaks and valleys, but uses the
measurements in a different formula. The formulas are shown below. One can infer from examination of
the formulas, that a single large peak or flaw within the microscopic surface texture will effect (raise) the
RMS value more than the Ra value.

Equivalent Ra values for Surface Finish Grade Numbers

Older drawings may use roughness grade numbers to indicate Ra values. The following table is given in
ISO 1302:1992.

Roughness
Roughness values CLA (µin.)
Roughness N values Ra Rt
Ra RMS Center Line
ISO Grade Numbers microinches Roughness, microns
micrometers (µm) Avg.
(µin.)

N12 50 2000 2200 2000 200

N11 25 1000 1100 1000 100

N10 12.5 500 550 500 50

N9 6.3 250 275 250 25

N8 3.2 125 137.5 125 13

 Roughness
Roughness values CLA (µin.)
Roughness N values Ra Rt
Ra RMS Center Line
ISO Grade Numbers microinches Roughness, microns
micrometers (µm) Avg.
(µin.)

N7 1.6 63 64.3 63 8.0

N6 0.8 32 32.5 32 4.0

N5 0.4 16 17.6 16 2.0

N4 0.2 8 8.8 8 1.2

N3 0.1 4 4.4 4 0.8

N2 0.05 2 2.2 2 0.5

N1 0.025 1 1.1 1 0.3

Traversing length, evaluation length and sampling length
When measuring roughness with a stylus-based system you’ll hear the terms “traversing length,” “evaluation
length” and “sampling length.” It’s important to understand their specific meanings and to adhere to them as
specified on drawings in order to get accurate measurement data.
These three lengths are usually defined from shortest to longest.
A sampling length is defined based on the longest spatial wavelength that will be measured. It is also called a
cutoff length because it equals the spatial wavelength of the “cutoff filter.” The cutoff filter separates shorter-
wavelength roughness from longer-wavelength waviness.
The sampling length will be determined based on the spatial wavelengths that matter for a particular
application. A typical cutoff wavelength (and thus sampling length) is 0.8 mm for roughness measurements.
It’s important to note that this is not a hard-and-fast value; it should be defined based on the roughness
requirements for the particular surface.
The evaluation length, or assessment length, is the part of the stylus trace that will be used to calculate
parameters. The evaluation length is typically specified based on some number of sampling lengths (five
sampling lengths is typical for roughness parameters). It can also be specified as an integral number of
sampling lengths (e.g., “Ra8” specifies eight sampling lengths) or as an absolute length.
The traversing length, or tracing length, is the entire distance that the stylus must travel in order to complete
the measurement. It includes the evaluation length plus additional lengths at the beginning and end which
often must be discarded in the filtering process and are not included when calculating texture parameters.
The image below shows the sampling, evaluation and traversing lengths on a roughness profile. The
roughness profile is the result after a short cutoff is applied to the primary profile to remove short spatial
wavelength noise, and a long cutoff is applied to remove long spatial wavelength waviness and form. The
evaluation length in this case is five sampling lengths. The traversing length includes an additional sampling
length at either end which will be discarded prior to analysis.

The key piece of information here is that the sampling length, evaluation length, and traversing length should
all be defined based upon the spatial wavelengths that are critical to your part’s performance. This
information should all be conveyed on part drawings to ensure that consistent measurement lengths are
used, to achieve repeatable roughness measurements.
What is a cut-off?
In basic terms, a cut-off is a filter and is used as a means of separating or filtering the wavelengths of a
component. Cut-offs have a numerical value that when selected will reduce or remove the unwanted
wavelengths on the surface. For example, a roughness filter cut-off with a numeric value of 0.8mm will allow
wavelengths below 0.8mm to be assessed with wavelengths above 0.8mm being reduced in amplitude; the
greater the wavelength, the more severe the reduction. For a waviness filter cut-off with a numeric value of
0.8mm, wavelengths above 0.8mm will be assessed with wavelengths below 0.8mm being reduced in
amplitude.
What are filters?

Electronic or mathematical methods or algorithms which separate out different wavelengths and
allow us to see only the wavelengths we are interested in.
How do we separate Roughness, Waviness and Form

In order to separate the three elements, we use filters. On most surface texture measuring instruments we can select either
Roughness or Waviness Filters.

Selecting a Roughness Filter will remove waviness elements, leaving the roughness profile for evaluation. Selecting a Waviness
Filter will remove roughness elements, leaving the waviness profile for evaluation. Separating the roughness and waviness is
achieved by using filter cut-offs.

What is a sample length?

After the data has been filtered with a cut ?off, we then sample it. Sampling is done by breaking the data into equal sample
lengths. The sample lengths have the same numeric value as the cut-off. In other words, if you use a 0.8mm cut-off, then the
filtered data will be broken down into 0.8mm sample lengths. These sample lengths are chosen in such a way that a good
statistical analysis can be made of the surface. In most cases, five sample lengths are used for analysis.

What is an assessment length?

An assessment length is the amount of data left after filtering that is then used for analysis.

Surface Finish is a measure of the overall texture of a surface that is

characterized by the lay, surface roughness, and waviness of the surface.
Surface Finish when it is intended to include all three characteristics is
often called Surface Texture to avoid confusion, since machinists often
refer to Surface Roughness as Surface Finish. Another term, analagous
to Surface Texture, is Surface Topology.
This diagram gives an idea of how to think of the relationship of
Waviness, Lay, and Roughness:
 The relationship of Waviness, Lay, and Roughness…
Lay
The Lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, and is usually
determined by the production method used to process the surface. Here
are some typical Lay patterns:

Surface Finish Lay Patterns…

Surface Roughness
Surface roughness is a measure of finely spaced surface irregularities.
Surface roughness is usually what machinists refer to when talking about
“surface finish.” When talking about all three characteristics, they may
use the term “Surface Texture” more properly.
Waviness
Surface Roughness speaks to fine detail imperfections, but there may
also be much coarser irregularities. For example, a surface may be
warped or deflected from the ideal.
Surface Finish Symbols, Callouts, and Standards
In the United States, surface finish is usually specified using the ASME
Y14.36M standard. The rest of the world commonly uses International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 1302.
Callouts and symbols used for different surface finishes can be slightly
different, so we’ll look at a couple.
ISO Surface Finish Symbols and Callouts

ANSI Surface Finish and Callouts

Surface Finish Symbols and Callout Example

GD&T Surface Finish

Key Take-Aways
1. Surface Finish consists of waviness, lay, and roughness, but it is common for only roughness to
be specified on technical drawings.
2. Ra is average roughness, and it under-estimates surface height variations.
3. Rz is mean roughness depth, and it approximates the size of the most severe surface height
variations.
4. Ra < Rz in most cases. General conversion: 7.2 x Ra = Rz (rough estimation only)
5. It is important to know if roughness is specified in SI units (micrometers) or English units (micro-
inches).
6. Smoother surfaces are more expensive because more manufacturing processes are required.
Therefore, the roughest acceptable finish should be specified to minimize cost.

Stylus-based contact instruments have the following advantages:

• The system is very simple and sufficient for basic roughness, waviness or form
measurement requiring only 2D profiles (e.g. calculation of the Ra value).
• The system is never lured by the optical properties of a sample (e.g. highly
reflective, transparent, micro-structured).
Focus Variation principle
The Focus Variation technology takes advantage of the limited depth of focus in brightfield images, where only
a certain z-range of the sample is in focus. This value changes depending on the numerical aperture of the
objective or the light source wavelength. The Z value is calculated measuring the high frequency components
(sharpness or tiny details) of the image, resulting in the optimal focus position.

Fringe Projection principle

Projects structured light onto a sample from a certain angle and receives the reflected light with a camera. The
projected pattern is modified when projected onto a surface and therefore, by correlating the change of fringe
pattern to the changes in height, we can obtain 3D images

Confocal profilers have been developed for measuring smooth to very

rough surfaces. Confocal profiling provides the highest lateral resolution, up to 0.15
um line & space, with spatial sampling can be reduced to 0.01 μm, which is ideal for
critical dimension measurements.

The working principle of Interferometry technology consists on a

splitting of the light into two beams that travel different optical paths and are then
combined to produce interference. Interferometric objectives allow the microscope to
operate as interferometer; fringes are observed in the sample when it is in focus.

Thin film
When a transparent layer is deposited on top of a surface, its reflectivity changes. The system acquires the
reflectance spectrum of the sample in the visible range, and is compared with a simulated spectra calculated
by the software, with layer thickness modification until the best fit is found. For thin films, the thickness is similar
to the light wavelength and we obtain a wavy response of reflectivity along the optical spectrum.

KEY FEATURES
Transparent films from 50 nm to 1.5 μm can be measured in less than five seconds with
Sensofar Spectroscopic Reflectometry.
Transparent films from 50 nm to 1.5 μm
Acquisition in less than 5 seconds
One objective can cover the complete the range
Different spot sizes (3.5 μm to 40 μm)
Mass metrology measures the change in mass following deposition, etch, and clean processes to enable
monitoring and control of these often-repeated core manufacturing steps.
Mass is an essential component of the world’s economic flow, as the weight of a product
determines its quality and price. Mass metrology applies to food manufacturing,
agricultural, pharmaceutical, and many other industries.

Surface metrology is the measurement of small-scale features on surfaces, and is a branch of metrology.
Surface primary form, surface fractality, and surface finish (including surface roughness) are the parameters most
commonly associated with the field. It is important to many disciplines and is mostly known for the machining of
precision parts and assemblies which contain mating surfaces or which must operate with high internal pressures.

Basic methods of force measurement.

Force F = MA mass x acceleration
Torque T = Force x length
Methods of force measurement
1. Balancing it against the known gravitational force as a standard mass,
either directly or through a system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which the
unknown force is applied.
3. Balancing it against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a
current carrying coil and a magnet.
4. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the
pressure.
5. Applying the force to some elastic member and measuring the
resulting deflection.
6. Measuring the change in processing of a gyroscope caused by an
applied torque related to the measured force.
7. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire tensioned by the
force.
What is Coordinate Metrology?
Design engineers and manufacturers use coordinate metrology to precisely measure the features of machine
parts. By mapping coordinates onto a given workpiece, coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) can
compare parts along a production line, or even predict whether a prototype is up to scratch.
The French theorist René Descartes developed coordinate mapping in the 17th century, and the study of
maps, cartography, takes its name from his. From this original plotting system, modern machinists measure
and map cutting-edge parts with finely tuned CMMs. As everyone is familiar with some form of coordinates
from street maps to games like Chess and Battleships, it’s easy to find examples for even the most complex
principles in coordinate metrology.

How do Coordinate Measuring Machines Work in Coordinate Metrology?

Like a fingertip scanning a map to find a landmark, CMMs use a sensitive probe to places a workpiece feature
at a coordinated location. The machines operate on three axes: X, Y and Z. As you look at the machine, the X
axis maps from side-to-side, the Y axis maps forwards and backwards, and the Z maps up and down. By giving
a feature a reading on these three axes, CMMs assign them a unique location. Crucially, this location is relative
to all others on the workpiece. They can, therefore compare features and predict relationships between them.
CMMs use three different types of probe: the solid probe, most closely comparable to the human finger, the
touch-trigger probe, and the laser probe. Touch-trigger probes use pressure sensors to automate coordinate
measurement. They measure information whenever the tip makes contact with a workpiece. Laser probes, on
the other hand, measure coordinate features by emitting and receiving light.
All CMMs combine two systems of data to make judgements and predictions about the workpiece they
measure. They combine machine coordinate systems and part coordinate systems.
Machine coordinate systems refer to the X, Y and Z grid of the CMM itself. Part coordinate systems introduce
the shapes of the workpiece to be measured. Put simply, the machine coordinate systems are the large square
grids of a map, and the parts coordinate systems are the streets and buildings that criss-cross through them.
In comparing the two, to learn about a workpiece, a CMM conducts a process called alignment, a central tenet
of coordinate metrology. In order to unpack the details of alignment in coordinate metrology, it’s important to
learn a few key terms used by engineers in the industry.

Alignment in Coordinate Metrology

Alignment is the combination of machine and part coordinate systems for measurement and comparison. As a
process, alignment predates the digitisation and modernisation of CMMs and coordinate metrology. Before
the powerful algorithms and calibrated software common in today’s CMMs, operators would simply align
machine parts parallel to a CMM’s axes. They would level their workpieces by eye, or at best with some form
of spirit level.
Not only is this method time-consuming and often inaccurate, it suffers further in the case of domed, curved,
or bevelled workpieces. Such gradients require recalibration and adjustment to get accurate measurements.
Modern CMMs carry out these adjustments automatically with their alignment routine software. This process
is best understood through a return to the map analogy, as both navigation and coordinate metrology rely
heavily on coordinates.
For CMMs, alignment is like orientating yourself with your map and both facing the same direction to
understand your environment. To use a more modern example, it is like hitting the recentre button on a
satnav. The machine and part coordinate systems line up, and from there, an operator can measure and
compare each datum on the workpiece.
A Workpiece Datum
In coordinate metrology, the word datum takes on a specific and useful meaning. “Datum” is actually the Latin
singular of the word “data”: technically, we should say one datum, two data.
For a CMM and its operator, a datum, or piece of information, refers to a coordinate on a workpiece. It also
serves to highlight the feature in that coordinate. A datum could refer to a hole, protrusion, or panel on a
part.
On a conventional street map, a datum could be a particular house. In the game Battleships, it could be a
battleship or a point in the water. CMMs compare separate datums on a workpiece to assess their properties
and predict their relationships. When comparing datums, they often use a process called translation.

Translation
Translation, in coordinate metrology, becomes necessary to work out the relationship between workpiece
datums. Essentially, translation is the shift from locating a datum in terms of a grid, to locating it in terms of
other datums.
On a street map, you find yourself by running your finger along the numbers and letters of the grid. When you
need to plan a route, you translate your starting point to yourself, then work out where you need to go from
there. Similarly, in Battleships, when you get your first hit, you translate your guesses from the hit, not just
from the whole ocean.
Using coordinate translation, CMMs determine the route, and therefore the distance, between datums. When
the two datums are already parallel with one another, this comparison becomes as easy as finding a parallel
street in a grid-based city.
Workpieces historically used simple machining techniques to create parts, so this was generally the case.
However, modern coordinate metrologists determine shapes through seven geometric elements to define a
part: point, line, plane, circle, cylinder, cone, sphere. With the dawn of 3D printing, parts can have free-
flowing shapes with datums of all angles. To translate between non-aligned datums, CMMs use rotation.

Rotation
This fairly self-explanatory concept involves rotating datum information, so it lines up with another datum.
Rotation allows a CMM to determine distance and relationship, and compare the qualities of different
datums. While the process sounds simple, a CMM performs complex translation and rotation calculations to
accomplish this feat.
Rotation and translation provide the link between measurement and prediction in coordinate metrology. The
extrapolation of one datum onto another helps determine their existing relationship, as well as predicting
their future interactions, through a process called projection.

Projection
Projection, or the reproduction on one datum onto another, proves essential for predicting the behaviour of a
machine with moving parts. The compatibility of these relationships often separates efficiency from error,
particularly in complex machines like clocks or cars. If a clock’s cogs fail to mesh snugly, the whole system falls
apart. Although combustion engines rely on explosions, the relationships between pistons, chambers and fuel
separate the useful explosions from the dangerous.
Projection helps mediate these relationships in advance, with constructed features. CMMs construct features
like centrelines, intersection angles and symmetry based on projected datum sizes and trajectories.
Essentially, CMMs can project the angles of a square peg onto the opening of a round hole, to predict that the
two will not mix. They use further checks, called volumetric compensation, to ensure their results are as
accurate as possible.

Volumetric Compensation
Although CMMs are intelligent and sophisticated machines, their software acknowledges possible errors in
measurement to improve their result. Volumetric compensation is the process of accounting for such errors,
including the roll and pitch of the measurement process or possible skidding and vibrations on the workpiece
surface itself.
With volumetric compensation, the CMM computer’s algorithms map these errors, correcting the vast
majority wherever possible. Doing so saves manufacturer and consumer time and money, while also
improving the effectiveness of the measured workpiece by ensuring all the datums are correct.
Coordinate metrology puts centuries-old principles through modern machines to measure, compare and
predict their qualities. These calculations seem complicated and convoluted at times, but coordinate
measuring machines make the job logical and reliable. In doing so, they maintain high standards on
production lines and prove which prototypes will be the machines of the future.
Surface metrology is the measurement of small-scale features on surfaces, and is a branch of metrology.
Surface primary form, surface fractality, and surface finish (including surface roughness) are the parameters
most commonly associated with the field. It is important to many disciplines and is mostly known for the
machining of precision parts and assemblies which contain mating surfaces or which must operate with high
internal pressures.

Acceptable weight tolerance on Nominal Weight of metallic parts

Table – 1
Metallic products (Machined or Sheet Metal):

Nominal Weight (NW) Tolerance Limit

Up to 0.10 kg Only record weight
≥0.10 & ≤0.50 kg ± 20g
≥0.50 & ≤2.0 kg ±4% or ± 70g whichever is less
≥2.0 & ≤5.0 kg ±3.50% or ± 150g whichever is less
≥5.0 & ≤10.0 kg ±3% or ± 250g whichever is less
≥10.0 & ≤25.0 kg ±2.5% or ± 500g whichever is less
≤25.0 kg ±2% or ± 1000g whichever is less

Acceptable weight tolerance on nominal weight of composite parts

Table – 2
Composite products
 Nominal Weight (NW) Tolerance Limit
Up to ≤0.50 kg Only record weight
≥0.50 & ≤4.0 kg +8% to -5% or ± 200g whichever is less
≤4.0 kg ±5%

Note: The above weight tolerance is finalized based on MOM with CEMILAC as detailed below,

CEMILAC /CEA/9101/Tejas, dated 11th September 2012, (MOM held on 30th August 2012 at the
CE(CEMILAC) conference hall on review of Weights and Tolerance Limits for Metallic and Composite Parts).

Minutes of meeting for reconciliation and redefining weight tolerances for composite parts Date 9 th and 10th
July 2016. Ref MOM N0. D/CMP/631/049/2015, Date: 14/07/2015

Table 1 & 2 is applicable for both finished and unfinished parts.

Nominal weight (NW) is the weight of part computed or CAD weight with zero tolerance.

MOM for redefining weight tolerance for metal parts, dated 11th April 2016 duly co ordinated with RCMA
(A/C)

Genuine Heli-Coil ® inserts are precision formed screw thread coils of stainless steel wire having a diamond
shape cross section.
What is an RMA form?
Short for return materials authorization or return merchandise authorization, RMA is a form set up by
the manufacturer that allows the customer to return a product for an exchange or refund.

If you want to sell products, either as a B2B business or direct to consumer, you'll deal with returns.

That means you need to know what an RMA is and the role it plays in return processing.

Keep reading to learn more about RMA numbers, forms, and best practices.

What Does RMA Stand for?

RMA stands for return merchandise authorization. It's the first part of the process of returning a
product to a business to receive a refund, replacement, or repair. In this step, the business and
customer discuss the problem and the business determines the validity of the issue.

RMAs play an important role in the reverse order fulfillment cycle (see order fulfillment meaning).
They allow the business to understand the customer's problem with the product and agree on the
next best steps. It also gives the warehouse a heads up that products will be coming back and has an
impact on warehouse organization.

What Is an RMA Number?

An RMA number is the number assigned by a business to a particular order to authorize a product
return. The number is used to track the products as they are processed. It allows the warehouse to
automatically update warehouse inventory management software or an ERP system (see what is
ERP) when they scan the number upon arrival. Be mindful of the benefits of ERP.

RMA numbers are particularly useful for businesses that provide servicing and repairs for product
returns. The returns these companies deal with must be processed both as they arrive and as they
leave. This means tracking is vital so nothing gets lost and the products don't get mixed in with new
product shipments.

What Is an RMA Form?

An RMA form is a document used to return products to a company. This form will outline the reason
for the return and the expected next steps. It can be included with the product inside eCommerce
packaging or sent out to customers upon request.

Here are the fields you should include on an RMA form:

Customer Information

The first set of fields you need to include will allow the customer to list all relevant information about
themselves. At a minimum, you should have fields for their name, address, and phone number. This
will allow you to send them a replacement if needed and look them up in your system to find their
original order. This lets you make sure they're within the company's established return window.

Product Data

Here, your customer should be able to write what the name of the product is and the quantity they're
returning. This information is very valuable as it lets the warehouse team know what products they'll
have to store. The quantity is particularly important as the customer may have purchased multiple
products, but are only returning one. If you enter the wrong quantity in your system it will
make inventory management more difficult. You won't have the correct number of products on hand
and this can lead to more issues with fulfillment.

Reason for Return

Another section you'll want to include is an area to identify why a product is being returned. You can
have a series of checkboxes for more common issues or just an area to write a reason. This field
provides insight into both the legitimacy of the customer complaint and identifying recurring problems
with the product. If the same product is getting returned for a particular issue, you'll know you need to
have a conversation with your supplier. You can also set inventory KPI based on the number of
products being returned for different reasons. It will let you alert leadership when you hit a certain
level of returns.

Return or Refund

If your company offers both returns and refunds for product issues, you'll need to make sure you
have a field where the customer can request either choice. This will allow you to limit customer
dissatisfaction and get the next steps started right away. The longer you take to resolve a customer
issue, the less likely they'll be a return customer.

What Is the RMA Process?

The RMA process involves many moving parts and can easily become a nuisance for customers.
Creating a streamlined process is key to ensuring you maintain a good customer relationship.
Product returns should be a simple process that is well-outlined in advance for customers, and is a
core need for any online marketplace.

Luckily for BlueCart eCommerce customers, it has a very easy returns and refunds/credits system
built into the platform. It allows customers to initiate a return from within the buyer app and the vendor
or sales rep can authorize the credit or replacement in real-time. That avoids the headache often
associated with returns and lets you keep your customers happy.

Here are the steps you should follow to create your RMA process:

First, define your return policies and processes. Without a solid understanding of what products can
be returned and why, you risk upsetting customers and confusing warehouse staff. Establish firm
time frames for allowing returns and outline valid reasons for returns. This will ensure your customers
understand what they're allowed to do and prevent you from having a pile of dead stock from
excessive returns.

Second, create an RMA form. You'll need to create a form that all customers can fill out to ensure you
receive the data you need. Make sure to include all of the fields we listed above and any other data
you need to help the warehouse management process flow.

Third, figure out shipping and handling. You need to determine how you'll handle shipping or picking
up defective products, which includes common box sizes. You may want to include a packing
slip and prepaid return slip with products. Just make sure you can afford to cover the returns. You
can accomplish these goals more easily with a shipping label printer.

Frequently Asked Questions About What RMA Is

RMA can be overlooked when you’re working on other aspects of your business, but it’s no less
important. To get a better feel for RMA and how it’s used, check out the below questions:

RMA is similar to a tracking number in that it is used to identify and track the returned item. An RMA
usually includes details like the reason for return and where to send a refund or exchange.

Why Is RMA important?

RMA, or return merchandise authorization, is important for a few reasons. One, the RMA number
gives the seller a way to track the type and quantity of product(s) being returned. It’s impossible to
know how much merchandise was returned if you’re just guessing.
Two, the RMA process allows customers to check the progress of a returned item. A customer that
didn’t appreciate the product is often eager to get refunded quickly. Putting their RMA number into a
company website form and getting the status is reassuring.

Complete Guide to Surface Finish Symbols, Charts, RA, RZ, Measurements, and
Callouts
Table of Contents
Definition of Surface Finish
Surface Finish and Product Function
Surface Finishes of Various Manufacturing Processes
Measuring and Inspecting Surface Finish
Surface Finish Units from RA to RZ
Surface Finish Math and Equations
Surface Finish Symbols, Callouts, and Standards
Surface Finish Cheat Sheet
Factors Affecting Surface Finish
Feeds and Speeds for Best Surface Finish
Surface Roughness Conversion Chart Tables – Metric and Imperial
Definition of Surface Finish
Before we get on with Surface Finish Symbols, let’s understand how Surface Finish is
defined. Engineering prints call out a great many things in their attempt to make sure
the part that gets made matches the designer’s intent. Aside from dimensions and
tolerances, another important callout is Surface Finish.
Surface Finish is a measure of the overall texture of a surface that is characterized by
the lay, surface roughness, and waviness of the surface. Surface Finish when it is
intended to include all three characteristics is often called Surface Texture to avoid
confusion, since machinists often refer to Surface Roughness as Surface Finish.
Another term, analagous to Surface Texture, is Surface Topology.
This diagram gives an idea of how to think of the relationship of Waviness, Lay, and
Roughness:
 The relationship of Waviness, Lay, and Roughness…
Lay
The Lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, and is usually determined
by the production method used to process the surface. Here are some typical Lay
patterns:

Surface Finish Lay Patterns…

Surface Roughness
Surface roughness is a measure of finely spaced surface irregularities. Surface
roughness is usually what machinists refer to when talking about “surface finish.”
When talking about all three characteristics, they may use the term “Surface Texture”
more properly.
Waviness
Surface Roughness speaks to fine detail imperfections, but there may also be much
coarser irregularities. For example, a surface may be warped or deflected from the
ideal.
Surface Finish and Product Function
How do product designers decide what surface finishes to require, and how should
CNC machinists think about surface finishes?
There are a variety of considerations, and they may even vary for different stages in
the manufacture of a particular part. For example, we may have a surface finish
requirement on a casting that ensures the finish (think of it as the deviations of the
surface of the casting from an ideal) is good enough that the allowance made for extra
material that will be machined off in a future step is sufficent. If the casting is too
imperfect, the trough of an imperfection may be below the expected machined surface
of that future step.
Another important consideration is friction. Reducing surface roughness typically
reduces friction which can be critical to reducing wear and increasing efficiency of
sliding parts.
The required surface finishes are very much determined by the function and use of the
component. Ship’s propellors start out with fairly high surface finish standards but in
actual use they erode pretty quickly. Optical and especially components used with X-
Rays have some of the finest surface finish requirements achievable.
The goal of the designer is to specify surface finishes that are as coarse as possible
but will still function within the part’s desired operating parameters. The goal of the
machinist is to achieve surface finishes on parts that are as good as those required by
the designer, but not better as that results in the cheapest to manufacture parts. It’s
important for designer and manufacturer to agree on exactly which parameters (Ra,
Rz, etc..) are to be used for inspecting and parts acceptance. While there are
commonly accepted conversions between these, actually using the same parameters
for the inspection that the designer used with the design always yields the best results.
Surface Finishes for Various Manufacturing Processes
Surface Finishes vary tremendously by the manufacturing process used to achieve
them. A flame cut plate edge has a radically different surface finish than a ground
surface, for example. Choosing a process that’s capable of achieving the desired
surface finish is the first step in figuring out how to manufacture a part that requires a
particular finish. Sometimes, more than one process must be overlaid to achieve the
desired result cost-effectively.
Here’s a chart table showing the relative surface finish roughness of various
manufacturing processes:
 Relative Surface Finish Roughness of Manufacturing Processes…
For more on manufacturing processes and the cost of maintaining tight tolerances and surface
finishes, see our article:
[ The high cost of tight tolerances ]
Measuring and Inspecting Surface Finish
Measurement implies characterizing something as a number–something that’s very important
to CNC’ers.
There are a number of different characteristics we might measure with respect to Surface
Finish. Two of the most important are the height of the roughness peaks and their separation,
often referred to as “Ra” and “D”:
 Ra and D are two important surface finish parameters…
The Surface Finish Units we would use for parameters like Ra would be either micro-inches
(English or Imperial) or micrometers (Metric). Our chart of surface finishes by manufacturing
process (see above) gives both.
When we try to measure a surface finish, the methods fall into three categories:
– Profiling Techniques: Here a high resolution probe is used to measure the surface. Think of a
sensitivity more in line with a phonograph needle than a typical CNC Probe.
– Area Techniques: With an area technique, a finite area is measured and this provides a
statistical average of the peaks and valleys. Examples of area techniques include optical
scattering, ultrasonic scattering, and capacitance probes. Area techniques are easier to
automate and faster to execute, but profiling techniques are often more accurate.
– Microscopy Techniques: These techniques are usually more qualitative because they rely on
measurement of contrast to provide information about peaks and valleys.
Instruments used to measure Surface Roughness using these various techniques are called
Profilometers.
 Pocket Profilometer…
Factors Affecting Surface Finish
There are many factors that affect surface finish, with the biggest being the manufacturing
process (see table above). For machining processes, such as milling, turning, and grinding,
factors such as cutting tool selection, machine tool condition, toolpath parameters, feeds,
speeds, tool deflection, cut width (stepover), cut depth, coolant, and vibration are just a few
of the many.
Tips and Examples:
– When Face Milling, use a cutting tool with a lead angle other than 90 degrees. A 45 degree
lead angle facemill will produce a finer finish.
– Use inserts with a larger radius. A toroidal cutter or copy mill can often leave a better finish
than other insert geometries.
– Unless the insert height on your face mill can be individually adjusted, a fly cutter often
leaves the best surface finish.
Feeds and Speeds for Best Surface Finish
In general, adjust feeds and speeds for a lower chip load at the same rpms for a better finish.
Take a finish pass that’s relatively light as well. Make sure as you’re doing this to avoid
rubbing, which is very hard on tool life.
Surface Finish Units From RA To RZ
Ra – Average Roughness
Ra is also known as Arithmetic Average (AA) or Center Line Average (CLA). It is the average
roughness in the area between the roughness profile and its mean line. Graphically, Ra is the
area between the roughness profile and its centerline divided by the evaluation length. The
evaluation length is normally five sample lengths where each sample length is equal to one
cutoff length.
Ra is by far the most commonly used Surface Finish parameter. One reason it is so common is
that it is fairly easy to take the absolute value of a signal and integrate the signal using analog
electronics, so Ra could be measured by instruments that contain no digital circuits.
Ra, while common, is not sufficient to completely characterize the roughness of a surface.
Depending on the application, surfaces with the same Ra can perform quite differently. Here
are 4 surfaces with the same Ra and quite different shapes:

All four surfaces have the same Ra but quite different shapes…
To distinguish these differences, more parameters are needed.
Rmax – Vertical distance from highest peak to lowest valley
Rmax is particularly sensitive to anomalies such as scratches and burrs that may not be
obvious from measures such as Ra that rely on averages.
Rz – Preferred by many Europeans
Rz is often preferred to Ra in Europe and particularly Germany. Instead of measuring from
centerline like Ra, Rz measures the average of the 5 largest peak to valley differences within
five sampling lengths. While Ra is relatively insensitive to a few extremes, Rz is quite sensitive
since it is the extremes it is designed to measure.
Surface Roughness Grades: “N” Numbers
Here is a chart table showing how Roughness Grade Numbers convert to Ra numbers:
 Roughness Grade Numbers and Ra Measures…
Surface Roughness of Abrasive Grits and Sandpaper
One approach to Surface Finish is to use abrasives or sand the surface. This chart converts
from abrasive grit to Surface Finish Ra values:

Surface Finish Math and Equations

To Calculate Equation Notes

Average
Roughness in
Ra = CLA = (M1 + M2 + M3 + M4) / 4 micro-meters or
Ra Where: micro-inches. Ra
M1, M2, … Mn are measure values is the arithmetic
mean deviation
of the profile

Mean height of
Rc profile
irregularities

Kurtosis of the
Rku
profile

Maximum
Rmax
roughness depth

Material Ration
Rmr
of the profile

Max profile peak

Rp Rp = MAX( M1, M2, M3, … )
height
 Root mean
Rq Rq = RMS square deviation
of the profile

Skewness of the
Rsk
profile

Max height of
Rt
the profile

Max Profile
Rv Rv = MIN( M1, M2, M3, … )
Valley Depth

Max height of
Ry
the profile

Rz = Ra x 7.2
Avg Max height
Rz This is a very ROUGH estimate and not an exact
of the profile
conversion!

Roughness
Rz ISO
Height

Average max
RPM profile peak
height

RMS = SQRT( (M1^2 + M2^2 + M3^2 + M4^2) / Root Mean

RMS
4) Square

Center Line
CLA CLA = Ra
Average

Length required
Cut-Off Length
for sample

New ISO (Grade)

N N = Ra (um) x 40
Scale Numbers

Surface Finish Symbols, Callouts, and Standards

In the United States, surface finish is usually specified using the ASME Y14.36M standard. The
rest of the world commonly uses International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 1302.
Callouts and symbols used for different surface finishes can be slightly different, so we’ll look
at a couple.
ISO Surface Finish Symbols and Callouts
ANSI Surface Finish and Callouts
Surface Finish Symbols and Callout Example

GD&T Surface Finish

GD&T specifies parameters like Flatness, but these are not really surface finish. To specify
surface finish use either the ISO or ANSI symbols.
Surface Finish Cheat Sheet
A super handy Surface Finish “Cheat Sheet”:
What is the surface roughness indication method?
This surface roughness indication method pictorially displays information such as the surface
roughness value, cutoff value, sampling length, machining method, crease direction symbol, and
surface waviness on the surface indication symbol as shown below. b: Indications of the second and
subsequent parameters when multiple parameters are required
Metric and Imperial
Cut-off Length

Ra (µm) Ra (µinches) RMS Rt N in mm

0.025 1 1.1 0.3 1 0.003 0.08

0.05 2 2.2 0.5 2 0.01 0.25

0.1 4 4.4 0.8 3 0.01 0.25

0.2 8 8.8 1.2 4 0.01 0.25

0.4 16 17.6 2 5 0.01 0.25

0.8 32 32.5 4 6 0.03 0.8

1.6 63 64.3 8 7 0.03 0.8

3.2 125 137.5 13 8 0.1 2.5

6.3 250 275 25 9 0.1 2.5

12.5 500 550 50 10 0.1 2.5

25 1000 1100 100 11 0.3 8

50 2000 2200 200 12 0.3 8

What happens to your bag after you check in at the airport?

Story by Nidhi Lodaya •

I t was a secretive and low-key trip this writer and mid-day photojournalist Shadab Khan

were invited to follow—the journey of our checked-in baggage to the airplane—and we went
along for the ride. The bags are handled in the heart of the airport, and we had to undergo
rigorous screening by the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) to get there. The procedure
started a few days in advance where we had to submit our Aadhar card and a photograph for
identification and for the airport authorities to make a permit pass. This permit pass acted like
our passport throughout the journey. Despite being with the officials and wearing an
‘Observer’ safety vest, we had to show our permit card to the CISF at all times. Though we
were legitimately invited by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport (CSMIA) to
observe the process, we felt a bit weird about being in the airport without a ticket.
What happens to your bag after you check in at the airport?© Provided by Mid-Day

Inline screening, baggage operations and terminal operations officials took us through the
process. After this experience, we learnt two things—one that our bag is not tampered by a
human at any point of time and second is that it takes a maximum of 15 minutes for the entire
bag to be screened and be ready for loading in the arlines’ container.

“Our system design has a capacity of 9,600 bags per hour, but in practicality, much fewer
bags go through,” says a spokesperson from the CSMIA team proudly. On an average, 5,600
bags go through every hour, and the maximum number of bags they have handled in a day
so far has been one lakh, and in a month, it has been over 27 lakh. The time taken by the bag
from check-in till it’s packed in the airlines’ container is anywhere between four and 15
minutes. “Our motive is to keep the bags moving,” says the spokesperson.

Spread across a radius of 12 km, there are two exact sets of the complex mechanism
described below. Both zones do the same function, and if one part of the 3,000-equipment
machine is under maintenance, the load is diverted to the other system.

Stage 1
There are 14 check-in islands where the bags are weighed and checked in. The operator
sticks on a tag with basic details such as name of the passenger and airline, number of bags,
and flight number. That’s the last time the passengers see their bag. From there on, the first
conveyor belt takes it through a systematic labyrinth below the airport. There are four levels a
bag passes through once it is dispatched by the airlines staff. Larger bags, odd-shaped ones
such as guitar cases, those holding sports equipment, fragile luggage and live animals go
through the Super Out of Gauge (SOG) machines and screeners. There is a separate
elevator for bags that could damage the conveyor. If the conveyor belt halts, up to 20 m of the
belt will stop. An alarm rings and an operator checks the disruption.

Stage 2
Once checked-in, the bag goes through an X-Ray, one level down, transported on blue
conveyor belts. At this level, all 14 check-in conveyor belts merge with the main system that
has bags of all passengers. We are surrounded by conveyor belts. Multiple belts merge over
our heads and by our sides. All are colour coded in blue, green and red. “Think of it as a road
in Mumbai,” says a spokesperson. “The bag never stops, there are no traffic signals. Cleared
or rejected, it is sorted into a dedicated belt.” It feels like the bowels of an enormous factory
with whirring machines, beeping alarms and an eerie emptiness.

We clamber up steep industrial ladders, jump over convertible belts bearing suitcases, walk
through the labyrinth surrounded by yellow and blue belts, looking out for overhead
machines, all while ensuring strands of our hair do not get caught by a belt or machine.

Stage 3
All the lines merge, and set off for another round of screening. Eight X-Ray screeners look
into each bag and send it off. Tags and CCTV cameras track each item, and if a bag does not
reach the next checkpoint in 120 seconds, the system is alerted. Each level is isolated by fire
shutters which seal off any blaze and stop it from spreading.

Stage 4
Once cleared by the X-Ray machines, the bags go through vertical separation—cleared bags
are dropped down to a green conveyor belt; suspicious ones go to the red line. The Global
Identification tracking system generates a number which can be used to identify any bag
disturbed by hand or otherwise.

So to put to rest any fear that our bags may be tampered with, rest assured, no human hand
touches our bags, despite a staff of 40-50 hands that merely oversee its journey. To prove
this, our guide tilts a bag and it rumbles down to the red line for further inspection.

Stage 5
The bags landing on the red line pass through another round of screening. If found dodgy, the
owner is contacted. Earlier, the passenger had to be physically present when the bag is
opened. “It was a waste of time, a physical inconvenience to walk here; a porter also had to
be sent to accompany the passenger,” says a spokesperson. “Now, the passenger can see
their bags being inspected through CCTVs and video screens.” On an average, only five to
10 per cent bags go into this red line.

Stage 6
The bags travelling the green line get on the Tilt-trays belt, which tilts them into the final
conveyor belt. One loop has 274 trays, and each bag is neatly dropped into one. Auto-
sortation technology and the tracking-tag guide this procedure; This is the heart of the
system. The Tilt-trays have shuts which drop the bag on the respective conveyor belt as per
the airlines.

Stage 7
We climbed down an industrial ladder to see the final conveyor belt that contained all the
luggage dropped by the auto-separation belt. Porters load them from here into a container
wagon and drive off to the aircraft.

Stage 8
We also saw the room that stored the luggage of those in transit. The system informs which
bag goes into which connecting flight, and they are sent on another conveyor belt to the
green line (as they have already cleared security). To think that all of this happens in under
15 minutes!