WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after through study and analysis of the
situational factors. It is gathering information needed to answer a question, and thereby help in solving
a problem.

research may be considered as an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective,

scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of
finding answers or solutions to it

The value of research for policy makers, planners, business managers, and other stakeholders is that it
reduces uncertainty by providing information that improves the decision-making process. The decision
making process associated with the development and implementation of a strategy involves four
interrelated stages

: 1. Identifying problems or opportunities;

2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities;

3. Selecting and implementing a course of action; and

4. Evaluating the course of action.

LESSSON 4

THEORY AND RESEARCH

Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory. Accomplishing the first goal
allows the theorist to predict the behavior or characteristics of one phenomenon from the
knowledge of another phenomenon‟s characteristics

In most of the situations prediction and understanding the process go hand in hand i.e. to
predict the phenomenon, we must have an explanation of why variables behave as they do.
Theories provide these explanations.

THEORY
A theory is a coherent set of general propositions, used as principles of explanations of the
apparent relationship of certain observed phenomena.
CONCEPTS
A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or
processes that has been given a name. Such names are created or developed or constructed for the
identification of the phenomenon, be it physical or non-physical.

Concepts are the building block of a theory. Concepts abstract reality. That is, concepts are expressed in
words, letters, signs, and symbols that refer to various events or objects. For example, the concept
“asset” is an abstract term that may, in the concrete world of reality, refer to a specific punch press
machine. Concepts, however, may vary in degree of abstraction and we can put them in a ladder of
abstraction, indicating different levels

Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept becomes more abstract, wider in scope, and less
amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of
concepts (and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables (and hypotheses). At the empirical
level we “experience” reality – that is we observe the objects or events. In this example the reality has
been given a name i.e. banana. Moving up the ladder this reality falls in wider reality i.e. fruit, which in
turn becomes part of further wider reality called as vegetation.

Concepts in isolation are not theories. Only when we explain how concepts relate to other concepts we
begin to construct theories

PROPOSITIONS
Propositions are statements concerned with the logical relationships among concepts. A proposition
explains the logical linkage among certain concepts by asserting a universal connection between
concept.Concepts are at one level of abstraction. Investigating propositions requires that we increase
our level abstract thinking.

THEORY AND RESEARCH

The fundamental relationship between theory and research in science is often misunderstood. Many
people mistakenly see them as opposites: theory is seen as mere speculation until proven, at which
point it becomes fact. Facts are believed to be unquestionable and self-evident. However, the reality is
quite different. In scientific practice, theory and fact are intricately connected, not opposed. Theory isn't
speculation but rather a framework that guides research. Scientists are deeply involved in both theory
and research, with research producing facts that inform and refine theories. Theories are conceptual
frameworks, while research deals with concrete, observable phenomena. Thus, theory and research
complement each other, with facts informing theory and theory guiding research.

ROLE OF THEORY
THEORY AS ORIENTATION.
A key role of a theoretical framework is to narrow down the focus of what facts are studied. For
instance, take a football – it could be looked at from various angles: economically, chemically, physically,
or sociologically. Each scientific field or specialization picks certain aspects of a phenomenon to study
while leaving out others. This means each field concentrates on a specific set of things while leaving
aside or making assumptions about others.

2. Theory as a conceptualization and classification.

In science, we use a set of important ideas to understand and study different processes and things.
These ideas are like building blocks that help us describe the connections between them, and we call
these connections "the facts of science." Scientists use specific terms to talk about these ideas. To make
sense of what we learn, we need to organize it, so we create systems to categorize observable facts. This
means a big part of science involves sorting information, defining key concepts clearly, and refining our
understanding of them.

3. Theory in summarizing role.

Another important role of theory is to summarize what we already know about the subject being
studied. These summaries can be divided into two main types: empirical generalizations, which are
statements based on observed data, and systems of relationships between ideas.While scientists might
see their field as complex, much of their daily work involves the simpler task of gathering data and
making basic observations. For example, a demographer might record the number of births and deaths
over a specific time to calculate the reproduction rate. These facts are valuable and can be summarized
in simple or complex theoretical ideas. As these summaries accumulate, we start to see connections
between them.On a broader scale, some researchers may try to bring together the main empirical
generalizations of their time. Systems of propositions help us understand many common statements by
placing facts within a larger framework instead of considering them in isolation.

4. Theory predicts facts.

When theory summarizes facts and suggests a general pattern beyond what we directly observe, it also
makes predictions about future facts. One way it does this is by extending what we already know to
what we don't yet know. For instance, if we see that introducing Western technology in various places
has consistently lowered the death rate and slightly lowered the birth rate, we might predict the same
outcome when introducing Western technology to a new culture. Similarly, we predict that in regions
where Western technology is already present, we'll see this pattern has occurred.

5. Theory points gaps in knowledge.

Theory not only summarizes what we already know and predicts what we haven't seen yet, but it also
shows us areas we haven't explored. It points out basic gaps in our understanding. For example, in
criminology, there was a lot of focus on crimes committed by lower-class individuals, but little attention
was given to crimes committed by the middle class, like "white collar" crimes related to business
activities. These gaps wouldn't be clear without organizing our facts. So, theory helps us see where our
knowledge is lacking.

Role of Facts (Research)

Theory and fact are in constant interaction. Developments in one may lead to developments in the
other. Theory, implicit or explicit, is basic to knowledge and even perception. Theory is not merely a
passive element. It plays an active role in the uncovering of facts.

1. Facts initiate theory.

Many of the human interest stories in the history of science describe how a striking fact, sometimes
stumbled upon, led to important theories. This is what the public thinks of as a “discovery.” Examples
may be taken from many sciences: accidental finding that the penicillium fungus inhibits bacterial
growth; many errors in reading, speaking, or seeing are not accidental but have deep and systematic
causes. Many of these stories take an added drama in the retelling, but they express a fundamental fact
in the growth of science, that an apparently simple observation may lead to significant theory.

2. Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation of existing theory.

Facts do not completely determine theory, since many possible theories can be developed to take
account of a specific set of observation. Nevertheless, facts are the more stubborn of the two. Any
theory must adjust to facts and is rejected or reformulated if they cannot be fitted into its structure.
Since research is continuing activity, rejection and reformulation are likely to be going on
simultaneously. Observations are gradually accumulated which seem to cast doubt upon existing theory.
While new tests are being planned, new formulations of theory are developed which might fit these new
facts.

3. Facts redefine and clarify theory.

Usually the scientist has investigated his/her problem for a long time prior to actual field or laboratory
test and is not surprised by his/her results. It is rare that he/she finds a fact that simply does not fit prior
theory. New facts that fit the theory will always redefine the theory, for they state in detail what the
theory states in very general terms. They clarify that theory, for they throw further light upon its
concepts.

LESSON 5

CONCEPTS
A concept is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has
been given a name. In other words a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. Natural
science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms. Most social science concepts are expressed in
words. Words, after all, are symbols too; they are symbols we learn with language. Height is a concept
with which all of you are familiar.
Concepts are an Abstraction of Reality

Concepts are something we use all the time, even without realizing it. For example, think about
the concept of "height." It's something we understand easily in daily life, but explaining exactly
what it means can be tricky. Essentially, height is a way of describing how tall something is, like
a person, a building, or a tree. It's a characteristic of physical objects, representing the distance
from the top to the bottom. When we talk about height, we're referring to an idea, not
something physical itself. The words we use to describe these ideas, like "height," are just
symbols we've agreed upon to represent them. So, concepts are basically our way of
understanding and talking about things in the world, whether they're physical objects like
tables or more abstract ideas like leadership or productivity. They're labels we use to describe
different aspects of reality.

DEGREE OF ABSTRACTION

Concepts come in different levels of complexity. Some are very straightforward and relate to
tangible things or familiar experiences, like height, school, or family income. Others are more
abstract and deal with broader ideas that are less clear-cut, such as family dissolution or
political power.When we organize concepts from the most concrete to the most general, we're
essentially arranging them based on their level of abstraction. As we move up this ladder,
concepts become more abstract, covering a wider range of ideas and becoming harder to
measure.

In scientific research, there are two main levels of concepts: abstract ones (like theories and
propositions) and concrete ones (like variables that we observe in reality). At the concrete level,
we're directly experiencing or observing objects and events.

SOURCES OF CONCEPTS

we borrow concepts from everyday culture; though these to be refined. We create concepts from
personal experiences, creative thought, or observation. The classical theorist originated many concepts
like family system, gender role, socialization, self-worth, frustration, and displaced aggression. We also
borrow concepts from sister disciplines.

IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTS

In social sciences, there's a specific language called jargon that experts use to communicate quickly with
each other. This kind of specialized language exists in many fields, like medicine, law, engineering, and
plumbing. It helps professionals refer to ideas and objects related to their work more efficiently.
However, using jargon can lead to problems if concepts aren't clearly defined.
It's important to define concepts precisely to avoid confusion, especially when forming hypotheses for
research. A good hypothesis should be clear in its concepts. The success of research depends on how
well we define concepts and how easily others understand them.

For instance, let's say we want to know about family income. Seems simple, right? But unless we specify
certain details, we might get different or confusing answers:

- The time period (weekly, monthly, annually)

- Whether it's before or after taxes

- If it's only for the head of the family or for all members

- If it includes just salary and wages or also other earnings like dividends or interest

- Whether it includes non-cash benefits like free rent or discounts.

OPERATIONAL DEFINATION.

In research, it's important to measure concepts and constructs accurately, which means we need clear
definitions. To measure a concept, we need to make it operational, which means describing the specific
activities or steps needed to measure it. It's like following a recipe – you have to do certain things in a
certain way.

An operational definition, also known as a working definition, gives clear instructions on how to measure
a concept using specific criteria or tests. Concepts must have real-world references that we can observe
with our senses. Whether it's something physical like a machine or something abstract like motivation,
the definition must explain its characteristics and how to observe them.The definition and procedures
must be so clear that anyone using them would classify objects the same way. So, in an operational
definition, we need to specify exactly.

LESSON 10

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework is like a blueprint that helps researchers understand the connections
between different factors related to a problem they're studying. These factors, also known as
variables, are identified through methods like interviews, observations, and reading previous
studies. The framework shows how these variables are connected and helps us make educated
guesses, called hypotheses, about those connections. Then, we can test these hypotheses using
statistics to see if our theories are correct.
The research depends on having a solid theoretical framework. Even if we don't always come
up with specific hypotheses, having a good framework is crucial for understanding the problem
we're investigating.The literature survey, which is a review of previous studies, is closely linked
to the theoretical framework. It helps us identify important variables based on what other
researchers have found. This, along with logical connections, forms the basis for our theoretical
model. The framework explains the relationships between these variables, the theory behind
these connections, and predicts the nature of these relationships.

In simple terms, a theoretical framework is about understanding how different factors relate to
each other in a problem we're studying. It gives us a foundation for our research and helps us
develop hypotheses to test.

COMPONENTS OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework addresses the issues of why or how we
expect certain relationships to exist, and the nature and direction of the relationships among the
variables of interest. At the end, the whole discussion can be portrayed in a schematic diagram. There
are six basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework. These features are

: 1. Make an inventory of variables:For developing a framework it appears essential to identify the

factors relevant to the problem under study. These factors are the empirical realities which can be
named at some abstract level called concepts. The concepts taking more than one value are the
variables. In other words the researcher makes an inventory of relevant variables. The variables
considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussion.

2. Specify the direction of relationship: If the nature and direction of relationship can be theorized on
the basis of the findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussion as to
whether the relationship should be positive or negative.

3. Give a clear explanation of why we should expect the proposed relationships to exist. There should
be clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. The arguments could be
drawn from the previous research findings. The discussions should state how two or more variables are
related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist
among the variables. It is essential to theorize logical relationship between different variables.

4. Make an inventory of propositions: Stipulation of logical relationship between any two variables
means the formulation of a proposition. If such relationships have been proposed between different
variables, it will result in the formulation of a number of propositions. Let us call such a collection of
propositions as an inventory of propositions. Each proposition is backed up by strong theoretical
argumentation

. 5. Arrange these propositions in a sequential order: One proposition generates the next proposition,
which generates the next following proposition, which in turn generates the next following proposition,
and so on. This is an axiomatic way of the derivation of propositions. Resultantly it will provide us a
sequentially arranged set of propositions which are interlinked and interlocked with each other. Theory,
if you remember, is an interrelated set of propositions. Therefore, the present interrelated set of
propositions relevant to a particular problem is in fact a theoretical framework explaining the pathways
of logical relationships between different variables

. 6. Schematic diagram of the theoretical model be given: A schematic diagram of the theoretical
framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized
relationships.

LESSON 11

PROBLEM DEFINATION AND RESEACH PROPOSAL

The first step in research is choosing a topic that interests you. This can come from personal
experiences, media reports, or emerging issues. For example, you might be interested in labor
unions. There's a lot of information out there on this topic, so you'll need to narrow it down. For
instance, you could focus on how labor unions protect the rights of female workers.

Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question:

In order to narrow down the focus of research, try to get the background information from different
sources.

For example:

1. Examine the literature:

Published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research questions. They are usually at an
appropriate level of specificity and suggest research questions that focus on the following:

a. Explore unexpected findings discovered in previous research.

b. Follow suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article.

c. Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.

d. Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.

e. Specify the intervening process and consider linking relations.

2. Talk over ideas with others

: a. Ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions about it that they have thought of.
b. Seek out those who hold opinions that differ from yours on the topic and discuss possible research
questions with them.
3. Apply to a specific context:

a. Focus the topic into a specific historical period of time.

b. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geographic unit

c. Consider which subgroups or categories of people/units are involved and whether there are
differences among them

4. Define the aim or desired outcome of the study

a. Will the research question be for an exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive study?

b. Will the study involve applied or basic research?

From the Research Question to Hypotheses:

When we have initial answers to our research question, it helps us identify the different factors
that could explain the topic. For example, if we're looking at how labor unions protect the rights
of female workers, the factors might include whether female workers want to join unions, if
they're already members, whether their family supports their union membership, how involved
they are in union activities, and more.These factors then become the basis for testable ideas,
called hypotheses. Also, having a list of these ideas helps us create the theoretical framework
for our research project.

Problem Definition:

After conducting interviews and reviewing existing literature, the researcher is able to narrow
down the original broad problem and define the specific issues more clearly. It's crucial to
clearly identify and define the focus of further research. This is done through a problem
statement, which is a concise and clear statement of the question or issue that needs
investigation to find an answer or solution.

For example, the problem could involve:

1) Addressing existing business challenges where a manager seeks solutions.

2) Identifying areas for improvement even if there are no immediate issues.

3) Clarifying concepts to enhance theory development.

4) Investigating a research question out of interest in the topic, aiming for empirical answers.

Sponsored Researches:
Until now, we've been talking about research projects mainly in the context of researchers
taking the initiative themselves. However, sometimes it's a business manager or an
organization that wants to address issues within their company. In such cases, they might hire a
consultant to conduct the research. The consultant's first task is to understand the objectives of
the decision maker, which might involve identifying underlying problems that aren't
immediately obvious. These underlying issues, known as management dilemmas, need to be
turned into research questions. The management then outlines these issues in a document
called the Terms of Reference, and consultants are hired to carry out the study.

In such situations, many steps like reviewing literature, developing theoretical frameworks, and
forming hypotheses may be skipped. The management makes decisions about the research
based on factors like how urgent it is, the timing, availability of information, and whether the
benefits outweigh the costs.

The Research Proposal:

A research proposal is like a plan for a project that is presented to reviewers for evaluation. It
could be a project proposed for educational purposes, like a thesis or dissertation, or it could be
a request for funding. The goal is to convince the reviewers that the researcher is capable of
successfully carrying out the proposed research. A well-written and organized proposal gives
reviewers confidence that the project will be completed successfully.

The proposal is similar to a research report, but it's written before the research begins. It
outlines the research problem, explains why it's important, and details the methods that will be
used.A proposal for quantitative research typically includes sections like a title, an abstract, a
problem statement, a literature review, a description of methods, and a bibliography. It doesn't
include sections for results, discussion, or conclusions. The proposal also lays out a plan for
collecting and analyzing data, often including a timeline for each step.For projects that require
funding, researchers need to show a history of past success. This could include providing a
curriculum vitae, letters of support from other researchers, and a record of past research.