Python Introduction

What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum, and released in 1991.

It is used for:

 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.

What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very
quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.

Good to know
 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with
anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write
Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
 Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when
managing larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.

Example
print("Hello, World!")

Python Getting Started

Python Install
Many PCs and Macs will have python already installed.

To check if you have python installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar
for Python or run the following on the Command Line (cmd.exe):

C:\Users\Your Name>python --version

To check if you have python installed on a Linux or Mac, then on linux open the
command line or on Mac open the Terminal and type:

python --version

If you find that you do not have Python installed on your computer, then you
can download it for free from the following website: https://www.python.org/

Python Quickstart
Python is an interpreted programming language, this means that as a developer
you write Python (.py) files in a text editor and then put those files into the
python interpreter to be executed.

The way to run a python file is like this on the command line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py

Where "helloworld.py" is the name of your python file.

Let's write our first Python file, called helloworld.py, which can be done in any
text editor.

helloworld.py

print("Hello, World!")

Simple as that. Save your file. Open your command line, navigate to the
directory where you saved your file, and run:

C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py

The output should read:

Hello, World!

Python Version
To check the Python version of the editor, you can find it by importing
the sys module:

Example
Check the Python version of the editor:

import sys

print(sys.version)

The Python Command Line

To test a short amount of code in python sometimes it is quickest and easiest
not to write the code in a file. This is made possible because Python can be run
as a command line itself.

Type the following on the Windows, Mac or Linux command line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python

Or, if the "python" command did not work, you can try "py":

C:\Users\Your Name>py

From there you can write any python, including our hello world example from
earlier in the tutorial:
C:\Users\Your Name>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit
(Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> print("Hello, World!")

Which will write "Hello, World!" in the command line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit
(Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> print("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!

Whenever you are done in the python command line, you can simply type the
following to quit the python command line interface:

exit()

Python Syntax
Execute Python Syntax
As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing
directly in the Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

he number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is

four, but it has to be at least one.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

you have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

ou have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code, otherwise
Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")
Python has no command for declaring a variable.

You will learn more about variables in the Python Variables chapter.

Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.

Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:

Example
Comments in Python:

#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")

Python Comments
Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example

#This is a comment
print("Hello, World
Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of
the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a commen

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used
to prevent Python from executing code:

Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Multiline Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multiline comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

Example
#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you
can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment
inside it:

Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")

As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but
then ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.
Python Variables

Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example

x = 5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set.

Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.

Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0
Get the Type
You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'

Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.

Example
This will create two variables:

a = 4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a

Python - Variable Names

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

 A variable name cannot start with a number
  A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
 A variable name cannot be any of the Python keywords.

Example
Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"

Example
Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"

_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Multi Words Variable Names

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"

Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"
Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"

Python Variables - Assign

Multiple Values
Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or
else you will get an error.

One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to
extract the values into variables. This is called unpacking.

Example
Unpack a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Python - Output Variables

Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.

Example
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)

In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:

Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)
Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result
would be "Pythonisawesome".

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x = 5
y = 10
print(x + y)

In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with
the + operator, Python will give you an error:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate
them with commas, which even support different data types:

Example
x = 5
y = "John"
print(x, y)

Python - Global Variables

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples in the
previous pages) are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.

Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)
myfunc()

Try it Yourself »

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local,
and can only be used inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a
function.
Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable
by using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different
things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example
Print the data type of the variable x:

x = 5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex
x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", frozenset

"cherry"})

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

x = None NoneType
Setting the Specific Data Type
If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example Data Type Try it

x = str("Hello World") str Try it »

x = int(20) int Try it »

x = float(20.5) float Try it »

x = complex(1j) complex Try it »

x = list(("apple", "banana", list Try it »

"cherry"))

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", tuple Try it »

"cherry"))

x = range(6) range Try it »

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict Try it »

x = set(("apple", "banana", set Try it »

"cherry"))
x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", frozenset Try it »
"cherry"))

x = bool(5) bool Try it »

x = bytes(5) bytes Try it »

x = bytearray(5) bytearray Try it »

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »
Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.

Example
Integers:

x = 1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.

Example
Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.
Example
Floats:

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example
Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Try it Yourself »

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

Example
Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
#convert from int to float:
a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but Python
has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.
Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

(by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the string
represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal
or a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

Try it Yourself »

Example
Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Try it Yourself »

Example
Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

Python Strings
Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Try it Yourself »

Quotes Inside Quotes

You can use quotes inside a string, as long as they don't match the quotes
surrounding the string:

Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')

Try it Yourself »

Assign String to a Variable

Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Try it Yourself »
Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Try it Yourself »

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays
of bytes representing unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is
simply a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Try it Yourself »
Looping Through a String
Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

Try it Yourself »

Learn more about For Loops in our Python For Loops chapter.

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Try it Yourself »

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)
Try it Yourself »

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

Try it Yourself »

Learn more about If statements in our Python If...Else chapter.

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use
the keyword not in.

Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

Try it Yourself »

Use it in an if statement:

Example
print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")

Try it Yourself »
Python - Slicing Strings
Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part
of the string.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])

Try it Yourself »

Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])
Try it Yourself »

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:

Example
Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])

Python - Modify Strings

ython has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
ExampleGet your own Python Server
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())

Try it Yourself »

Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.lower())

Try it Yourself »

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you
want to remove this space.

Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))

Try it Yourself »

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator
becomes the list items.

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
Python - String Concatenation
String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + b
print(c)

Try it Yourself »

Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c = a + " " + b
print(c)

Python - Format - Strings

String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and
numbers like this:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

Try it Yourself »

But we can combine strings and numbers by using f-strings or

the format() method!
F-Strings
F-String was introduced in Python 3.6, and is now the preferred way of
formatting strings.

To specify a string as an f-string, simply put an f in front of the string literal,

and add curly brackets {} as placeholders for variables and other operations.

Example
Create an f-string:

age = 36
txt = f"My name is John, I am {age}"
print(txt)

Placeholders and Modifiers

A placeholder can contain variables, operations, functions, and modifiers to
format the value.

Example
Add a placeholder for the price variable:

price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price} dollars"
print(txt)

Try it Yourself »

A placeholder can include a modifier to format the value.

A modifier is included by adding a colon : followed by a legal formatting type,

like .2f which means fixed point number with 2 decimals:

Example
Display the price with 2 decimals:

price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price:.2f} dollars"
print(txt)

Try it Yourself »

A placeholder can contain Python code, like math operations:

Example
Perform a math operation in the placeholder, and return the result:

txt = f"The price is {20 * 59} dollars"

print(txt)

Python - Escape Characters

Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded
by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

Try it Yourself »

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would
not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Try it Yourself »

Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:
Code Result Try it

\' Single Quote Try it »

\\ Backslash Try it »

\n New Line Try it »

\r Carriage Return Try it »

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Python - String Methods

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original
string.
Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs

in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified

value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the position of where it was found

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

 the position of where it was found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are

alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the

alphabet

isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii

characters

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are

decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower

case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are

numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are

printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are

 whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper

case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the

string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three

parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced

with a specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns

the last position of where it was found
rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns
the last position of where it was found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three

parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and

returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and

returns a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified

value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and

vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper

 case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at

the beginning

Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns
the Boolean answer:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

Try it Yourself »

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:

Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Try it Yourself »

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,

Example
Evaluate a string and a number:

print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Try it Yourself »

Example
Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.

Any string is True, except empty strings.

Any number is True, except 0.

Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.
Example
The following will return True:

bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Try it Yourself »

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values,
such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the
value False evaluates to False.

Example
The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})

Try it Yourself »

One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you
have an object that is made from a class with a __len__ function that
returns 0 or False:

Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))

Try it Yourself »
Functions can Return a Boolean
You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:

Example
Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())

Try it Yourself »

You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":

def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")

Try it Yourself »

Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a
certain data type:

Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:

x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

Python Operators
Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

print(10 + 5)

Run example »

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example Try it

+ Addition x+y Try it »

- Subtraction x-y Try it »

* Multiplication x*y Try it »

/ Division x/y Try it »

% Modulus x%y Try it »

** Exponentiation x ** y Try it »

// Floor division x // y Try it »

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As Try it

= x=5 x=5 Try it »

+= x += 3 x=x+3 Try it »

-= x -= 3 x=x-3 Try it »

*= x *= 3 x=x*3 Try it »

/= x /= 3 x=x/3 Try it »
%= x %= 3 x=x%3 Try it »

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3 Try it »

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3 Try it »

&= x &= 3 x=x&3 Try it »

|= x |= 3 x=x|3 Try it »

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3 Try it »

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3 Try it »

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3 Try it »

:= print(x := 3) x=3
print(x)

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example Try it

== Equal x == y Try it »
!= Not equal x != y Try it »

> Greater than x>y Try it »

< Less than x<y Try it »

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y Try it »

<= Less than or equal to x <= y Try it »

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is x < 5 or x < 4

true

not Reverse the result, returns False if the not(x < 5 and x <
result is true 10)
Python Identity Operators
Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example Try it

is Returns True if both variables are the x is y

same object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the x is not y

same object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value x in y

is present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value x not in y T

is not present in the object

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:
Operator Name Description Example

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1 x&y

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1 x|y

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is x ^ y

1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits ~x

<< Zero fill Shift left by pushing zeros in from the x << 2 »
left shift right and let the leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed Shift right by pushing copies of the x >> 2

right shift leftmost bit in from the left, and let the
rightmost bits fall off

Operator Precedence
Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.

Example
Parentheses has the highest precedence, meaning that expressions inside
parentheses must be evaluated first:

print((6 + 3) - (6 + 3))
Example
Multiplication * has higher precedence than addition +, and therefor
multiplications are evaluated before additions:

print(100 + 5 * 3)

The precedence order is described in the table below, starting with the highest
precedence at the top:

Operator Description

()

** Exponentiation

+x -x ~x Unary plus, unary minus, and bitwise

NOT

* / // % Multiplication, division, floor division,

and modulus

+ - Addition and subtraction

<< >> Bitwise left and right shifts

& Bitwise AND

^ Bitwise XOR
| Bitwise OR

== != > >= < <= is is Comparisons, identity, and

not in not in membership operators

not Logical NOT

and AND

or OR

If two operators have the same precedence, the expression is evaluated from
left to right.

Example
Addition + and subtraction - has the same precedence, and therefor we evaluate
the expression from left to right:

print(5 + 4 - 7 + 3)

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

ExampleGet your own Python Server
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the
list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general:
the order of the items will not change.

Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in
a list after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example
Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)
List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':

<class 'list'>

Example
What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))
The list() Constructor
It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-

brackets
print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No
duplicate members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever
you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that

type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Python - Access List Items

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index
number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])

Try it Yourself »

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).

Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including,
"kiwi":
thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including
"mango" (-1):

thislist =
["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new
values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the
new values:

Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does
not match the number of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can
use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)

Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)

xtend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use
the extend() method.

Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable
object (tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)
Python - Remove List Items
Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)

If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method
removes the first occurrence:

Example
Remove the first occurrence of "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.

Example
Remove the last item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example
Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example
Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2]. Using a

While Loop
You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and
loop your way through the list items by referring to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

i = 0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i = i + 1
Looping Using List Comprehension
List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:

Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

Python - List Comprehension

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list
based on the values of an existing list.

Example:

Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the
letter "a" in the name.

Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]

The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.

Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than
"apple", making the new list contain all fruits except "apple".

The condition is optional and can be omitted:

Example
With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.

Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Same example, but with a condition:

Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome,
which you can manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:

Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:

newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':

newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]

he expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to
manipulate the outcome:

Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":

newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

he expression in the example above says:

"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return orange".

Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically,
ascending, by default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)

print(thislist) Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key
= function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters
being sorted before lower case letters:

Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:

Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?

The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.

Example
Reverse the order of the list items:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)

Python - Copy Lists

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only
be a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be
made in list2.

Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)
Use the slice Operator
You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.

Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)

Python - Join Lists

Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

ExampleGet your own Python Server

Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements
from one list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)

Python - List Methods

List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of
the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified
value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list