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ELECTROMAGNETICS WAVES
PRACTICAL FILE
B.TECH ECE 5th SEMESTER

SUBMITTED TO :- SUMBITTED BY :-
Mr.Ranjeet kumar Lokesh kumar rajput
(20/549)
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1) Generation of EM-Wave.
2) Propagation of wave in Rectangular Waveguide.
3) Impedance Matching using Smith Chart.
4) Calculation of phase and group velocity calculation at
9GHz.
5) Plot of Radiation pattern of dipole antenna.
6) Plot of Radiation pattern of monopole antenna.
7) Plot of Radiation pattern of Uniform Linear Array.
8) Characteristics of Multihole directional coupler.
9) Determination of standing wave ratio and reflection
coefficient.
10) Study of magic tee.
 Experiment No-1 GENERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD

AIM: Generate Electromagnetic Wave using MATLAB software. Software Required:

MATLAB software Theory:
The electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through space, carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
rays. All of these waves form part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves are typically described
by any of the following three physical properties: frequency (f), wavelength (λ), or intensity (I). Light quanta are
typically described by frequency (f), wavelength (λ).

Program:
function [] = EB_field_propagation_animation() %
EB_dynamic_fields_animation : function to create % an animation of a dynamic
electromagnetic field.
%
% Author & support nicolas.douillet (at) free.fr, 2007-2021. step = 0.05*pi; % the signal
step / resolution
phase = 2*pi:-step:0; % phase vector nperiod = 1.5; % the number of periods for
the signals time_lapse = 0.1; % the animation time lapse title_text =
'Electromagnetic field propagation (planar waves)'; filename =
'EB_dynamic_fields_animation.gif'; title_on = true; % Display settings h = figure;
set(h,'Position',get(0,'ScreenSize'));
set(gcf,'Color',[0 0 0]); axis tight
manual; az = 21; % azimut el = 40; % elevation
for k = 1:length(phase)

signal = EB_field(nperiod,step,phase(k));

pE = plot3(signal(1,:,1)',signal(2,:,1)',signal(3,:,1)','Color',[1 0 1],'Linewidth',2); hold on; pH =

plot3(signal(1,:,2)',signal(2,:,2)',signal(3,:,2)','Color',[0 1 1],'Linewidth',2); hold on;

stem3(signal(1,1:2:end,1)',signal(2,1:2:end,1)',signal(3,1:2:end,1)','.','Color',[1 0
1],'Linewidth',2); stem(signal(1,1:2:end,2)',signal(2,1:2:end,2)','.','Color',[0
1 1],'Linewidth',2);
line([signal(1,1,1),signal(1,end,1)],[0,0],[0,0],'Color',[0 1 0]), hold on;
line([signal(1,1,1),signal(1,1,1)],[0,1],[0,0],'Color',[0 1 0]), hold on;
line([signal(1,1,1),signal(1,1,1)],[0,0],[0,1],'Color',[0 1 0]), hold on;
 legend([pE, pH],{'Electric field','Magnetic field'},'Location', 'NorthEast','Color',[0 0 0],'TextColor',[1 1
1],'FontSize',14,'EdgeColor',[1 1 1]);

set(gca,'Color',[0 0 0]); view([az,el]);

grid off, axis off;

if title_on title(title_text,'Color',[1 1
1],'FontSize',16); end

drawnow;

frame = getframe(h); im = frame2im(frame);

[imind,cm] = rgb2ind(im,256);

% Write to the .gif file if k == 1

imwrite(imind,cm,filename,'gif', 'Loopcount',Inf,'DelayTime',time_lapse); else
imwrite(imind,cm,filename,'gif','WriteMode','append','DelayTime',time_lapse); end
clf;

end
end % EB_dynamic_fields_animation
function [signal] = EB_field(nperiod, step, phase)
%
% Author & support nicolas.douillet (at) free.fr, 2007-2021. t =
nperiod*2*pi:step:nperiod*2*pi;
s = sin(t+phase); signal =
[t;zeros(1,length(t));s];
R = @(r)[1,0,0
0,cos(r),-sin(r) 0,sin(r),cos(r)];
signal(:,:,2) = R(-pi/2)*signal(:,:,1); end

RESULT:
 Experiment No-2 RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
Aim: To study propagation of wave using Rectangular Waveguide
Software Required: MATLAB software
Theory: A rectangular waveguide is a conducting cylinder of rectangular cross section used to guide the propagation
of waves. Rectangular waveguide is commonly used for the transport of radio frequency signals at frequencies in the
SHF band (3–30 GHz) and higher.

Programs:
% rectangular waveguide propagation modes clear
all;close all;clc
f0=5e9; % choose operating frequency [Hz] a=1.07e-2;b=0.43e-2 % choose
waveguide cross-section dimensions [m] c=10*a; %
choose waveguide length [m]
er=2.08; % Teflon choose filling material dx=min(a,b)/50;dy=dx;dz=dx; % set
space resolutions c0=299792486;% finding all possible modes below N
N=2% 5 choose a high enough M N for given f0, or just fix M N to reasonably high values.
M_range=[0:1:N];N_range=[0:1:N]; for k=[1:1:numel(M_range)] for s=[1:1:numel(N_range)]
fc(k,s)=c0/(2*pi*er^.5)*((M_range(k)*pi/a)^2+(N_range(s)*pi/b)^2).^.5; end end
% % fc(:,1)=fc(:,1)-1 % % fc(:,2)=fc(:,2)-1 fc % cut-offs,
NxM format
fMN=zeros(max(M_range)+1,max(N_range)+1,3); fMN(:,:,3)=fc;
fMN(:,:,2)=meshgrid(M_range,N_range);
fMN(:,:,1)=meshgrid(M_range,N_range)'; L=[0 0 0];
for k=1:1:(M_range(end)+1) for
s=1:1:(N_range(end)+1)
L=[L;fMN(k,s,1) fMN(k,s,2) fMN(k,s,3)]; end end
L=uint64(L)
% TEM doesn't propagate inside rectangular waveguides, removing all null lines off L k_all_nulls=[]; for
k=1:1:size(L,1)
if L(k,1)==0 && L(k,2)==0 &&L(k,3)==0
k_all_nulls=[k_all_nulls k] end end
L(k_all_nulls,:)=[]
% sorting cut-offs in frequency ascending order fc=L(:,3);
[n,v]=sort(fc); L=L(v,:) fc_sorted=L(:,3)
% modes that get through, for a given input frequency f0
% f0=f_cutoff doesn't get through, it has to be f0>f_cutoff % safety_factor=1 % safety_factor=1
no safety band, 1.5 at least % half carrier above cutoff .. k=1;
while L(k,3)<=f0 && k<size(L,1)
k=k+1; end k

L_through=L([k:end],:)
fc_through=fc_sorted([k:end],:)

RESULT:
 Experiment-3 IMPEDANCE

MATCHING

Aim: To study impedance match using MATLAB software.

Software Required: MATLAB software

Theory: Impedance matching is the process of designing the antenna's input impedance (ZL) or matching it to the
corresponding RF circuitry's output impedance (ZO), which would be 50 Ω in most cases. A perfect match is
obtained when ZL = ZO in eq 2 which gives Γ a value of zero, and the SWR becomes unity in eq 1.

Program:

clc;close all;clear all;format long;

Z0=100;sm1=smithchart;hold all;
ZL=200-1j*100; f0=5e8; % Hz
gamma_L=(ZL-Z0)/(ZL+Z0);
% show ZL on Smith chart adding text showing values if imag(ZL)<0 sign1='-';
else sign1='+'; end
hold all;plot(real(gamma_L),imag(gamma_L),'ro','LineWidth',1.5); str1=['ZL =' num2str(real(ZL)) sign1
'j' num2str(abs(imag(ZL))) ' \rightarrow'];
text(real(gamma_L),imag(gamma_L)+.01,str1,'Color','blue',
'FontSize',20,'HorizontalAlignment','right','VerticalAlignment','middle');
RL=real(ZL);XL=imag(ZL);
if abs(real(ZL/Z0))>=1 % ZL inside 1+jx
disp(' ZL inside 1+jx');
B1=1/(RL^2+XL^2)*(XL+(RL/Z0)^.5*(RL^2+XL^2-Z0*RL)^.5)
B2=1/(RL^2+XL^2)*(XL-(RL/Z0)^.5*(RL^2+XL^2-Z0*RL)^.5) X1=1/B1+XL*Z0/RL-Z0/(B1*RL) ;
X2=1/B2+XL*Z0/RL-Z0/(B2*RL)
elseif abs(real(ZL/Z0))<=1 % ZL outside 1+jx disp(' ZL outside 1+jx');
X1=(RL*(Z0-RL))^.5-XL; X2=-(RL*(Z0-RL))^.5-XL B1=1/Z0*((Z0-
RL)/RL)^.5; B2=-1/Z0*((Z0-RL)/RL)^.5 end
% the 1st match solution
[C1 ctype]=B2LC(B1,f0) [L1 ltype]=X2LC(X1,f0)
% and the 2nd solution
[L2 ctype]=B2LC(B2,f0)
[C2 ltype]=X2LC(X2,f0)
OUTPUT:

Experiment-4
PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITY CALCULATION AT 9GHz

Aim: To calculate phase & group velocity using MATLAB software.

Software Required: MATLAB software

Theory: Waves can be in the group and such groups are called wave packets, so the velocity with a wave packet
travels is called group velocity. The velocity with which the phase of a wave travels is called phase velocity. The
relation between group velocity and phase velocity are proportionate. The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at
which the wave propagates in some medium. This is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component
of the wave travels. The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall envelope shape of the wave's
amplitudes—known as the modulation or envelope of the wave— propagates through space.

Program:

% phase velocity, group velocity X band .9inx.4in WR90 waveguide at 9GHz clear all;close all;clc
e0=8.854e-12 % [F/m] free space permittivity mu0=4*pi*1e-7 % [H/m] free space
permeability f0=9e9; % choose operating frequency [Hz] b_in=.9 % in, X
band WR-90
a_in=0.4 % in
er=2.54;mur=1; % Rexolite filler er(3GHz)=er(9GHz)=2.54 a=a_in*25.40001e-3
b=b_in*25.40001e-3 c0=299792458; % m/s
v_propagation=c0/er^.5 % propagation velocity k_wave=2*pi*f0*er^.5/c0 % waev
number constant
N=2;M_range=[0:1:N];N_range=[0:1:N]; % finding all possible modes below N M for
k=[1:1:numel(M_range)] for s=[1:1:numel(N_range)]
fc(k,s)=c0/(2*pi*er^.5)*((M_range(k)*pi/a)^2+(N_range(s)*pi/b)^2).^.5; end end
fc % cut-offs, NxM format fMN=zeros(max(M_range)+1,max(N_range)+1,3);
fMN(:,:,3)=fc; fMN(:,:,2)=meshgrid(M_range,N_range);
fMN(:,:,1)=meshgrid(M_range,N_range)'; L=[0 0 0];
for k=1:1:(M_range(end)+1)
for s=1:1:(N_range(end)+1) L=[L;fMN(k,s,1) fMN(k,s,2)
fMN(k,s,3)]; end end L=uint64(L)
k_all_nulls=[]; % TEM doesn't propagate inside rectangular waveguides, removing all null lines off L for
k=1:1:size(L,1)
if L(k,1)==0 && L(k,2)==0 &&L(k,3)==0
k_all_nulls=[k_all_nulls k] end end L(k_all_nulls,:)=[]
fc=L(:,3); % sorting cut-offs in frequency ascending order
[n,v]=sort(fc); L=L(v,:) fc_sorted=L(:,3)% Since the solution manual has 2 errors, one being the actual
carrier frequency to use, % let's calculate the propagation constants for all considered propagation
modes:
kc=[]; for k=1:1:numel(fc)
L2=double(L(k,:));
kc=[kc; ((L2(1)*pi/a)^2+(L2(2)*pi/b)^2)^.5]; end
beta=(k_wave^2-kc.^2).^.5
% modes that get through, for a given input frequency f0
% f0=f_cutoff doesn't get through, it has to be f0>f_cutoff % safety_factor=1 % safety_factor=1
no safety band, 1.5 at least % half carrier above cutoff .. k=1;
while L(k,3)<=f0 && k<size(L,1)
k=k+1; end k
L_through=L([k:end],:) fc_through=fc_sorted([k:end],:)
[n3,v3]=find(imag(beta)==0) beta=beta(n3,:) % take
only the modes that propagate
% instead of
% beta=beta([1 2],:)
% let's build a beta variable for each propagating mode for k=1:1:numel(n3)
str1=['beta_' num2str(L(n3(k),1)) num2str(L(n3(k),2)) '=' num2str(beta(n3(k)))]; evalin('base',str1)
end
% phase velocities or propagation velocities of each propagating mode
% vp=2*pi*f0/beta for k=1:1:numel(n3)
str1=['vp_' num2str(L(n3(k),1)) num2str(L(n3(k),2)) '=' num2str(2*pi*f0/beta(n3(k)))]; evalin('base',str1) end
% group velocities of each propagating mode for k=1:1:numel(n3) str1=['vg_'
num2str(L(n3(k),1)) num2str(L(n3(k),2)) '='...
num2str(beta(n3(k))/(k_wave*(mu0*e0*mur*er)^.5))]; evalin('base',str1)
end
Result:

Experiment-5
DIPOLE ANTENNA

Aim: To plot radiation pattern of dipole antenna using MATLAB software

Software Used: MATLAB
Theory: A dipole antenna is an antenna with a center-fed driven element for transmitting or receiving radio
frequency energy. From a physics viewpoint, this type of antenna is the simplest practical antenna. Dipole antennas
(or such designs derived from them, including the monopole) are used to feed more elaborate directional antennas
such as a horn antenna, parabolic reflector, or corner reflector. Engineers analyze vertical (or other monopole)
antennas on the basis of dipole antennas of which they are one half.

Program:

%This program print pattern (AF) for Short and any Dipole Antenna by giving the length of your Dipole
lamda=input('enter the value of wave length= ');
l=input('enter your dipole length l= '); ratio=l/lamda;
B=(2*pi/lamda); theta=
pi/100:pi/100:2*pi;
if ratio<= 0.1 %check if Short Dipole E=sin(theta); En=abs(E); subplot(2,3,1)
polar(theta,En) %This plot polar pattern in plane which dipole appear as line else %check
if not short dipole
f1=cos(B*l/2.*cos(theta)); f2=cos(B*l/2);
f3=sin(theta); E=(f1-f2)./f3; En=abs(E);
subplot(2,2,2)
polar(theta,En) %This plot polar
pattern in plane which dipole appear as line

Result:-

Experiment No-6
MONOPOLE ANTENNA

Aim: To plot radiation pattern of monopole antenna using MATLAB software Software Used: MATLAB
Theory: A monopole antenna is a class of radio antenna consisting of a straight rod-shaped conductor, often mounted
perpendicularly over some type of conductive ..

Program:
%This program print pattern for Short and any monopole Antenna by giving the length of your Dipole
lamda=input('enter the value of wave length= '); l=input('enter your monopole length l= ');
ratio=l/lamda; B=(2*pi/lamda); theta= -
pi/2:pi/100:pi/2;
if ratio<= 0.1 %check if Short Dipole E=sin(theta); En=abs(E); subplot(2,3,4)
polar(theta,En) %This plot polar pattern in plane which dipole appear as line else %check
if not short dipole
f1=cos(B*l/2.*cos(theta)); f2=cos(B*l/2);
f3=sin(theta); E=(f1-f2)./f3; En=abs(E);
subplot(2,3,6)
polar(theta,En) %This plot polar pattern in plane
which dipole appear as line end

OUTPUT:

LAMBDA=10
LENGTH=4

Experiment No-7

UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAY

Aim: To plot radiation pattern of radiation pattern
Software Used: MATLAB
Theory: An antenna composed of a relatively large number of usually identical elements arranged in a single line or
in a plane with uniform spacing and usually with a uniform feed system. An array of identical elements all of identical
magnitude and each with a progressive phase is referred to as a uniform array.

Program:
%This program print pattern for linear Array (uniform) Antenna by giing %N,alfa,d
%and the wavelength you work with
%if you want full pattern maultiply this pattern by any Antenna pattern
%Have a nice Pattern "Arabia Tech" lamda=input('enter the value of
wave length= '); N=input('enter the no. of
elements= '); alfa=input('enter your progressive phase= ');
d=input('enter the seperation distance between elements= '); B=(2*pi/lamda);
theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi; w=alfa+B*d.*cos(theta);
AF=sinc(N*(w./2))./sinc(w./2); subplot(2,3,3) polar(theta,AF)
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO-8 CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTI

HOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Aim: To study the function of multihole directional coupler by measuring the following
parameters.
1. Mainline and auxiliary line VSWR.
2. The coupling factor and directivity of the coupler.
Apparatus:

Klystron power supply, klystron mount, isolator, frequency mount, variable

Attenuator, detector mount, wave guide stands, oscilloscope, BNC cable, cooling fan, Slotted
line tunable probe, VSWR meter.

Theory:

A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consists of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary
arm, electro magnetically coupled to each other. The power entering , in the main- arm gets
divided between port 2 and port 3, and almost no power comes out in port 4 power entering
at port 2 is divided between port 1 and port 4.The coupling factor is defined as Coupling (C)
= 20log p1/p3 (db) where port 2 is matched.
Isolation (I) = 20log p2/p3 (db) where port 1 is matched.
With built in termination and power entering at port 1, the directivity of the coupler is a
measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave .directivity is measured
indirectly as follows:
Hence Directivity D= I-C= 20log p2/p1 (db).
Main line VSWR is measured, looking into the main line input terminal when the matched loads are
placed on other terminals.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of coupler. It
is defined as: Insertion loss = 20log p1/p2(db).

Block Diagram:

Procedure:

Measurement of coupling factor, insertion loss, isolation and directivity:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in block diagram.

2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Set modulation selector switch to am position.
 4. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount, tune the
detector for maximum output.
5. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator,
gain control knob of VSWR meter, and note down the reading (reference level let X).
6. Insert the directional coupler as shown in second fig with detector to the auxiliary port
3 and matched termination to port 2, without changing the position of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
7. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range db switch
if required. Let it be Y.
8. Calculate coupling factor which will be X-Y =C (db).
9. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and match
termination from port 2 without disturbing the set-up.
10. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2
measures the reading on VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
11. Connect insertion loss X-Z in db.
12. Repeat the steps from 1 to 5.
13. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction, i.e. port 2 to frequency meter
side, matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3. Without disturbing
the position of the variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
14. Measure and note the reading on VSWR meter let it be Yd. X-Yd gives isolation I (db).
15. Compute the directivity as Y-Yd= I-C. 16. Repeat the same for other frequencies.

Calculations:

Coupling (C) = 20log p1/p3 (db)

Isolation (I) = 20log p2/p3 (db

Directivity D= I-C= 20log p2/p1 Insertion

loss = 20log p1/p2(db).

Result:

EXPERIMENT NO-9
DETERMINATION OF STANDING WAVE RATIO AND
 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
Aim: To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient of X-band
waveguide. Apparatus:

Klystron power supply, klystron mount, isolator, frequency mount, variable

Attenuator, detector mount, wave guide stands, oscilloscope, BNC cable, cooling fan Slotted
line tunable probe, S-S tuner. Theory:

The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the
sum of two travelling waves, the incident wave, which propagates from the source to the load
and the reflected wave which propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set
up by reflection of incident wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance.
The superposition of the two travelling waves, gives rise to a standing wave along the line.
The maximum field strength is found where the waves are in phase and minimum where the
two waves add in opposite phase. The distance between two successive minimum
(maximum) is half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of electrical field strength and
incident wave is called reflection coefficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio VSWR is defined as ratio between maximum and
minimum field strength along the line. Hence VSWR denoted by s is as follows S= Emax/Emin
= [iEi1 + iEr1]/[iEi1 – iEr1].

Reflection co efficient (ρ) is ρ=Er/Ei = [Z l

- Zo]/ [Z l + Zo]
Where Zl is the load impedance, Zo is characteristics impedance. The above equation

gives following equation ρ= S1/S+1.

Procedure:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in the block diagram.

2. Keep variable variable attenuator in the minimum attenuated position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below: Range db --- 30 db/ 40 db.
Input selector switch ----- crystal 200k ohm.
Meter switch ----- normal.
Gain (coarse fine) ------ mid position approx.
4. Keep the control knobs of klystron power as below:
Beam voltage (HT) ------ off.
Mod. Switch----- AM.
Beam voltage knob ----- fully antic lock wise.
Reflector voltage knob ----- fully clockwise. Am-
amplitude knob -----around fully clockwise. Am-
frequency ------ mid position.
5. Switch on the klystron power supply. VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch on the beam voltage (ht) switch and set beam voltage at 300v.
7. Rotate the repeller voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM
modulation.
9. Tune plunger of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter=1.
10.If required, change the range db- switch, and gain control knob to get deflection in
the scale of VSWR meter.
11. As you move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change. A.
 Measurement of low VSWR:
1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR
meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob until the meter indicates 1.0 on
normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep the entire control knob as it is, move the probe to next minimum
position.
Read the VSWR on scale. B. Measurement of high VSWR:
1. Set the depth of S S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob to obtain a reading of 3 db in the normal
db scale (0- 10 db) of VSWR.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until the deflection is 6 db or 0 db obtain
on 0 ---10 db scale. Note the record the probe position on slotted line let it is d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until
deflection is 6 db or 0 db obtain on 0--- 10 db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace the S-S tuner and termination by short.
7. Measure the distance (d) between two successive minima position of
probe.
Twice this distance is guide wavelength : λg
8. Compute SWR from the following equation :

VSWR (s) = λg/ (π(d1~ d2)).

Observations:

Beam voltage: Volts.

Beam current: mA.
Operating frequency of klystron = GHz.
d1 =( )mm, d2 =( )mm, d11 =( )mm,d12=( )mm ,λg= 2( d12 ~ d11). VSWR(S) = λg/
3.14( d1 ~ d2).

Result:
 EXPERIMENT NO-10 STUDY OF MAGIC TEE

Aim: To study the scattering parameters of magic tee. Apparatus:

Klystron power supply, klystron mount, isolator , frequency mount, variable

attenuator, detector mount, wave guide stands, oscilloscope, BNC cable, cooling fan magic
tee, matched termination , accessories Theory:

Magic tee is also known as hybrid tee or E-H plane tee. It is used to obtain completely
matched three part tee junction. Magic tee can be used to measure the impedance as a
duplexer and as a mixer. The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a
continuous electron beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are
accelerated and passed through the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which
reflects the electrons and the electrons turn back through the resonator. Suppose the RF-
field exists between the resonators, the electron accelerated or retarded, as the voltage at
an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. As a result,
returning electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through the
resonator, they interact with the voltage at resonator grids.
If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are slowed down by the
voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator, and the klystron will oscillate. The
frequency is primarily determined by the dimensions of resonant cavity. Hence by changing
the volume of the resonator, mechanical tuning of the klystron is possible. A small frequency
change can be obtained by adjusting reflector voltage. This is called electronic tuning.

Procedure:

VSWR measurement of the ports:

1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in block diagram keeping E- arm
towards slotted line and matched termination to other parts.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Measure the VSWR of E- arm as described in measurement of SWR for low and
medium value.
4. Connect another arm to slotted line and terminate the other port with matched
termination. Measure the VSWR as above. Similarly VSWR of any port can be
measured.
Measurement of Isolation and coupling factor:
1. Remove the tunable probe and magic tee from the slotted line and connect the
detector mount to slotted line.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.
 3. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter set any
power level in the VSWR meter and note down, readings, let it be port 2.
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob carefully
place the magic tee after slotted line keeping arm connected to slotted line, detector
to e- arm and matched termination to arm1 and arm 2 . Note down the reading of
VSWR meter .let it be port 4.
5. Determine the coupling coefficient from equation given the theory port.
6. Determine the isolation between the port 3 and port 4 on port 3= port 4 in db.
7. Repeat the same experiment for the other ports.
8. Repeat the same experiment for other frequencies

Block Diagram:
 Observations:

P1 = P3 = P1 + P2.

P2 =
P3 = P4 = P1 - P2

Result: