Python From Scratch

Getting Started With Python From here

Lesson 1 Content
• What is Python?
• What can Python do?
• Why Python?
• Good to know
• Python Syntax compared to other programming languages
• Python Install
• Python QuickStart
• The Python Command Line
• Python Syntax
• Python Indentation
• Python Variables
• Python Comments
• Creating a Comment
• Multi Line Comments
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and released in 1991.
It is used for:
➢ web development (server-side),
➢ software development,
➢ mathematics,
➢ system scripting.
What can Python do?
➢ Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
➢ Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
➢ Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
➢ Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
➢ Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready software development.

Why Python?
➢ Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
➢ Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
➢ Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some other
programming languages.
➢ Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed as soon as it is written.
This means that prototyping can be very quick.
➢ Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a functional way.

Good to know
➢ The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be using in this tutorial.
However, Python 2, although not being updated with anything other than security updates, is still
quite popular.
➢ In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write Python in an
Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are
particularly useful when managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

➢ Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the English language with
influence from mathematics.
➢ Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other programming languages
which often use semicolons or parentheses.
➢ Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the scope of loops,
functions and classes. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Python Install
Many PCs and Macs will have python already installed.
• To check if you have python installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar for Python or run
the following on the Command Line (cmd.exe):
C:\Users\Your Name>python –version
• To check if you have python installed on a Linux or Mac, then on linux open the command line or
on Mac open the Terminal and type:
python –version
• If you find that you do not have Python installed on your computer, then you can download it for
free from the following website: https://www.python.org/

Python Quickstart
Python is an interpreted programming language, this means that as a developer you write Python (.py)
files in a text editor and then put those files into the python interpreter to be executed.
• The way to run a python file is like this on the command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py
Where "helloworld.py" is the name of your python file.
• Let's write our first Python file, called helloworld.py, which can be done in any text editor.
helloworld.py
print("Hello, World!")
• Simple as that. Save your file. Open your command line, navigate to the directory where you
saved your file, and run:
C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py
• The output should read:
Hello, World!
Congratulations, you have written and executed your first Python program.
The Python Command Line
To test a short amount of code in python sometimes it is quickest and easiest not to write the code in a
file. This is made possible because Python can be run as a command line itself.
Type the following on the Windows, Mac or Linux command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python
Or, if the "python" command did not work, you can try "py":
C:\Users\Your Name>py
• From there you can write any python, including our hello world example from earlier in the
tutorial:
C:\Users\Your Name>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> print("Hello, World!")
• Which will write "Hello, World!" in the command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!
Whenever you are done in the python command line, you can simply type the following to quit the
python command line interface:
exit()

Python Syntax
As we learned, Python syntax can be executed by writing directly in the Command Line:
>>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!
Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and running it in the Command
Line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py
Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.
Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability only, the indentation in
Python is very important.
• Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.
Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

• Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Syntax Error:
• The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is four, but it has to be
at least one.
Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

• You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code, otherwise Python will give
you an error:
Example
Syntax Error:
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:
Example
Variables in Python:
x = 5
y = "Hello, World!"
Python has no command for declaring a variable.
You will learn more about variables in the Python Variables chapter.
Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.
Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a comment:
Python Comments
➢ Comments can be used to explain Python code.
➢ Comments can be used to make the code more readable.
➢ Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.
Creating a Comment
• Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:
Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")
• Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of the line:
Example print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment
• A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used to prevent Python
from executing code:
Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")
Multi Line Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.
• To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:
Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")
Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.
• Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you can add a multiline
string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment inside it:
Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
• As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but then ignore it,
and you have made a multiline comment.
Python From Scratch
Python Variables
Lesson 2 Content
• Python Variables
• Creating Variables
• Casting
• Get the Type
• Single or Double Quotes?
• Case-Sensitive
• Python Variable Names
➢ Camel Case
➢ Pascal Case
➢ Snake Case
• Python Assign Multiple Values
• Python Output Variables
• Python Global Variables
• Python Variable Exercises
Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:
Example
Variables in Python:
x = 5
y = "Hello, World!" Python has no command for declaring a variable.

Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.
• A variable is created the moment you first • Variables do not need to be declared with any
assign a value to it. particular type, and can even change type after
Example they have been set.
x = 5 Example
y = "John" x = 4 # x is of type int
print(x) x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(y) print(x)
Casting
• If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.
Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
Get the Type
You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.
Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
Single or Double Quotes?
String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:
Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.
Example
This will create two variables:
a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
Python Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume). Rules for Python variables:
• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
• A variable name cannot start with a number
• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
• Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
Example
Legal variable names: Illegal variable names:
myvar = "John" 2myvar = "John"
my_var = "John" my-var = "John"
myVar = "John" my var = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.
There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:
• Camel Case
• Pascal Case
• Snake Case
Camel Case Pascal Case Snake Case
Each word, except the first, Each word starts with Each word is separated by
starts with a capital letter: a capital letter: an underscore character:
myVariableName = "John" MyVariableName = "John" my_variable_name = "John"
 Python Variables - Assign Multiple Values
Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:
Example x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or else you will get an error.
One Value to Multiple Variables
And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to extract the values into
variables. This is called unpacking.
Example fruits =
Unpack a list: ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Python Output Variables

Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.
Example x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)
• In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:
Example x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)
• You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:
Example x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)

Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result would be
"Pythonisawesome".
 • For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:
Example x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)
• In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with the + operator, Python
will give you an error:
Example x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)
• The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate them with commas,
which even support different data types:
Example x = 5
y = "John"
print(x, y)
Python - Global Variables
Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples above) are known as global
variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.
Example

Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)
myfunc()

• If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will be local, and can
only be used inside the function. The global variable with the same name will remain as it was,
global and with the original value.
Example

Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)
myfunc()
print("Python is " + x)
The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local, and can only be used
inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.
Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
print("Python is " + x)

• Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a function.
Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable by using
the global keyword:

x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
print("Python is " + x)

Python Variable Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises

Now you have learned a lot about variables, and how to use them in Python.

Are you ready for a test?

Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:

Exercise:

Create a variable named carname and assign the value Volvo to it.

= " "
Python From Scratch
Python Data Types & Python Numbers & Python Casting
Lesson 3 Content

Python Data Types

• Built-in Data Types
• Getting the Data Type
• Setting the Data Type
• Setting the Specific Data Type
• Test Yourself With Exercises

Python Numbers
• Numeric types in Python
➢ int
➢ float
➢ Complex
• Type Conversion
• Random Number
• Test Yourself with Exercises

Python Casting
• Specify a Variable Type
• Constructor functions
➢ int()
➢ float()
➢ str()
 Python Data Types
Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.
Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str Set Types: set, frozenset

Numeric Types: int, float, complex Boolean Type: bool
Sequence Types: list, tuple, range Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
Mapping Type: dict None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x = 5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:
Example Data Type Example Data Type
x = "Hello World" str x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set
x = 20 int x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset
x = 20.5 float x = True bool
x = 1j complex x = b"Hello" bytes
x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list x = bytearray(5) bytearray
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
x = range(6) range x = None NoneType
x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor functions:
Example Data Type Example Data Type
x = str("Hello World") str x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict
x = int(20) int x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set
x = float(20.5) float x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset
x = complex(1j) complex x = bool(5) bool
x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list x = bytes(5) bytes
x = tuple(("apple", "banana", tuple x = bytearray(5) bytearray
"cherry"))
x = range(6) range x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
 Python Numbers
Python Numbers
• int
There are three numeric types in Python: • float
• complex

• Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

• To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:
Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int Float Complex

Int, or integer, is a whole Float, or "floating point number" Complex numbers are
number, positive or negative, is a number, positive or negative, written with a "j" as the
without decimals, of containing one or more decimals. imaginary part:
unlimited length. can also be scientific numbers
with an "e" to indicate the power Example
Example of 10. Complex:
Integers: x = 3+5j
Example
x=1 y = 5j
y Floats: z = -5j
= 35656222554887711 x = 1.10
z = -3255522 y = 1.0 print(type(x))
z = -35.59 print(type(y))
print(type(x)) print(type(z))
print(type(y))
print(type(x))
print(type(z))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(), and complex() methods:
Example
Convert from one type to another:
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

a = float(x) #convert from int to float:

b = int(y) #convert from float to int:
c = complex(x) #convert from int to complex:

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but Python has a built-in
module called random that can be used to make random numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random
print(random.randrange(1, 10))

In our Random Module Reference you will learn more about the Random module.
 Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type

There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can be done with casting.
Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it uses classes to define data types, including its
primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

• int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal (by removing all
decimals), or a string literal (providing the string represents a whole number)

• float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or a string literal (providing
the string represents a float or an integer)

• str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including strings, integer literals and
float literals

Examples
Integers: Floats: Strings:
x = int(1) # x will be 1 x = float(1) # x will be 1.0 x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2 y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8 y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = int("3") # z will be 3 z = float("3") # z will be 3.0 z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Test Yourself With Exercises

Data Type Exercise:

The following code example would print the data type of x, what data type would that be?

x = 5
print(type(x))

Number Exercise:

Insert the correct syntax to convert x into a floating point number.

x = 5
x = (x)
Python From Scratch
Python Strings
Lesson 4 Content

Python Strings
• Assign String to a Variable
• Multiline Strings
• Strings are Arrays
• Looping Through a String
• String Length
• Check String
• Check if NOT

Python Slicing Strings

• Slicing
• Slice From the Start
• Slice To the End
• Negative Indexing

Python String Concatenation

Python Format Strings
Python Escape Characters
Python - String Methods
Python - String Exercises
 Python Strings
Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.
'hello' is the same as "hello". Example
You can display a string literal with the print() function: print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and the string:
Example a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:
Example Or
You can use three double quotes: Three single quotes:
a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit, consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.""" ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a) print(a)
Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in the code.

Strings are Arrays Example

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in
Python are arrays of bytes representing unicode characters. Get the character at position 1
(remember that the first character has
However, Python does not have a character data type, a the position 0):
single character is simply a string with a length of 1. a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Looping Through a String Example

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
characters in a string, with a for loop.
print(x)

String Length Example

To get the length of a string, use the len() function. The len() function returns the length of a string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
Check String Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT
present in a string, we can use the keyword in. present in a string, we can use the keyword not in.
Example Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text: Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!" txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("free" in txt) print("expensive" not in txt)

• Use it in an if statement: • Use it in an if statement:

Example Example
Print only if "free" is present: print only if "expensive" is NOT present:
txt = "The best things in life are free!" txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt: if "expensive" not in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.") print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")

Python Slicing Strings

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.
Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the string.
Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start Slice To the End

By leaving out the start index, the range will start By leaving out the end index, the range will go to
at the first character: the end:
Example Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 Get the characters from position 2, and all
(not included): the way to the end:
b = "Hello, World!" b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5]) print(b[2:])

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters:
From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)
To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
 Python Modify Strings
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Upper Case Lower Case
Example Example
The upper() method returns the string in The lower() method returns the string in
upper case: lower case:
a = "Hello, World!" a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper()) print(a.lower())

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to remove this
space.
Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:
a = " Hello, World! "
print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes the list items.
Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

Python String Concatenation

String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.
Example
Merge variable a with variable b into variable c: To add a space between them, add a " ":
a = "Hello" a = "Hello"
b = "World" b = "World"
c = a + b c = a + " " + b
print(c) print(c)
 Python Format Strings
String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and numbers like this:
Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using the format() method!
• The format() method takes the passed arguments, formats them, and places them in the string where
the placeholders {} are:
Example
Use the format() method to insert numbers into strings:
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, and I am {}"
print(txt.format(age))

• The format() method takes unlimited number of arguments, and are placed into the respective
placeholders:
Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item {} for {} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

• You can use index numbers {0} to be sure the arguments are placed in the correct placeholders:
Example
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
price = 49.95
myorder = "I want to pay {2} dollars for {0} pieces of item {1}."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

Python Escape Characters

Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.
An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.
An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is surrounded by double quotes:
Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded by double quotes:
txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."
• To fix this problem, use the escape character \":
Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would not be allowed:
txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."
Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:
Code Result Code Result Code Result

\' Single Quote \r Carriage Return \f Form Feed

\\ Backslash \t Tab \ooo Octal value
\n New Line \b Backspace \xhh Hex value

Python - String Methods

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case
casefold() Converts string into lower case
center() Returns a centered string
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string
encode() Returns an encoded version of the string
endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value
expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string
find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found
format() Formats specified values in a string
format_map() Formats specified values in a string
index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found
isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric
isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet
isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals
isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits
isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier
islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric
isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable
isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces
istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title
isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case
join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string
ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string
lower() Converts a string into lower case
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string
 maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations
partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value
rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was found
rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was found
rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string
rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string
split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list
startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value
strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string
swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa
title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case
translate() Returns a translated string
upper() Converts a string into upper case
zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

Python - String Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about Strings, and how to use them in Python.
Are you ready for a test?
Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:
Exercise:
Use the len method to print the length of the string.
x = "Hello World"
print( )
Python From Scratch
Python Booleans & Python Operators
Lesson 5 Content

Python Booleans
• Boolean Values
• Evaluate Values and Variables
• Most Values are True
• Some Values are False
• Functions can Return a Boolean
• Python - Booleans Exercises

Python Operators
• Python Arithmetic Operators
• Python Assignment Operators
• Python Comparison Operators
• Python Logical Operators
• Python Identity Operators
• Python Membership Operators
• Python Bitwise Operators
 Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.
Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.
You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two answers, True or False.
When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns the Boolean answer:
Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)
When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:
Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give you True or False in return,
Example
Evaluate a string and a number: Evaluate two variables:
x = "Hello"
print(bool("Hello"))
y = 15
print(bool(15))
print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some
sort of content. Example
Any string is True, except empty strings. The following will return True:
Any number is True, except 0.
bool("abc")
Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except
bool(123)
empty ones.
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])
Some Values are False
In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values, such as (), [], {}, "", the
number 0, and the value None. And of course the value False evaluates to False.

Example One more value, or object in this case, evaluates

The following will return False: to False, and that is if you have an object that is made
from a class with a __len__ function that
bool(False)
returns 0 or False:
bool(None)
Example
bool(0)
class myclass():
bool("")
def __len__(self):
bool(())
return 0
bool([]) myobj = myclass()
bool({}) print(bool(myobj))

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a You can execute code based on the Boolean answer
Boolean Value: of a function:
Example
Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True,
Print the answer of a function: otherwise print "NO!":
def myFunction() :
def myFunction() :
return True
return True
if myFunction():
print(myFunction()) print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")

Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like the isinstance() function, which
can be used to determine if an object is of a certain data type:
Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

Exercise:
The statement below would print a Boolean value, which one?
print(10 > 9)
 Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example : print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Identity operators
• Membership operators
• Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators Python Assignment Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values Assignment operators are used to assign
to perform common mathematical operations: values to variables:

Operator Name Example Operator Example Same As

+ Addition x+y = x=5 x=5
- Subtraction x-y += x += 3 x=x+3
* Multiplication x*y
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
/ Division x/y
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
% Modulus x%y
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
** Exponentiation x ** y
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
// Floor division x // y
//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
Python Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values **= x **= 3 x = x ** 3
to perform common mathematical operations: &= x &= 3 x=x&3
Operator Name Example |= x |= 3 x=x|3
== Equal x == y
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
!= Not equal x != y
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
> Greater than x>y
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Comparison Operators Python Logical Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare Logical operators are used to combine conditional
two values: statements:
Operator Name Example Operator Description Example
== Equal x == y and Returns True if both x < 5 and x < 10
statements are true
!= Not equal x != y
or Returns True if one x < 5 or x < 4
> Greater than x>y of the statements is
true
< Less than x<y
not Reverse the result, not(x < 5 and x < 10)
>= Greater than x >= y returns False if the
or equal to result is true
<= Less than or x <= y
equal to

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are actually the same
object, with the same memory location:
Operator Description Example
is Returns True if both variables are the same object x is y
is not Returns True if both variables are not the same object x is not y

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:
Operator Description Example
in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is present in the object x in y
not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not present in the object x not in y

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:
Operator Name Description
& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill left shift Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed right shift Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the left, and let the
rightmost bits fall off
Python From Scratch
Python Lists
Lesson 6 Content
• Python Lists • Python - Loop Lists
• List • Loop Through a List
• List Items • Loop Through the Index Numbers
• Ordered • Using a While Loop
• Changeable • Looping Using List Comprehension
• Allow Duplicates • Python - List Comprehension
• List Length
• List Items - Data Types • The Syntax
• type() • Condition
• The list() Constructor • Iterable
• Python Collections (Arrays) • Expression

• Python - Access List Items • Python - Sort Lists

• Access Items • Sort List Alphanumerically

• Negative Indexing • Sort Descending
• Range of Indexes • Customize Sort Function
• Range of Negative Indexes • Case Insensitive Sort
• Check if Item Exists • Reverse Order

• Python - Change List Items • Python - Copy Lists

• Change Item Value • Python - Join Lists

• Change a Range of Item Values
• Python - List Methods
• Insert Items
• Python - List Exercises
• Python - Add List Items
• Append Items
• nsert Items
• Extend List
• Add Any Iterable
• Python - Remove List Items
• Remove Specified Item
• Remove Specified Index
• Clear the List
 Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are
Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
Lists are created using square brackets:
Example
Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order will not
change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the items
will not change.

Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it has been
created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))
List Items - Data Types
List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list': <class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
• List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
• Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
• Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate members.
• Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing the
right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in
efficiency or security.
 Python - Access List Items
Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end -1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will By leaving out the end value, the range will go on
start at the first item: to the end of the list:
Example Example
This example returns the items from the This example returns the items from "cherry" to
beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi": the end:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi",
"kiwi", "melon", "mango"] "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[:4]) print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes Check if Item Exists

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the To determine if a specified item is present in a
search from the end of the list: list use the in keyword:
Example Example
This example returns the items from "orange" Check if "apple" is present in the list:
(-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1): thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", if "apple" in thislist:
"kiwi", "melon", "mango"] print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
print(thislist[-4:-1])
 Python - Change List Items
Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values, and refer to the
range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and "watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
If you insert more items than you replace, Example
the new items will be inserted where you Change the second value by replacing it
specified, and the remaining items will with two new values:
move accordingly: thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not match the number
of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the Example

new items will be inserted where you Change the second and third value by replacing
specified, and the remaining items will move it with one value:
accordingly: thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.
 Python - Add List Items
Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object (tuples, sets,
dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
 Python - Remove List Items
Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.
Example
Remove "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example
Remove the first item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example
Delete the entire list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist
Clear the List
The clear() method empties the list.
The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example
Clear the list content:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
 Python - Loop Lists
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop your way through the
list items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[print(x) for x in thislist]
 Python - List Comprehension
List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on the values of an
existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the letter "a" in the name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a conditional test inside:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"] With list comprehension you can do all that
newlist = []
with only one line of code:
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x: Example
newlist.append(x) fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
print(newlist) print(newlist)
The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition Iterable
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the The iterable can be any iterable object, like a
items that valuate to True. list, tuple, set etc.
Example Example
Only accept items that are not "apple": You can use the range() function to create an
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"] iterable:
newlist = [x for x in range(10)]
The condition if x != "apple" will return True for
all elements other than "apple", making the new list Same example, but with a condition:
contain all fruits except "apple". Example
The condition is optional and can be omitted: Accept only numbers lower than 5:
Example newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]
With no if statement:
newlist = [x for x in fruits]
Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which you can manipulate
before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
The expression can also contain conditions, not like a
Example
filter, but as a way to manipulate the outcome:
Set the values in the new list to upper case:
Example
newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]
You can set the outcome to whatever you like: Return "orange" instead of "banana":
Example newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]
Set all values in the new list to 'hello': The expression in the example above says:
"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana
newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]
return orange".
 Python - Sort Lists
Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically: Sort the list numerically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"] thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort() thislist.sort()
print(thislist) print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending: Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"] thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(reverse = True) thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist) print(thislist)

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key = function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number first):
Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Case Insensitive Sort Reverse Order

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting What if you want to reverse the order of a
in all capital letters being sorted before lower case list, regardless of the alphabet?
letters: The reverse() method reverses the current
Example sorting order of the elements.
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"] Example
thislist.sort() Reverse the order of the list items:
print(thislist)
Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
when sorting a list. thislist.reverse()
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use print(thislist)
str.lower as a key function:
Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)
 Python - Copy Lists
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and
changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Python - Copy Lists

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be a reference to list1, and
changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
 Python - Join Lists
Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Example
Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2
print(list3)
Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]
for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

Python List Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about lists, and how to use them in Python.
Are you ready for a test?
Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:
Exercise:
Print the second item in the fruits list.
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print( )
Python From Scratch
Python Tuples
Lesson 7 Content

 Python Tuples  Python - Update Tuples

 Tuple  Change Tuple Values

 Tuple Items  Add Items
 Ordered  Remove Items
 Unchangeable
 Python - Unpack Tuples
 Allow Duplicates
 Tuple Length  Unpacking a Tuple
 Create Tuple With One Item  Using Asterisk*
 Tuple Items - Data Types
 type()  Python - Loop Tuples
 The tuple() Constructor  Loop Through a Tuple
 Python Collections (Arrays)  Loop Through the Index Numbers
 Using a While Loop
 Python - Access Tuples
 Access Tuple Items  Python - Join Tuples
 Negative Indexing  Join Two Tuples
 Range of Indexes  Multiply Tuples
 Range of Negative Indexes
 Check if Item Exists  Python - Tuple Methods
 Python - Tuple Exercises
 Python Tuples
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are List, Set,
and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
Tuples are written with round brackets.
Example
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order will
not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple has been
created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items Create Tuple With One Item
with the same value: To create a tuple with only one item, you have to
add a comma after the item, otherwise Python will
Example
not recognize it as a tuple.
Tuples allow duplicate values:
Example
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
To create a tuple with only one item, you have
print(thistuple)
to add a comma after the item, otherwise
Tuple Length Python will not recognize it as a tuple.
To determine how many items a tuple has, use thistuple = ("apple",)
the len() function: print(type(thistuple))
Example
#NOT a tuple
Print the number of items in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple")
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(type(thistuple))
print(len(thistuple))
Tuple Items - Data Types
Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)
A tuple can contain different data types:
Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:
tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")
type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple': <class 'tuple'>
Example
What is the data type of a tuple?
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(type(mytuple))
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type. Choosing the
right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in
efficiency or security.
 Python - Access Tuple Items
Access Tuple Items Negative Indexing
You can access tuple items by referring to the Negative indexing means start from the end.
index number, inside square brackets: -1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second
Example last item etc.
Print the second item in the tuple: Example
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") Print the last item of the tuple:
print(thistuple[1]) thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
Note: The first item has index 0. print(thistuple[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start By leaving out the end value, the range will go on
at the first item: to the end of the list:
Example Example
This example returns the items from the This example returns the items from
beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi": "cherry" and to the end:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry",
"kiwi", "melon", "mango") "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[:4]) print(thistuple[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[-4:-1])
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
 Python - Update Tuples
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once the tuple is created.
But there are some workarounds.
Change Tuple Values
Example
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to
values. Tuples are unchangeable, or immutable as
change it:
it also is called.
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
But there is a workaround. You can convert the y = list(x)
tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the list y[1] = "kiwi"
back into a tuple. x = tuple(y)
print(x)
Add Items
Since tuples are immutable, they do not have a build-in append() method, but there are other ways to
add items to a tuple.
1. Convert into a list: Just like the workaround 2. Add tuple to a tuple. You are allowed to
add tuples to tuples, so if you want to add
for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a list,
one item, (or many), create a new tuple with
add your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple. the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple:
Example Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and Create a new tuple with the value
convert it back into a tuple: "orange", and add that tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(thistuple) y = ("orange",)
y.append("orange") thistuple += y
thistuple = tuple(y) print(thistuple)

Note: When creating a tuple with only one item, remember to include a comma after the item, otherwise
it will not be identified as a tuple.

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the same workaround as
we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example Or you can delete the tuple completely:
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", Example
and convert it back into a tuple: The del keyword can delete the tuple
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") completely:
y = list(thistuple)
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y.remove("apple")
del thistuple
thistuple = tuple(y)
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because
the tuple no longer exists
 Python - Unpack Tuples
Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a tuple:
Example
Packing a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This is called "unpacking":
Example
Unpacking a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if not, you must use an
asterisk to collect the remaining values as a list.

Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to the variable name and
the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits

print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)
If the asterisk is added to another variable name than the last, Python will assign values to the variable
until the number of values left matches the number of variables left.
Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:
fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits

print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)
 Python - Loop Tuples
Loop Through a Tuple
You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in thistuple:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the tuple items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and loop your way through the
tuple items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
i=0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i=i+1
Python - Join Tuples
Join Two Tuples Multiply Tuples
To join two or more tuples you can use If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given
the + operator: number of times, you can use the * operator:
Example Example
Join two tuples: Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c") fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 2, 3) mytuple = fruits * 2

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2 print(mytuple)

print(tuple3)
 Python - Tuple Methods
Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of where it was found

Python - Tuple Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about tuples, and how to use them in Python.
Are you ready for a test?
Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:
Exercise:
Print the first item in the fruits tuple.
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print( )
Python From Scratch
Python Sets
Lesson 8 Content

 Python Sets
 Access Set Items
 Add Set Items
 Remove Set Items
 Loop Sets
 Join Sets
 Python - Set Methods
 Python - Set Exercises
 Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3 are List, Tuple,
and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be referred to by index or
key.

Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has been created.
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)
 Python - Access Set Items
Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is present in a set, by
using the in keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values: Check if "banana" is present in the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset: print("banana" in thisset)

print(x)
Python - Add Set Items
Add Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example
Add elements from tropical into thisset:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object (tuples, lists,
dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a list to at set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]
thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)
 Python - Remove Set Items
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.

Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.

You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove a random item, so
you cannot be sure what item that gets removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example
Remove a random item by using the pop() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
x = thisset.pop()

print(x)
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know which item that gets
removed.

Example
The clear() method empties the set: The del keyword will delete the set completely:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.clear() del thisset

print(thisset) print(thisset)
 Python - Loop Sets
Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Python - Join Sets

Join Two Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from both sets, or the update()
method that inserts all the items from one set into another:
Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)

Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.
Keep ONLY the Duplicates
The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.intersection_update(y)

print(x)

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items that are present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.intersection(y)

print(z)

Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that are NOT present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

x.symmetric_difference_update(y)

print(x)
The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only the elements that are NOT
present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are present in both:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}

z = x.symmetric_difference(y)

print(z)
 Python - Set Methods
Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two or more sets

difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included in another, specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in other, specified set(s)

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not

issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two sets

symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and another

union() Return a set containing the union of sets

update() Update the set with the union of this set and others

Python - Set Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about sets, and how to use them in Python.
Are you ready for a test?
Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:
Exercise:
Check if "apple" is present in the fruits set.
fruits = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

if "apple" fruits:
print("Yes, apple is a fruit!")
Python From Scratch
Python Dictionaries
Lesson 9 Content
• Python Dictionaries
• Dictionary
• Dictionary Items
• Ordered or Unordered?
• Changeable
• Duplicates Not Allowed
• Dictionary Length
• Dictionary Items - Data Types
• type()
• The dict() Constructor
• Python Collections (Arrays)

• Access Items
• Accessing Items
• Get Keys
• Get Values
• Get Items
• Check if Key Exists

• Change Items
• Change Values
• Update Dictionary

• Add Items
• Adding Items
• Update Dictionary

• Remove Items
• Loop Dictionaries
• Copy Dictionaries
• Nested Dictionaries
• Python - Dictionaries Methods
• Python - Dictionaries Exercises
 Python Dictionaries
Dictionary Items
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.
A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow duplicates.
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:
Example
Create and print a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.
Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using the key name.
Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries are unordered.
When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order
will not change.
Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot refer to an item by using an
index.
Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items after the dictionary has
been created.
Duplicates Not Allowed
Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)
 Python - Access Dictionary Items
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key: There is also a method called get() that will give you the
thisdict = { same result:
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang", Example
"year": 1964, Get the value of the "model" key:
"year": 2020 x = thisdict.get("model")
}
x = thisdict["model"]

Get Keys Get Values

The keys() method will return a list of all the The values() method will return a list of all the
keys in the dictionary. values in the dictionary.
Example Example
Get a list of the keys: Get a list of the values:
x = thisdict.keys() x = thisdict.values()

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, The list of the values is a view of the dictionary,
meaning that any changes done to the meaning that any changes done to the dictionary
dictionary will be reflected in the keys list. will be reflected in the values list.
Example Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, Make a change in the original dictionary, and
and see that the keys list gets updated as see that the values list gets updated as well:
well: car = {
car = { "brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"brand": "Ford",
"year": 1964
"model": "Mustang", }
"year": 1964 x = car.values()
} print(x) #before the change
x = car.keys() car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #before the change print(x) #after the change
car["color"] = "white" Example
print(x) #after the change
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and
see that the values list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.values()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change
Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs
x = thisdict.items()
The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to the
dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = car.items()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")
 Python - Change Dictionary Items
Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018
Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given argument.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})

Python - Add Dictionary Items

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value to it:
Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given argument. If the item does
not exist, the item will be added.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})
 Python - Remove Dictionary Items
Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a random item is
removed instead):
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)
 Python - Loop Dictionaries
Loop Through a Dictionary
You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.
When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary, but there are methods
to return the values as well.
Example Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one: Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict: for x in thisdict:
print(x) print(thisdict[x])
Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:
for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)
Python - Copy Dictionaries
Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will only be a reference to
dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)
 Python - Nested Dictionaries
Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.
Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:

Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three dictionaries:
child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}
 Python Dictionary Methods
Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value

get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist:
insert the key, with the specified value

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

Python Dictionary Exercises

Test Yourself With Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about dictionaries, and how to use them in Python.
Are you ready for a test?
Try to insert the missing part to make the code work as expected:
Exercise:
Use the get method to print the value of the "model" key of the car dictionary.
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print( )
Python From Scratch
Python If ... Else
Lesson 10 Content
• Python Conditions and If statements
• Indentation
• Elif
• Else
• Short Hand If
• Short Hand If ... Else
• And
• Or
• Not
• Nested If
• The pass Statement
• Python - If ... Else Exercises
 Python If ... Else
Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
• Equals: a == b
• Not Equals: a != b
• Less than: a < b
• Less than or equal to: a <= b
• Greater than: a > b
• Greater than or equal to: a >= b
These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements" and loops.
An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.
Example
If statement:
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if statement to test
whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33, and so we
print to screen that "b is greater than a".
Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope in the code. Other
programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif
The elif keyword is Python's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this
condition".
Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the elif condition is true, so we print
to screen that "a and b are equal".
Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the elif condition is not true, so
we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".
You can also have an else without the elif:
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the if statement.
Example
One line if statement:
if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on the same
line:
Example
One line if else statement:
a = 2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")
And Or
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used
used to combine conditional statements: to combine conditional statements:
Example Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater
than a: than c:
a = 200 a = 200
b = 33 b = 33
c = 500 c = 500
if a > b and c > a: if a > b or a > c:
print("Both conditions are True") print("At least one of the
conditions is True")
Not
The not keyword is a logical operator, and is used to reverse the result of the conditional statement:
Example
Test if a is NOT greater than b:
a = 33
b = 200
if not a > b:
print("a is NOT greater than b")

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.
Example
x = 41
if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
pass

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Print "Hello World" if a is greater than b.
a = 50
b = 10
a b
print("Hello World")
Python From Scratch
Python While Loops & For Loops
Lesson 11 Content
• Python While Loops
• Python Loops
• The while Loop
• The break Statement
• The continue Statement
• The else Statement
• Python - While Loops Exercises

• Python For Loops

• Looping Through a String
• The break Statement
• The continue Statement
• The range() Function
• Else in For Loop
• Nested Loops
• The pass Statement
• Python - For Loops Exercises
 Python While Loops
Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:
• while loops
• for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.
Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.
The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to define an indexing
variable, i, which we set to 1.
The break Statement The continue Statement
With the break statement we can stop the loop With the continue statement we can stop the current
even if the while condition is true: iteration, and continue with the next:
Example Example
Exit the loop when i is 3: Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:
i = 1 i = 0
while i < 6: while i < 6:
print(i) i += 1
if i == 3: if i == 3:
break continue
i += 1 print(i)
The else Statement
With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no longer is true:
Example
Print a message once the condition is false:
i = 1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Print i as long as i is less than 6.
i = 1
i < 6
print(i)
i += 1
 Python For Loops
Python For Loops
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set, or a
string).
This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an iterator
method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.
With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set etc.
Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.
Looping Through a String
Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
print(x)

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items:
Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with the next:
Example
Do not print banana:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
The range() Function
To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use the range() function,
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and increments by 1 (by
default), and ends at a specified number.
Example
Using the range() function:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.
The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to specify the starting value
by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):
Example
Using the start parameter:
for x in range(2, 6):
print(x)

The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is possible to specify the
increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2, 30, 3):
Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):
for x in range(2, 30, 3):
print(x)

Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the loop is finished:
Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Note: The else block will NOT be executed if the loop is stopped by a break statement.
Example
Break the loop when x is 3, and see what happens with the else block:
for x in range(6):
if x == 3: break
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:
adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Loop through the items in the fruits list.
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x fruits
print(x)
Python From Scratch
Python Functions & Lambda
Lesson 12 Content
• Python Functions • Python Lambda

• Creating a Function • Syntax

• Calling a Function • Why Use Lambda Functions?

• Arguments • Python - Lambda Exercises

• Parameters or Arguments?
• Number of Arguments
• Arbitrary Arguments, *args
• Keyword Arguments
• Arbitrary Keyword Arguments,
**kwargs
• Default Parameter Value
• Passing a List as an Argument
• Return Values
• The pass Statement
• Recursion
• Python - Functions Exercises
 Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
A function can return data as a result.
Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.
Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the function is called, we pass
along a first name, which is used inside the function to print the full name:
Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")

Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

Parameters or Arguments?
The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing: information that are passed into a
function.
From a function's perspective:
A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.
An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.
Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments. Meaning that if your
function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:
def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:
def my_function(fname, lname):
print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function, add a * before the
parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items accordingly:
Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:
def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.
This way the order of the arguments does not matter.
Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python documentations.
Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs
If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your function, add two
asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the items accordingly:
Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the parameter name:
def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.
If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:
Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list, dictionary etc.), and it will
be treated as the same data type inside the function.
E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the function:
Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
my_function(fruits)

Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:
Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x
print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))
The pass Statement
function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a function definition with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
def myfunction():
pass

Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.
Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function calls itself.
This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a result.
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing a
function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor power.
However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach
to programming.
In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself ("recurse"). We use
the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time we recurse. The recursion ends when the
condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is 0).
To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best way to find out is by
testing and modifying it.
Example
Recursion Example
def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Create a function named my_function.

:
print("Hello from a function")
 Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.
A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression
The expression is executed and the result is returned:
Example
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:
x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example
Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:
x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Example
Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:
x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous function inside another
function.
Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will be multiplied with
an unknown number:
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you send in:
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))
 Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the number you send in:
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short period of time.

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Create a lambda function that takes one parameter (a) and returns it.

x =
Python From Scratch
Python Arrays, Classes and Objects
Lesson 13 Content
• Python Arrays
• Arrays
• What is an Array?
• Access the Elements of an Array
• The Length of an Array
• Looping Array Elements
• Adding Array Elements
• Removing Array Elements
• Python - Array Methods
• Python - Arrays Exercises

• Python Classes/Objects
• Create a Class
• Create Object
• The __init__() Function
• The __str__() Function
• Object Methods
• The self Parameter
• Modify Object Properties
• Delete Object Properties
• Delete Objects
• The pass Statement
• Python - Classes and Objects Exercises
 Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.
Arrays
Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work with arrays in Python
you will have to import a library, like the NumPy library.
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:
Example
Create an array containing car names:
cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.
If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single variables could
look like this:
car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if you had not 3
cars, but 300?
The solution is an array!
An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by referring to an
index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.
Example
Get the value of the first array item:
x = cars[0]
Example
Modify the value of the first array item:
cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an array).
Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:
x = len(cars)
Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.
Looping Array Elements
You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.
Example
Print each item in the cars array:
for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.
Example
Add one more element to the cars array:
cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:
cars.pop(1)
You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":
cars.remove("Volvo")
Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified value.

Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.
Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list
clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove() Removes the first item with the specified value
reverse() Reverses the order of the list
sort() Sorts the list
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be used instead.
 Python Classes and Objects
Python Classes/Objects
Python is an object oriented programming language.
Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.
A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:
Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:
class MyClass:
x = 5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:
Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:
p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not really useful in real life
applications.
To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__() function.
All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the class is being initiated.
Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other operations that are necessary
to do when the object is being created:
Example
Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name and age:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create a new
object.
The __str__() Function
The __str__() function controls what should be returned when the class object is represented as a string.
If the __str__() function is not set, the string representation of the object is returned:
Example
The string representation of an object WITHOUT the __str__() function:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1)
Example
The string representation of an object WITH the __str__() function:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def __str__(self):
return f"{self.name}({self.age})"

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print(p1)

Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belong to the object.
Let us create a method in the Person class:
Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)

p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access
variables that belong to the class.
The self Parameter
The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to access variables that
belongs to the class.
It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be the first parameter
of any function in the class:
Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:
class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age
def myfunc(abc):
print(“Hello my name is “ + abc.name)
p1 = Person(“John”, 36)
p1.myfunc()

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:
Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:
p1.age = 40

Delete Object Properties Delete Objects

You can delete properties on objects by using You can delete objects by using
the del keyword: the del keyword:
Example Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object: Delete the p1 object:
del p1.age del p1

The pass Statement

class definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a class definition with no content, put
in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
class Person:
pass

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
Create a class named MyClass:
MyClass:
x = 5
Python From Scratch
Python Inheritance & Iterators
Lesson 14 Content
• Python Inheritance
• Create a Parent Class
• Create a Child Class
• Add the __init__() Function
• Use the super() Function
• Add Properties
• Add Methods

• Python Iterators
• Iterator vs Iterable
• Looping Through an Iterator
• Create an Iterator
• StopIteration
 Python Inheritance
Python Inheritance
Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and properties from another class.
Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.
Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other class:
Example
Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and a printname method:
class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
self.firstname = fname
self.lastname = lname

def printname(self):
print(self.firstname, self.lastname)

#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
x.printname()

Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the parent class as a parameter
when creating the child class:
Example
Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods from the Person class:
class Student(Person):
pass

Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any other properties or methods to the class.

Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person class.
Example
Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:
x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
x.printname()
Add the __init__() Function
So far we have created a child class that inherits the properties and methods from its parent.
We want to add the __init__() function to the child class (instead of the pass keyword).
Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being used to create a new
object.
Example
Add the __init__() function to the Student class:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.

When you add the __init__() function, the child class will no longer inherit the parent's __init__() function.
Note: The child's __init__() function overrides the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function.
To keep the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function, add a call to the parent's __init__() function:
Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the inheritance of the parent class,
and we are ready to add functionality in the __init__() function.

Use the super() Function

Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the methods and properties
from its parent:
Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

By using the super() function, you do not have to use the name of the parent element, it will
automatically inherit the methods and properties from its parent.
Add Properties
Example
Add a property called graduationyear to the Student class:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = 2019
In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into the Student class when
creating student objects. To do so, add another parameter in the __init__() function:
Example
Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

Add Methods
Example
Add a method called welcome to the Student class:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
self.graduationyear = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", self.firstname, self.lastname, "to the class of",
self.graduationyear)

If you add a method in the child class with the same name as a function in the parent class, the
inheritance of the parent method will be overridden.

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
What is the correct syntax to create a class named Student that will inherit properties and methods
from a class named Person?
class :
 Python Iterators
Python Iterators
An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.
An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can traverse through all the values.
Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator protocol, which consist of
the methods __iter__() and __next__().
Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are iterable containers which you can
get an iterator from.
All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:
Example
Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each value:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example
Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:
mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:
Example
Iterate the values of a tuple:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Example
Iterate the characters of a string:
mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

The for loop actually creates an iterator object and executes the next() method for each loop.
Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the methods __iter__() and __next__() to
your object.
As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a function called __init__(),
which allows you to do some initializing when the object is being created.
The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.), but must always return the
iterator object itself.
The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the next item in the sequence.
Example
Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will increase by one
(returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self
def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next() statements, or if it was used in
a for loop.
To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use the StopIteration statement.
In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error if the iteration is done a
specified number of times:
Example
Stop after 20 iterations:
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self
def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)
for x in myiter:
print(x)
Python From Scratch
Python Scope & Modules & Datetime
Lesson 15 Content
• Python Scope
• Local Scope
• Function Inside Function
• Global Scope
• Naming Variables
• Global Keyword
• Python - Scope Exercises

• Python Scope
• What is a Module?
• Create a Module
• Use a Module
• Variables in Module
• Naming a Module
• Re-naming a Module
• Built-in Modules
• Using the dir() Function
• Import From Module
• Python - Modules Exercises

• Python Dates
• Date Output
• Creating Date Objects
• The strftime() Method
• Python - Datetime Exercises
 Python Scope
A variable is only available from inside the region it is created. This is called scope.

Local Scope
A variable created inside a function belongs to the local scope of that function, and can only be used
inside that function.
Example
A variable created inside a function is available inside that function:
def myfunc():
x = 300
print(x)

myfunc()

Function Inside Function

As explained in the example above, the variable x is not available outside the function, but it is
available for any function inside the function:
Example
The local variable can be accessed from a function within the function:
def myfunc():
x = 300
def myinnerfunc():
print(x)
myinnerfunc()

myfunc()

Global Scope
A variable created in the main body of the Python code is a global variable and belongs to the global
scope.
Global variables are available from within any scope, global and local.
Example
A variable created outside of a function is global and can be used by anyone:
x = 300

def myfunc():
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)
Naming Variables
If you operate with the same variable name inside and outside of a function, Python will treat them as
two separate variables, one available in the global scope (outside the function) and one available in the
local scope (inside the function):
Example
The function will print the local x, and then the code will print the global x:
x = 300

def myfunc():
x = 200
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

Global Keyword
If you need to create a global variable, but are stuck in the local scope, you can use the global keyword.
The global keyword makes the variable global.
Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:
def myfunc():
global x
x = 300

myfunc()

print(x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to make a change to a global variable inside a function.
Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable by using
the global keyword:
x = 300

def myfunc():
global x
x = 200

myfunc()

print(x)
 Python Modules
What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.
A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file extension .py:
Example
Save this code in a file named mymodule.py
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:
Example
Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:
import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")
Note: When using a function from a module, use the syntax: module_name.function_name.

Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all types (arrays,
dictionaries, objects etc):
Example
Save this code in the file mymodule.py
person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file extension .py
Re-naming a Module Built-in Modules
You can create an alias when you import a There are several built-in modules in Python,
module, by using the as keyword: which you can import whenever you like.
Example Example
Create an alias for mymodule called mx: Import and use the platform module:
import mymodule as mx import platform

a = mx.person1["age"] x = platform.system()
print(a) print(x)

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names) in a module.
The dir() function:
Example
List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:
import platform
x = dir(platform)
print(x)

Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you create yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using the from keyword.
Example
The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}
Example
Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:
from mymodule import person1
print (person1["age"])

Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name when referring to
elements in the module. Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["age"]

Test Yourself With Exercises

Exercise:
What is the correct syntax to import a module named "mymodule"?
mymodule
 Python Datetime
Python Dates
A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but we can import a module named datetime to work with
dates as date objects.
Example
Import the datetime module and display the current date:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

Date Output
When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:
2023-01-28 13:47:51.369249
The date contains year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond.
The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date object.
Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this chapter:
Example
Return the year and name of weekday:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))

Creating Date Objects

To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of the datetime module.
The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year, month, day.
Example
Create a date object:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)

print(x)

The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour, minute, second, microsecond,
tzone), but they are optional, and has a default value of 0, (None for timezone).
The strftime() Method
The datetime object has a method for formatting date objects into readable strings.
The method is called strftime(), and takes one parameter, format, to specify the format of the returned
string:
Example
Display the name of the month:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)

print(x.strftime("%B"))

A reference of all the legal format codes:

Directive Description Example

%a Weekday, short version Wed

%A Weekday, full version Wednesday

%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 3

%d Day of month 01-31 31

%b Month name, short version Dec

%B Month name, full version December

%m Month as a number 01-12 12

%y Year, short version, without century 18

%Y Year, full version 2018

%H Hour 00-23 17

%I Hour 00-12 05

%p AM/PM PM

%M Minute 00-59 41

%S Second 00-59 08

%f Microsecond 000000-999999 548513

%z UTC offset +0100

%Z Timezone CST
%j Day number of year 001-366 365

%U Week number of year, Sunday as the first 52

day of week, 00-53

%W Week number of year, Monday as the 52

first day of week, 00-53

%c Local version of date and time Mon Dec 31 17:41:00 2018

%C Century 20

%x Local version of date 12/31/18

%X Local version of time 17:41:00

%% A % character %

%G ISO 8601 year 2018

%u ISO 8601 weekday (1-7) 1

%V ISO 8601 weeknumber (01-53) 01

Python From Scratch
Python Math & JSON
Lesson 16 Content
• Python Math
• Built-in Math Functions
• The Math Module
• Python - Math Exercises

• JSON in Python
• Parse JSON - Convert from JSON to Python
• Convert from Python to JSON
• Format the Result
• Order the Result
• Python - JSON Exercises
 Python Math
Python has a set of built-in math functions, including an extensive math module, that allows you to
perform mathematical tasks on numbers.

Built-in Math Functions

The min() and max() functions can be used to find the lowest or highest value in an iterable:
Example
x = min(5, 10, 25)
y = max(5, 10, 25)
print(x)
print(y)

The abs() function returns the absolute (positive) value of the specified number:
Example
x = abs(-7.25)
print(x)

The pow(x, y) function returns the value of x to the power of y (xy).

Example
Return the value of 4 to the power of 3 (same as 4 * 4 * 4):
x = pow(4, 3)
print(x)

The Math Module

Python has also a built-in module called math, which extends the list of mathematical functions.
To use it, you must import the math module:
import math
When you have imported the math module, you can start using methods and constants of the module.
The math.sqrt() method for example, returns the square root of a number:
Example
import math
x = math.sqrt(64)
print(x)

The math.ceil() method rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and the math.floor() method
rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer, and returns the result:
Example
import math
x = math.ceil(1.4)
y = math.floor(1.4)
print(x) # returns 2
print(y) # returns 1

The math.pi constant, returns the value of PI (3.14...):

Example
import math
x = math.pi
print(x)
 Python JSON
JSON is a syntax for storing and exchanging data.
JSON is text, written with JavaScript object notation.

JSON in Python
Python has a built-in package called json, which can be used to work with JSON data.
Example
Import the json module:
import json

Parse JSON - Convert from JSON to Python

If you have a JSON string, you can parse it by using the json.loads() method.
The result will be a Python dictionary.
Example
Convert from JSON to Python:
import json

# some JSON:
x = '{ "name":"John", "age":30, "city":"New York"}'

# parse x:
y = json.loads(x)

# the result is a Python dictionary:

print(y["age"])

Convert from Python to JSON

If you have a Python object, you can convert it into a JSON string by using the json.dumps() method.
Example
Convert from Python to JSON:
import json

# a Python object (dict):

x = {
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"city": "New York"
}

# convert into JSON:

y = json.dumps(x)

# the result is a JSON string:

print(y)
You can convert Python objects of the following types, into JSON strings:
• dict
• list
• tuple
• string
• int
• float
• True
• False
• None

Example
Convert Python objects into JSON strings, and print the values:
import json

print(json.dumps({"name": "John", "age": 30}))

print(json.dumps(["apple", "bananas"]))
print(json.dumps(("apple", "bananas")))
print(json.dumps("hello"))
print(json.dumps(42))
print(json.dumps(31.76))
print(json.dumps(True))
print(json.dumps(False))
print(json.dumps(None))

When you convert from Python to JSON, Python objects are converted into the JSON (JavaScript)
equivalent:
Python JSON
dict Object

list Array

tuple Array

str String

int Number

float Number

True true

False false

None null
 Example
Convert a Python object containing all the legal data types:
import json

x = {
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"married": True,
"divorced": False,
"children": ("Ann","Billy"),
"pets": None,
"cars": [
{"model": "BMW 230", "mpg": 27.5},
{"model": "Ford Edge", "mpg": 24.1}
]
}

print(json.dumps(x))

Format the Result

The example above prints a JSON string, but it is not very easy to read, with no indentations and line
breaks.
The json.dumps() method has parameters to make it easier to read the result:
Example
Use the indent parameter to define the numbers of indents:
json.dumps(x, indent=4)

You can also define the separators, default value is (", ", ": "), which means using a comma and a space
to separate each object, and a colon and a space to separate keys from values:
Example
Use the separators parameter to change the default separator:
json.dumps(x, indent=4, separators=(". ", " = "))

Order the Result

The json.dumps() method has parameters to order the keys in the result:
Example
Use the sort_keys parameter to specify if the result should be sorted or not:
json.dumps(x, indent=4, sort_keys=True)
Python From Scratch
Python RegEx & PIP
Lesson 17 Content
• Python RegEx
• RegEx Module
• RegEx in Python
• RegEx Functions
• Metacharacters
• Special Sequences
• Sets
• The findall() Function
• The search() Function
• The split() Function
• The sub() Function
• Match Object

• Python PIP
• What is PIP?
• What is a Package?
• Check if PIP is Installed
• Install PIP
• Download a Package
• Using a Package
• Find Packages
• Remove a Package
• List Packages
 Python RegEx
A RegEx, or Regular Expression, is a sequence of characters that forms a search pattern.
RegEx can be used to check if a string contains the specified search pattern.

RegEx Module
Python has a built-in package called re, which can be used to work with Regular Expressions.
Import the re module:
import re

RegEx in Python
When you have imported the re module, you can start using regular expressions:
Example
Search the string to see if it starts with "The" and ends with "Spain":
import re
txt = "The rain in Spain"
x = re.search("^The.*Spain$", txt)

RegEx Functions
The re module offers a set of functions that allows us to search a string for a match:
Function Description
findall Returns a list containing all matches
search Returns a Match object if there is a match anywhere in the string
split Returns a list where the string has been split at each match
sub Replaces one or many matches with a string

Metacharacters
Metacharacters are characters with a special meaning:
Character Description Example
[] A set of characters "[a-m]"
\ Signals a special sequence (can also be used to escape special characters) "\d"
. Any character (except newline character) "he..o"
^ Starts with "^hello"
$ Ends with "planet$"
* Zero or more occurrences "he.*o"
+ One or more occurrences "he.+o"
? Zero or one occurrences "he.?o"
{} Exactly the specified number of occurrences "he.{2}o"
| Either or "falls|stays"
() Capture and group
Special Sequences
A special sequence is a \ followed by one of the characters in the list below, and has a special meaning:
Character Description Example
\A Returns a match if the specified characters are at the beginning of "\AThe"
the string
\b Returns a match where the specified characters are at the beginning r"\bain"
or at the end of a word r"ain\b"
(the "r" in the beginning is making sure that the string is being
treated as a "raw string")
\B Returns a match where the specified characters are present, but r"\Bain"
NOT at the beginning (or at the end) of a word r"ain\B"
(the "r" in the beginning is making sure that the string is being
treated as a "raw string")
\d Returns a match where the string contains digits (numbers from 0- "\d"
9)
\D Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain digits "\D"
\s Returns a match where the string contains a white space character "\s"
\S Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain a white space "\S"
character
\w Returns a match where the string contains any word characters "\w"
(characters from a to Z, digits from 0-9, and the underscore _
character)
\W Returns a match where the string DOES NOT contain any word "\W"
characters
\Z Returns a match if the specified characters are at the end of the "Spain\Z"
string

Sets
A set is a set of characters inside a pair of square brackets [] with a special meaning:
Set Description
[arn] Returns a match where one of the specified characters (a, r, or n) is present
[a-n] Returns a match for any lower case character, alphabetically
between a and n
[^arn] Returns a match for any character EXCEPT a, r, and n
[0123] Returns a match where any of the specified digits (0, 1, 2, or 3) are present
[0-9] Returns a match for any digit between 0 and 9
[0-5][0-9] Returns a match for any two-digit numbers from 00 and 59
[a-zA-Z] Returns a match for any character alphabetically between a and z, lower
case OR upper case
[+] In sets, +, *, ., |, (), $,{} has no special meaning, so [+] means: return a
match for any + character in the string
The findall() Function
The findall() function returns a list containing all matches.
Example
Print a list of all matches:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("ai", txt)
print(x)

The list contains the matches in the order they are found.
If no matches are found, an empty list is returned:
Example
Return an empty list if no match was found:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.findall("Portugal", txt)
print(x)

The search() Function

The search() function searches the string for a match, and returns a Match object if there is a match.
If there is more than one match, only the first occurrence of the match will be returned:
Example
Search for the first white-space character in the string:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("\s", txt)

print("The first white-space character is located in position:", x.start())

If no matches are found, the value None is returned:

Example
Make a search that returns no match:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("Portugal", txt)
print(x)
The split() Function
The split() function returns a list where the string has been split at each match:
Example
Split at each white-space character:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", txt)
print(x)

You can control the number of occurrences by specifying the maxsplit parameter:
Example
Split the string only at the first occurrence:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.split("\s", txt, 1)
print(x)

The sub() Function

The sub() function replaces the matches with the text of your choice:
Example
Replace every white-space character with the number 9:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", txt)
print(x)

You can control the number of replacements by specifying the count parameter:
Example
Replace the first 2 occurrences:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.sub("\s", "9", txt, 2)
print(x)
Match Object
A Match Object is an object containing information about the search and the result.
Note: If there is no match, the value None will be returned, instead of the Match Object.
Example
Do a search that will return a Match Object:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search("ai", txt)
print(x) #this will print an object

The Match object has properties and methods used to retrieve information about the search, and the
result:
.span() returns a tuple containing the start-, and end positions of the match.
.string returns the string passed into the function
.group() returns the part of the string where there was a match
Example
Print the position (start- and end-position) of the first match occurrence.
The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case "S":
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.span())

Example
Print the string passed into the function:
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.string)

Example
Print the part of the string where there was a match.
The regular expression looks for any words that starts with an upper case "S":
import re

txt = "The rain in Spain"

x = re.search(r"\bS\w+", txt)
print(x.group())

Note: If there is no match, the value None will be returned, instead of the Match Object.
 Python PIP
What is PIP?
PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or modules if you like.
Note: If you have Python version 3.4 or later, PIP is included by default.

What is a Package?
A package contains all the files you need for a module.
Modules are Python code libraries you can include in your project.

Check if PIP is Installed

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:
Example
Check PIP version:
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip --version

Install PIP
If you do not have PIP installed, you can download and install it from this page: https://pypi.org/project/pip/

Download a Package
Downloading a package is very easy.
Open the command line interface and tell PIP to download the package you want.
Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and type the following:
Example
Download a package named "camelcase":
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip install camelcase

Now you have downloaded and installed your first package!

Using a Package
Once the package is installed, it is ready to use.
Import the "camelcase" package into your project.
Example
Import and use "camelcase":
import camelcase

c = camelcase.CamelCase()

txt = "hello world"

print(c.hump(txt))

Find Packages
Find more packages at https://pypi.org/.
Remove a Package
Use the uninstall command to remove a package:
Example
Uninstall the package named "camelcase":
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip uninstall
camelcase

The PIP Package Manager will ask you to confirm that you want to remove the camelcase package:
Uninstalling camelcase-02.1:
Would remove:
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-
packages\camecase-0.2-py3.6.egg-info
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-
packages\camecase\*
Proceed (y/n)?

Press y and the package will be removed.

List Packages
Use the list command to list all the packages installed on your system:
Example
List installed packages:
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-32\Scripts>pip list

Result:
Package Version
-----------------------
camelcase 0.2
mysql-connector 2.1.6
pip 18.1
pymongo 3.6.1
setuptools 39.0.1
Python From Scratch
Python Try Except & User Input & String Formatting
Lesson 18 Content
• Python Try Except
• Exception Handling
• Many Exceptions
• Else
• Finally
• Raise an exception

• Python User Input

• Python 3.6
• Python 2.7

• Python String Formatting

• String format()
• Multiple Values
• Index Numbers
• Named Indexes
 Python Try Except
The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.
The except block lets you handle the error.
The else block lets you execute code when there is no error.
The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and except blocks.

Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and generate an error
message.
These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:
Example
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:
try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.
Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:
Example
This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:
print(x)

Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to execute a special block of
code for a special kind of error:
Example
Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other errors:
try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no errors were raised:
Example
In this example, the try block does not generate any error:
try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")
Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises an error or not.
Example
try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:

Example
Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:
try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
try:
f.write("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
f.close()
except:
print("Something went wrong when opening the file")

The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.

Raise an exception
As a Python developer you can choose to throw an exception if a condition occurs.
To throw (or raise) an exception, use the raise keyword.
Example
Raise an error and stop the program if x is lower than 0:
x = -1

if x < 0:
raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")

The raise keyword is used to raise an exception.

You can define what kind of error to raise, and the text to print to the user.
Example
Raise a TypeError if x is not an integer:
x = "hello"

if not type(x) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integers are allowed")
 Python User Input
User Input

Python allows for user input.

That means we are able to ask the user for input.

The method is a bit different in Python 3.6 than Python 2.7.

Python 3.6 uses the input() method.

Python 2.7 uses the raw_input() method.

The following example asks for the username, and when you entered the username, it gets printed on
the screen:
Python 3.6
username = input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

Python 2.7
username = raw_input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

Python stops executing when it comes to the input() function, and continues when the user has given
some input.
 Python String Formatting
To make sure a string will display as expected, we can format the result with the format() method.
String format()
The format() method allows you to format selected parts of a string.
Sometimes there are parts of a text that you do not control, maybe they come from a database, or user
input?
To control such values, add placeholders (curly
brackets {}) in the text, and run the values through You can add parameters inside the curly
the format() method: brackets to specify how to convert the value:
Example Example
Add a placeholder where you want to display the Format the price to be displayed as a
price: number with two decimals:
price = 49 txt = "The price is {:.2f}
txt = "The price is {} dollars" dollars"
print(txt.format(price))

Multiple Values And add more placeholders:

If you want to use more values, just add
Example
more values to the format() method: quantity = 3
print(txt.format(price, itemno, itemno = 567
count)) price = 49
myorder = "I want {} pieces of item number {}
for {:.2f} dollars."
print(myorder.format(quantity, itemno, price))

Index Numbers
You can use index numbers (a number inside the curly brackets {0}) to be sure the values are placed in
the correct placeholders: Also, if you want to refer to the same value
Example more than once, use the index number:
quantity = 3
itemno = 567
Example
price = 49 age = 36
myorder = "I want {0} pieces of item name = "John"
number {1} for {2:.2f} dollars." txt = "His name is {1}. {1} is {0}
print(myorder.format(quantity, years old."
itemno, price)) print(txt.format(age, name))

Named Indexes
You can also use named indexes by entering a name inside the curly brackets {carname}, but then you
must use names when you pass the parameter values txt.format(carname = "Ford"):
Example
myorder = "I have a {carname}, it is a {model}."
print(myorder.format(carname = "Ford", model = "Mustang"))