CSP Lab Manual 25.2.16

G.
PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PASUPALA (V), NANADIKOTKUR ROAD, KURNOOL-518002
G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY: KURNOOL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
M.Tech. (DECS) II SEMESTER
COMMUNICATIONS & SIGNAL PROCESSING LAB
LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS:

1. Simulation Rayleigh Fading Channel Using Either Clarkes Model or Jakes Model for
Different Doppler Spreads (Ex. 50 Hz and 100 Hz).
2. Generation of Maximal Sequences and Gold Sequences.
3. Design and Simulation FIR Filter Using any Windowing Technique.
4. Design of IIR Filters from Analog Filters.
5. Performance Evaluation of QPSK System over Gaussian AWGN Channel.
6. Performance Evaluation of QPSK System over Rayleigh Fading Channel.
7. Performance Evaluation of RAKE Receiver over Slow Fading Channel.
Page No: 1
G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Rayleigh Fading Channel By Using JAKES or CLARKES Model

Aim:- To Simulate the Rayleigh Fading Channel using Jakes Model for different
Doppler Spreads (ex:50Hz and 100Hz).
Software Required:- Pc with MATLAB R2010a
Theory:Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation
environment on a radio signal, such as that used by wireless devices.
Rayleigh fading models assume that the magnitude of a signal that has passed
through such a transmission medium (also called a communications channel) will
vary randomly, or fade, according to a Rayleigh distribution the radial component
of the sum of two uncorrelated Gaussian random variables.
Rayleigh fading is viewed as a reasonable model for tropospheric and
ionospheric signal propagation as well as the effect of heavily built-up urban
environments on radio signals. Rayleigh fading is most applicable when there is no
dominant propagation along a line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. If
there is a dominant line of sight, Racian fading may be more applicable.
Rayleigh fading is a reasonable model when there are many objects in the
environment that scatter the radio signal before it arrives at the receiver. The Central
limit Theorem holds that, if there is sufficiently much scatter, the channel impulse
response will be well-modeled as Gaussian process irrespective of the distribution of
the individual components. If there is no dominant component to the scatter, then
such a process will have zero mean and phase evenly between 0 and 2 radians. The
envelope of the channel response will therefore be Rayleigh.
Calling this random variable R, it will have a probability density function.
Where = E(R2).
Often, the gain and phase elements of a channel's distortion are conveniently
represented as a complex number. In this case, Rayleigh fading is exhibited by the
assumption that the real and imaginary parts of the response are modelled by
independent and identically distributed zero-mean Gaussian processes so that the
amplitude of the response is the sum of two such processes.
Page No: 2

JAKES Model Diagram:Jakes'
model:-
Jakes
popularized a model for Rayleigh fading based on summing sinusoids. Let the
scatterers be uniformly distributed around a circle at angles n with k rays emerging
from each scatterer. The Doppler shift on ray n is and, with M such scatterers, the
Rayleigh fading of the kth waveform over time t can be modeled as: .
Here, and the and are model parameters with usually set to zero, chosen so that
there is no cross-correlation between the real and imaginary parts of R(t): and used
to generate multiple waveforms. If a single-path channel is being modeled, so that
there is only one waveform then can be zero. If a multipath, frequency-selective
channel is being modeled so that multiple waveforms are needed, Jakes suggests that
uncorrelated waveforms are given by: .
In fact, it has been shown that the waveforms are correlated among themselves
they have non-zero cross-correlation except in special circumstances. The
model is also deterministic (it has no random element to it once the parameters are
chosen). A modified Jakes' model chooses slightly different spacing for the scatterers
and scales their waveforms using Walsh-Hadamard sequences to ensure zero crosscorrelation. Setting
And, Results in the following model, usually termed the Dent model or the modified
Jakes model:
Page No: 3

The weighting functions Ak(n) are the kth Walsh-Hadamard sequence in n.

Since these have zero cross-correlation by design, this model results in uncorrelated
waveforms. The phases can be initialized randomly and have no effect on the
correlation properties. The Fast Walsh transform can be used to efficiently generate
samples using this model.
The Jakes' model also popularized the Doppler spectrum associated with
Rayleigh fading, and, as a result, this Doppler spectrum is often termed Jakes'
spectrum.
Program:%Jake's model%%
clc;
clear all;
N0=8;
N=2*(2*N0+1);
t=250*10^-3;
t1=0:t/(2500):t;
fm=input('enter the Doppler spread frequency fm=');
wm=2*pi*fm;
gamma=1;
fc=900*10^6;
pw1=0;
for s=0:(t/(2500)):t;
xca=0;
xsa=0;
i=1:N0;
wn=wm.*cos(2*pi*i/N);
bt=(pi*i/N0);
for i=1:N0;
x=cos(wn(i)*s);
xca=xca+x.*2*cos(bt(i));
xsa=xsa+x.*2*sin(bt(i));
end
x1=0.707*cos(2*pi*fm*s);
x1ca=x1*2*cos(gamma);
x1sa=x1*2*sin(gamma);
xc=xca+x1ca;
xs=xsa+x1sa;
y=xs.*sin(2*pi*fc*s)+xc.*cos(2*pi*fc*s);
%disp(y)
z=y.^2;
pw=10*log10(z);
pw1=[pw1 pw];
end
%disp(pw1);
plot(pw1(2:length(pw1)));
title(' Rayleigh fading channel by using Jakes model');
xlabel('samples');
Page No: 4

ylabel('power (db)');
% axis([0 120 -50 20]);
grid;
Output results:enter the Doppler spread frequency fm=100Hz
CLARKES MODEL FOR DIFFERENT DOPPLER SPREAD
Page No: 5

Spectral shape due to Doppler spread in Clarkes model:
Developed
spectrum analysis for Clarkes model. Let P ()d denote the function of the total
incoming power with in d of the angle and let A denote the average received
power with respect to an isotropic antenna . As N, P () d approaches a
continuous, rather than a discrete ,distribution . If G ( ) is the azimuthal gain
pattern of the mobile antenna as a function of the angle of arrival, the received
power can be expressed as
Pr=A G( ) P()d
The spectrum is centred on the carrier frequency and is zero outside the limits
of
fcfm. Each of the arriving waves has its own carrier frequency (due to its
direction of arrival) which is slightly offset from the center frequency .For the case
of a vertical /4 antenna (G( )=1.5) and a uniform distribution P()=1/2 over 0 to
2 output spectrum is given by
SE (f)=
Steps to implement the Clarkes simulator:
Specify the number of frequency domain points (N) used to represent

sqrt(sE(f)) and the maximum Doppler frequency Shift (fm). The value used for
N is usually a power of two.

Compute the frequency spacing between adjacent spectral lines as f=2fm/(N-
1). This defines the time duration of a fading waveform T=1/f.

Generate complex Gaussian random variables for each of the N/2
+ve
frequency components of the noise source by conjugating positive frequency
values and assigning these of negative frequency values.

Multiply the in phase and quadrature noise sources by the fading spectrum.
Sqrt (sE(f)).
Perform an IFFT on the resulting frequency domain signals from the in phase
and quadrature arms to get two N-length time series, and add the squares of
each signal point in time to create an N-point time series like under the radical
of equation
|E2(t)|=
=r(t)
Page No: 6

Take the square root of the sum obtained in step6 to obtain an N-point time
series of a simulated Rayleigh fading signal with the power Doppler spread and
time correlation.
Program:%clarkes simulation methodology for multipath fading channel-PROGM-12

clc;
clear all;
N=input('enter the no value of N=');
x1=1/sqrt(2).*randn(1,N/2);
y1=1/sqrt(2).*randn(1,N/2);
f1=(x1+y1*i);
r1=fliplr(conj(f1));
d1=[r1 f1];
%stem(d1);
sell=0;
fm=166;
fc=1800*10^6;
se11=0;
for f=0:(2*(fm)/(N-1)):(fm);
se1=1.5./(pi*fm*(sqrt(1-((f)/fm)^2)));
se11=[se11 se1];
end
se11=se11(2:length(se11));
se12=fliplr(se11);
se13=[se12 se11];
serslt11=sqrt(se13);
mull1=(d1.*serslt11);
mul13=ifft(mull1);
mul15=real(mul13);
mul17=(mul15).^2;
x2=1/sqrt(2).*randn(1,N/2);
y2=1/sqrt(2).*randn(1,N/2);
f2=(x2+y2*i);
r2=fliplr(conj(f2));
d2=[r2 f2];
%stem(d2);
se21=0;
for f2=0:(2*(fm)/(N-1)):(fm);
se2=1.5./(pi*fm*(sqrt(1-((f2)/fm)^2)));
se21=[se21 se2];
end
se21=se21(2:length(se21));
se22=fliplr(se21);
se23=[se22 se21];
serslt21=sqrt(se23);
mul21=(serslt21.*d2);
mul23=ifft(mul21);
mul25=real(mul23);
mul27=(mul25).^2;
summation=plus(mul27,mul17);
result=sqrt(summation);
power=20*log10(result);
%figure
%plot(power);
Page No: 7

normalized=result/max(result);
power1=10*log10(normalized);
figure
plot(power1);
axis tight;
title('CLARKES SIMULATION METHODOLOGY');
xlabel('samples------------>');
ylabel('NORMALIZED POWER(dB)----->');
Output Results:enter the no value of N= 200
Result:Rayleigh Fading channel generated using Clarkes & Jakes Model for different
Doppler Spreads are simulated and verified.
2.MAXIMAL SEQUENCE & GOLD SEQUENCE

Page No: 8

Aim:To generate the maximal sequences and gold sequences.

Theory:A maximum length sequence (MLS) is a type of pseudorandom binary
sequence.
They are bit sequences generated using maximal linear feedback shift registers
and are so called because they are periodic and reproduce every binary sequence that
can be reproduced by the shift registers (i.e., for length-m registers they produce a
sequence of length 2m 1). A MLS is also sometimes called an n-sequence or an
m-sequence. MLSs are spectrally flat, with the exception of a near-zero DC term.
These sequences may be represented as coefficients of irreducible polynomials
in a polynomial ring over Z/2Z.
Practical applications for MLS include measuring impulse responses (e.g., of room
reverberation). They are also used as a basis for deriving pseudo-random sequences
in digital communication systems that employ direct-sequence spread spectrum and
frequency-hopping spread spectrum transmission systems, and in the efficient design
of some MRI experiments
Generation of maximum length sequences
Figure 1: The next value of register a3 in a feedback shift register of length 4 is
determined by the modulo-2 sum of a0 and a1.
MLS are generated using maximal linear feedback shift registers. An MLSgenerating system with a shift register of length 4 is shown in Fig. 1. It can be
expressed using the following recursive relation:
where n is the time index, k is the bit register position, and + represents modulo-2
addition.
Page No: 9

As MLS are periodic and shift registers cycle through every possible binary value
(with the exception of the zero vector), registers can be initialized to any state, with
the exception of the zero vector.
A Gold code, also known as Gold sequence, is a type of binary sequence, used
in telecommunication (CDMA) and satellite navigation (GPS). Gold codes are
named after Robert Gold. Gold codes have bounded small cross-correlations within
a set, which is useful when multiple devices are broadcasting in the same range. A
set of Gold code sequences consists of 2n 1 sequences each one with a period of
2n 1.
A set of Gold codes can be generated with the following steps. Pick two
maximum length sequences of the same length 2n 1 such that their absolute crosscorrelation is less than or equal to 2(n + 2) / 2, where n is the size of the LFSR used
to generate the maximum length sequence (Gold '67). The set of the 2n 1
exclusive-ors of the two sequences in their various phases (i.e. translated into all
relative positions) is a set of Gold codes. The highest absolute cross-correlation in
this set of codes is 2(n + 2) / 2 + 1 for even n and 2(n + 1) / 2 + 1 for odd n.
The exclusive or of two Gold codes from the same set is another Gold code in
some phase.
If l is odd, t = 2(l+1)/2 + 1, and
If l is even, t = 2(l+2)/2 + 1.
Thus, a Gold sequence formally is an arbitrary phase of a sequence in the set
G(u,v) defined by
G(u,v)= {u,v,u * v, u * Tv, u *T2 v, U * T(N-1) v}
Tk denotes the operator which shifts vectors cyclically to the left by k places, *
is the exclusive OR operator and u, v are m-sequences of period generated by
different primitive binary polynomials.
Program:clc;
clear all;
m=input('enter the size of shift registers m =');
N=2^m-1;
tt=-N+1:1:N;
x=ones(1,m);
x1=x;
taps1=input('enter the taps1 =');
taps2=input('enter the taps2 =');
for i=1:N
Page No: 10

y1(i)=x1(m);
x2=xor(x1,taps1);
x1=[x2 x1(1:m)];
end
disp(y1);
%%%Test-1
T1=sum(y1);
disp('total number of of 1s in maximalseq1 1s');
disp(T1);
if(T1==2^(m-1))
disp('maximal sequence is exist between the selected taps1');
else
disp('maximal sequence is NOT exist between the selected taps1');
end
%%%test2
sy1=2*y1-1;
s1=xcorr(sy1,sy1);
figure(1);
plot(s1);
title('Auto correlation of Maximal sequence1');
xlabel('no of samples---->');
ylabel('magnitude---->');
grid;
%%%2nd maximal sequences
for i=1:N
y2(i)=x(m);
x2=xor(x,taps2);
x=[x2 x(1:m)];
end
disp(y2);
%%%Test-1
T2=sum(y2);
disp('total number of of 1s in maximalseq2 1s');
disp(T2);
if(T2==2^(m-1))
disp('maximal sequence is exist between the selected taps2');
else
disp('maximal sequence is NOT exist between the selected taps2');
end
%%%test2
sy2=2*y2-1;
s2=xcorr(sy2,sy2);
figure(2);
plot(s2);
title('Auto correlation of Maximal sequence2');
ylabel('magnitude---->')
grid;
if(T1==T2)
%module-2 of 2'maximalseq is given as gold sequences(y)
y=xor(y1,y2);
g1=2*y-1;
%%%to check 3-value cross correlation function
x=xcorr(sy1,sy2);
figure(3);
plot(x);
title('cross correlation of MLS1&MLS2');
grid;
%%% autocorrelation of gold sequences
Page No: 11

xx=xcorr(g1,g1);
figure(4);
plot(xx);
title('auto correlation of gold sequenceses');
grid;
disp('gold sequences is exist between the selected taps');
else
disp('gold sequences is NOT exist between the selected taps');
end
%%%gold sequence testing by find corss correlation function
c=input('enter the MLsequence1 or MLSequence2 c=');
if(c==1)
seq=sy1;
else
seq=sy2;
end
nn=input('enter the No shift we want nn=');
yz=2*y-1;
yz1=circshift(yz,[0,nn]);
Y=xcorr(seq,yz1);
disp(Y);
figure(5);
plot(Y);
title('3-value checking of goldsequence ');
xlabel('No of samples ');
ylabel('magnitude');
grid;
%xor sub function:
s=6;
z=xor(s,tt);
n=length(tt);
c(1)=xor(s(tt(1)),s(tt(2)));
for i=1:n-2
c(i+1)=xor(s(tt(i+2)),c(i));
end
z=c(length(c));
Output Results:enter the size of shift registers m =7

enter the taps1 =5
enter the taps2 =3
total number of of 1s in maximalseq1 1s
64
maximal sequence is exist between the selected taps1
total number of of 1s in maximalseq2 1s
64
maximal sequence is exist between the selected taps2
gold sequences is exist between the selected taps
enter the MLsequence1 or MLSequence2 c=1
enter the No shift we want nn=23
Page No: 12

Page No: 13

Page No: 14

Figure 1:-
Result:Simulation and verification of Maximal and Gold Sequence, has been verified.
Page No: 15

3. FIR FILTER DESIGN

Aim:- To design and simulate FIR filter using any windowing Technique.
Specifications:Cut-off frequencies:
wc=/2
wc1=/4
wc2=3/4
Ripples:
Pass band = 0.02dB
Stop band = 0.01dB
Frequencies:
Pass band = 1200Hz
Stop band = 1700Hz
Sampling = 9000Hz
Theory:FIR filter are of non-recursive type, where by the present output sample depends
on the present input sample and previous input samples.
The transfer function of FIR causal filter is given by
H(z)=
h(n) is the impulse response of the filter
The Fourier transform of h(n) is
H(
)=
The magnitude response of Lowpass filter with specifications is shown below.

p - Passband ripple
s - Stopband ripple
fp - Passband edge frequency
fs - Stopband edge frequency
Fs Sampling frequency
Page No: 16

In the design of FIR filters using any window technique, the order can be
calculated using the formula given by
N=
Design of FIR filters using window Techniques:The Design frequency response Hd(
) of a filter is periodic in frequency and
can be expanded in fourier services. The resultant services is given by

Hd(
Where
)=
hd(n)=
dw
One possible way of obtaining FIR filter is to truncate the infinite Fourier series
at n=
, where N is the length of the desired sequence. But abrupt truncation of the
Fourier series results in oscillation in the pass band and stop band. There oscillations are
due to slow convergence of the Fourier services and this effect is known as the Gibbs
phenomenon.
To reduce these oscillations, the Fourier coefficients of the filter are modified by
multiplying the infinite impulse response with a finite weighting sequence w(n) called a
window where
w(n) = w(-n) 0 for |n|<=
w(n) = w(-n) =0
for |n|>
After multiplying window sequence w(n) with hd(n), we get a finite duration
sequence h(n) that satisfies the desired magnitude response.
H(n) = hd(n)w(n) for all |n|<=
=0
for |n| >
Page No: 17

The frequency response is H(

Hd(
) of the filter can be obtained by convolution of
) and w(
H(
= Hd(
Because both Hd(
)*w(
and w(
are periodic functions the operation is often
called as periodic convolution.

The frequency response of the filter H(
window w(
) depends on the frequency response of
therefore, the window, chosen after truncating the infinite impulse
response should here some desirable characteristics. They are
The central lobe of the frequency response of the window should contain most of
the energy and should be narrow.
The highest side lobe level of the frequency response should be small.
The side lobes of the frequency response should decrease in energy rapidly as w
tends to .
%FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTION

function z=freqres(l,q,s)
N=l;
wr=0;
wi=s;
for i=1:N
wr=wr+q(i)*exp(-1*j*wi*i);
end
z=wr;
%RECTANGULAR FUNCTION
function z=rect(N)
h=1;
z=h;
%HAMMING FUNCTION
function z=hamm(l)
p=l-1;
n=0:1:p;
h=0.54-0.46*cos(2*pi*n/p);
Page No: 18

z=h;
%HANNING FUNCTION
function z=hann(l)
p=l-1;
n=0:1:p;
h=0.5-0.5*cos(2*pi*n/p);
z=h;
%BLACKMAN FUNCTION
function z=black(l)
p=l-1;
n=0:1:p;
h=0.42-0.5*cos(2*pi*n/p)+0.08*cos(4*pi*n/p);
z=h;
Program:% MATLAB program for FIR Low Pass Filter design
using rectangular window technique
%To find response of an FIR LPF using rectangular window.
clc; clear all; close all;
fc=input('Enter the cut off frequency:');
fs=input('Enter the sampling frequency:');
N=input('Enter the order of the filter:');
if(rem(N,2)~=0)
N=N+1;
end
wn=2*fc/fs;
wr=boxcar(N+1);
b=fir1(N,wn,wr);
freqz(b,1);
OUTPUTS:
Enter the cut off frequency:200
Enter the sampling frequency:1000
Enter the order of the filter:20
Page No: 19

using triangular window technique

Program:
%To find response of an FIR LPF using Triangular window.
if(rem(N,2)~=0)
N=N+1;
end
wn=2*fc/fs;
wr=triang(N+1);
b=fir1(N,wn,wr);
freqz(b,1);
OUTPUTS:
Page No: 20

Page No: 21

using Kaiser window technique

Program:

B=15;
if(rem(N,2)~=0)
N=N+1;
end
wn=2*fc/fs;
wr=kaiser(N+1,B);
b=fir1(N,wn,wr);
freqz(b,1);
OUTPUTS:
using Hamming window technique

Program:
Page No: 22

if(rem(N,2)~=0)
N=N+1;
end
wn=2*fc/fs;
wr=hamming (N+1);
b=fir1(N,wn,wr);
freqz(b,1);
OUTPUTS:
using Hanning window technique

Program:

if(rem(N,2)~=0)
N=N+1;
end
wn=2*fc/fs;
wr=hanning (N+1);
b=fir1(N,wn,wr);
freqz(b,1);
OUTPUTS:
Page No: 23

Result:The design and simulation of an FIR Filter using windowing techniques is

simulated and verified.
Page No: 24

4. IIR FILTER DESIGN

Aim:- To design IIR filters from Analog filters.
Theory:IIR filters are to recursive type, where by the present output sample depends on
the present input, past input samples and output samples.
IIR digital filters have the transfer function of the form
H(z)=
The most common technique used for designing IIR digital filters
known as indirect method, involves first designing analog filter and then
transforming to a digital filter. For the given specifications of a digital filter T/F
requires 3 steps.
Map the desired digital filter specification into those for an equivalent analog
filter.
Derive the analog transfer function for the analog prototype.
Transform the Transfer function of the analog prototype into an equivalent
digital filter transfer function.
Specifications of Magnitude response of a low pass filter is shown in fig:
Wp Pass band frequency in radians.
Ws Stop band Frequency in radians.
Wc 3-db cutoff frequency in radians.
- parameter specifying allowable pass band.
- parameter specifying allowable stop band.
Design of IIR filters from analog filters:There are several methods that can be used to design digital filters
having as infinite duration unit sample response. The techniques described are all
based on converting an analog filter into a digital filter. If the conversation
technique is to be effective, it should posses the following desirable properties.
1. The j-axis in the s-plane should map in to the unit circle in the z-plane. Thus
there will be a direct relationship between the two frequency variables in the two
domains.
2. The Left-half plane of the s-plane should map into the inside of the unit circle in
the z-plane. Thus a stable analog filter will be converted to a stable digital filter.
3. The four most widely used methods for digitizing the analog filter into a digital
filter include.
Page No: 25

1. Approximation of derivatives.
2. The impulse invariant transformation.
3. The bilinear transformation.
4. The matched z-transformation technique.
Design of IIR filter using Bilinear Transformation:The bilinear transformation is a conformal mapping that transforms the j axis
into the unit circle in the z-plane only once, thus avoiding aliasing of frequency
components. Furthermore, all points in the LHP of s are mapped inside the unit
circle in the z-plane and all points in the RHP of s are mapped into corresponding
points outside the unit circle in the z-plane.
Steps to design digital filter using bilinear transform technique:1. From the given specifications, find pre-warping analog frequencies using
formula
=2/T*tanw/2
2. Using the analog frequencies find H(s) of the analog filter.
3. Select the sampling rate of the digital filter, call it T seconds per sample.
4. Substitute s=
into the transfer function found in step2.
Program:% ------- MATLAB program for

clc;
clear all;
close all;
rp=input('enter the passband
rs=input('enter the stopband
wp=input('enter the passband
ws=input('enter the stopband
fs=input('enter the sampling
w1=2*wp/fs;
w2=2*ws/fs;
d=input('enter choice of iir
3.chebyshev type-II :');
if(d==1)
IIR filters
design -------- %
ripple....');
ripple....');
freq......');
freq......');
freq......');
filter 1.butterworth 2.chebyshev type-I
c=input('enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF

if(c==1)
[n,wn]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'low','s');
end
if(c==2)
[n,wn]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'high','s');
end
if(c==3)
[n]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'bandpass','s');
end
if(c==4)
[n]=buttord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
3. BPF 4.BSF:');
Page No: 26

wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=butter(n,wn,'stop','s');
end
end
if(d==2)
end

if(c==1)
[n,wn]=cheb1ord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,'low','s');
end
if(c==2)
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,'high','s');
end
if(c==3)
[n]=cheb1ord(w1,w2,rp,rs,'s');
wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,'bandpass','s');
end
if(c==4)
wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=cheby1(n,rp,wn,'stop','s');
end
3. BPF 4.BSF \n: ');
if(d==3)
if(c==1)
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'low','s');
end
if(c==2)
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'high','s');
end
if(c==3)
wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'bandpass','s');
end
if(c==4)
wn=[w1 w2];
[b,a]=cheby2(n,rp,wn,'stop','s');
end
3. BPF 4.BSF \n: ');
end
w=0:.01:pi;
[h,om]=freqs(b,a,w);
m=20*log10(abs(h));
an=angle(h);
figure,subplot(2,1,1);
plot(om/pi,m,'k','linewidth',2);
title('magnitude response of IIR filter is:');
xlabel('(a) Normalized freq. -->');
ylabel('Gain in dB-->');
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(om/pi,an,'k','linewidth',2);
title('phase response of IIR filter is:');
Page No: 27

xlabel('(b) Normalized freq. -->');
ylabel('Phase in radians-->');
Outputs: MAGNITUDE AND PHASE RESPONSE OF BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS

FILTER
enter the passband ripple....0.5
enter the stopband ripple....40
enter the passband freq......600
enter the stopband freq......200
enter the sampling freq......100
enter choice of iir filter 1.butterworth 2.chebyshev type-I 3.chebyshev type-II :1
enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF 3. BPF 4.BSF: 1

enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF 3. BPF 4.BSF: 2
Page No: 28


enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF 3. BPF 4.BSF:3

enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF 3. BPF 4.BSF:4
Page No: 29

Page No: 30

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE RESPONSE OF CHEBYSHEV TYPE-I

LOW-PASS FILTER
enter choice of iir filter 1.butterworth 2.chebyshev type-I 3.chebyshev typeII :2
enter choice of filter 1. LPF 2. HPF 3. BPF 4.BSF : 1

Page No: 31



Page No: 32


MAGNITUDE AND PHASE RESPONSE OF CHEBYSHEV TYPE-II

LOW-PASS FILTER
Result:Designing of IIR filter from analog has been simulated and verified.
Page No: 33

5. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF QPSK OVER AWGN

Aim:- To simulate and verify the performance evaluation of QPSK over AWGN
channel.
Software Used:- Pc with MATLAB R2010a
Theory:Transmission power and channel Bandwidth are the two main resources in
communication systems.
The channel Bandwidth depends on the Bit Rate or signaling rate fb.
If two or more bits are combined in some symbols then the signaling rate will be
reduced. Thus the frequency of the carrier needed is also reduced.

This reduces the Transmission channel Bandwidth.
In QPSK two bits are combined and hence there is the existence of 4 symbols
possible with each symbol changing there exists the phase of the carrier changed
by /4 radians.
Generation of QPSK:
Here the Binary sequence is transformed from 1s and 0s to
Then the symbol duration would be of 2Tb with Bandwidth fb.

Thus this symbol duration consists of even and odd numbered sequence which is
1s.
then multiplied by the carrier signal of sin(2fct) and cos(2fct). For even and
odd sequence.
Se(t) = be(t)*
sin(2fct)
So(t) = bo(t)*
cos(2fct)
Page No: 34

Then these two signals Se(t) and So(t) are added through adder.
S(t) = b(t)*
fct)+be(t)
fct)
Reception of QPSK:
In this Receiver section the QPSK signal is received at the Receiver and thus the
Received signal is added with channel noise (AWGN channel)

Then the signal is again multiplied by the carrier with both sides of sin(2fct)
and cos(2fct) .
Then it is passed towards the Low pass filter to eliminate high freq: components
and finally the I and Q bits are arranged in order.
Probability of Error:-
The Pe is that the error probability that exists by this communication system.
Thus the Pe for QPSK is being defined by plotting Pe by Eb/No in dB on x-axis
through semilogaritham.
Program:%%Performance Evaluation of QPSK system over Gaussian AWGN channel

clc;
clear all;
e=1;
snrdb=0:1:14;
L=length(snrdb);
n=3000;sp=100;rb=n*sp;
tb=1/rb;fs=3*rb;ts=1/fs;fc=1*rb;
m=tb/ts;
t=0:ts:((n*tb)/2-ts);
for ii=1:L
pe=0;%pe1=0;
snr=10^((ii-1)/10);
sigmao=sqrt(e/snr);
for s=1:sp
Page No: 35

d=rand(1,n)>.5;
d1=d(1:2:n);%ODD TERMS
d2=d(2:2:n);%EVEN TERMS
out1=[];
for i=1:n/2
for j=0:ts/2:(tb-ts)/2
out1=[out1 (-1)^(1+d1(i))];
end
end
out2=[];
for i=1:n/2
out2=[out2 (-1)^(1+d2(i))];
end
end
%out=out(2:length(out));
%plot(t,d);
osc1=sin(2*pi*fc*t);
osc2=cos(2*pi*fc*t);
%plot(t,osc);
tx1=osc1.*out1;
tx2=osc2.*out2;
%%summation to transmit data
tx=tx1+tx2;
% figure
% plot(tx)
%CHANNEL
w=sigmao.*randn(1,length(tx));
rx=w+tx;
%RECEIVER
rx1=rx.*osc1;
rx2=rx.*osc2;
% figure
% plot(rx1)
% length(rx1)
%%%integrator1
ib=0:ts/2:(tb-ts)/2;
for i=0:(length(rx1)/m)-1;
y1(i+1)=trapz(ib,rx1(int32(i*m+1):int32((i+1)*m)));
end
%%%integrater2
end
es1=(y1>0);
es2=(y2>0);
es(1:2:n)=es1;
es(2:2:n)=es2;
%
for i=1:n
%
if(es(i)==d(i))
%
else
%
pe1=pe1+1;
%
end
%
%
end
pe=pe+(sum(xor(d,es)));
disp('data');
disp(d);
disp('geting')
disp(es);
Page No: 36

disp('error is')
disp(pe);
end
% pe2(ii)=pe1;
% BER(ii)=pe2(ii)/(n*sp);
pe1(ii)=pe;
BER(ii)=pe1(ii)/(n*sp);
qf4(ii)=2*qfunc(sqrt(snr));
end
%disp(pe2);
%disp(pe1);
disp('bit error rate is');
disp(BER);
%disp(ber);
semilogy(snrdb,BER,'-o',snrdb,qf4,'-+');
hold all;
axis([ 0 14 10e-7 10e-1 ]);
title('QPSK by using AWGN Channel');
xlabel('Eb/N0(db)-->');
ylabel('Probability of error');
legend('BER','Q');
Outputs:Columns 2998 through 3000

1 0 1
error is
0
bit error rate is
0.1295 0.1049 0.0821 0.0616 0.0437
0.0027 0.0010 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000
0.0293
0
0.0186
0.0112
0.0058
Result:Performance evaluation of QPSK system over Gaussian AWGN Channel is

simulated and the result is verified.
6. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF QPSK OVER RAYLEIGH FADING
CHANNEL
Page No: 37

Aim:- To evaluate the performance of QPSK System over Rayleigh Fading Channel.
Software Required:- Pc with MATLAB 7.5.0
Theory:The model simulates QPSK transmission over a multipath Rayleigh fading
channel. You can control transmission and channel parameters via workspace
variables.
The maximum Doppler shift is computed as v*f/c, where v is the mobile speed,
f is the carrier frequency, and c is the speed of light. For example, a maximum
Doppler shift of 200 Hz (as above) corresponds to a mobile speed of 65 mph (30
m/s) and a carrier frequency of 2 GHz.
By convention, the delay of the first path is typically set to zero. For subsequent
paths, a 1 microsecond delay corresponds to a 300 m difference in path length. In
some outdoor multipath environments, reflected paths can be up to several
kilometers longer than the shortest path. With the path delays specified above, the
last path is 3.6 km longer than the shortest path, and thus arrives 12 microseconds
later.
Together, the path delays and path gains specify the channel's average delay
profile. Typically, the average path gains decay exponentially with delay (i.e., the dB
values decay linearly), but the specific delay profile depends on the propagation
environment. In the delay profile specified above, we assume a 3 dB decrease in
average power for every 4 microseconds of path delay. We have also selected an
option in each channel block's mask dialog to normalize the average path gains so
that their collective gain is 0 dB.
Theoretical BER:BER =
where
Page No: 38

Program:%QPSK OVER RAYLEIGH FADING CHANNEL PROG-6

clc;
clear all;
e=1;
h=1;
w=2*pi;
snrdb=0:1:40;
L=length(snrdb);
n=1000;sp=10;rb=n*sp;
tb=1/rb;fs=3*rb;ts=1/fs;fc=1*rb;
m=tb/ts;
t=0:ts:((n*tb)/2-ts);
for ii=1:L
pe=0;%pe1=0;
snr=10^((ii-1)/10);
sigmao=sqrt(e/snr);
for s=1:sp
d=rand(1,n)>.5;
d1=d(1:2:n);%ODD TERMS
d2=d(2:2:n);%EVEN TERMS
out1=[];
for i=1:n/2
out1=[out1 (-1)^(1+d1(i))];
end
end
out2=[];
for i=1:n/2
out2=[out2 (-1)^(1+d2(i))];
end
end
%out=out(2:length(out));
%plot(t,d);
osc1=sin(2*pi*fc*t);
osc2=cos(2*pi*fc*t);
%plot(t,osc);
tx1=osc1.*out1;
tx2=osc2.*out2;
%%summation to transmit data
tx=tx1+tx2;
% figure
% plot(tx)
% AWGN CHANNEL
p=length(tx);
%w=jakes(p);
w1=sigmao.*randn(1,length(tx));
%%%rayligh fading channel
%tx11=conv(tx,w);
%tx11=tx11(length(w):end);
rx=w+w1+tx;
%RECEIVER
rx1=rx.*osc1;
rx2=rx.*osc2;
% figure
% plot(rx1)
% length(rx1)
%%%integrator1
Page No: 39

end
%%%integrater2
end
es1=(y1>0);
es2=(y2>0);
es(1:2:n)=es1;
es(2:2:n)=es2;
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
for i=1:n
if(es(i)==d(i))
else
pe1=pe1+1;
end
end
disp('data');
disp(d);
disp('geting')
disp(es);
disp('error is')
for i=1:n
if(d(i)==es(i))
else
pe=pe+1;
end
end
%disp(pe);
%pe=pe+(sum(xor(d,es)));
end
% pe2(ii)=pe1;
% BER(ii)=pe2(ii)/(n*sp);
pe1(ii)=pe;
BER(ii)=pe1(ii)/(n*sp);
geta=mean(abs(w))*ii;
%geta=G*(sum(bfad.*bfadt)/sigmao^2);
qf4(ii)=0.5*(1-sqrt(geta/(1+geta)));
%qf4(ii)=2*qfunc(sqrt(snr));
end
%disp(pe2);
% disp(pe1);
disp(BER);
%disp(ber);
hold all;
axis([ 0 40 10e-7 10e-1 ]);
legend('BER','Q');
grid;
%Sub function for Jakes for Rayleigh Fading Channel Generation.
%z=jakes(h);
%clc
%clear all;
N0=8;
Page No: 40

N=2*(2*N0+1);
t=250e-9;
fm=100;%input('')
wm=2*pi*fm;
r=0;
fc=900e6;
s=0:t/h:t-(t/h);
xca=0;xsa=0;
i=1:N0;
wn=wm.*cos(2*pi*i/N);
bt=(pi*i/N0);
for i=1:N0
x=cos(wn(i).*s);
xca=xca+x.*2*cos(bt(i));
xsa=xsa+x.*2*sin(bt(i));
end;
x1=0.707*cos(2*pi*fm*s);
x1ca=x1*2*cos(r);
x1sa=x1*2*sin(r);
xc=xca+x1ca;
xs=xsa+x1sa;
y=xs.*sin(2*pi*fc*s)+xc.*cos(2*pi*fc*s);
z=y.^2;
z=z/max(z);
pw=10*log10(z);semilogy(snrdb,BER,'-o',snrdb,qf4,'-+');
title('QPSK by using Rayleigh Fading Channel');
xlabel('Eb/N0(dB)-->>');
ylabel('Pe(BER) -->>');
legend('BER','Q');
%disp(pw1);plot(y);axis tight;
z=y;
Output:bit error rate is

Columns 1 through 16
0.4327 0.4516 0.4592 0.4695 0.4898 0.4849 0.4858 0.4817 0.4954
0.4984 0.4904 0.4939 0.5053 0.4981 0.4916 0.5048
0.5020 0.5027 0.5054 0.4961 0.5024 0.5014 0.4937 0.5012 0.5055
0.4993 0.4873 0.4952 0.4917 0.4984 0.5070 0.5033
0.4957 0.5007 0.5031 0.5021 0.5011 0.5043 0.5002 0.4988 0.5022
Page No: 41

Result:Performance evaluation of QPSK System over Rayleigh fading channel is

simulated and results are verified.
Page No: 42

8. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF RAKE RECEIVER OVER SLOW

FADING CHANNEL
Aim:- To evaluate the performance of RAKE receiver over slow fading channel.
THEORY:A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of multipath
fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers" called fingers, that is, several
correlators each assigned to a different multipath component. Each finger
independently decodes a single multipath component; at a later stage the
contribution of all fingers are combined in order to make the most use of the
different transmission characteristics of each transmission path. This could very well
result in higher signal-to-noise ratio (or Eb/N0) in a multipath environment than in a
"clean" environment.
The multipath channel through which a radio wave transmits can be viewed as
transmitting the original (line of sight) wave plus a number of multipath
components. Multipath components are delayed copies of the original transmitted
wave traveling through a different echo path, each with a different magnitude and
time-of-arrival at the receiver. Since each component contains the original
information, if the magnitude and time-of-arrival (phase) of each component is
computed at the receiver (through a process called channel estimation), then all the
components can be added coherently to improve the information reliability.
The rake receiver is so named because it reminds the function of a garden rake,
each finger collecting symbol energy similarly to how tines on a rake collect leaves.
Rake receivers are common in a wide variety of CDMA and W-CDMA radio
devices such as mobile phones and wireless LAN equipment.
Rake Receiver Diagram:-
Page No: 43

Rake receiver:If, in a mobile radio channel reflected waves arrive with small relative time
delays, self interference occurs. Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum is often
claimed to have particular properties that makes it less vulnerable to multipath
reception. In particular, the rake receiver architecture allows an optimal combining
of energy received over paths with different. It avoids wave cancellation (fades) if
delayed paths arrive with phase differences and appropriately weighs signals coming
in with different signal-to-noise ratios.
The rake receiver consists of multiple correlators, in which the receive signal is
multiplied by time-shifted versions of a locally generated code sequence. The
intention is to separate signals such that each finger only sees signals coming in over
a single (resolvable) path. The spreading code is chosen to have a very small
autocorrelation value for any nonzero time offset. This avoids crosstalk between
fingers. In practice, the situation is less ideal. It is not the full periodic
autocorrelation that determines the crosstalk between signals in different fingers, but
rather two partial correlations, with contributions from two consecutive bits or
symbols. It has been attempted to find sequences that have satisfactory partial
correlation values, but the crosstalk due to partial (non-periodic) correlations
remains substantially more difficult to reduce than the effects of periodic
correlations.
The rake receiver is designed to optimally detect a DS-CDMA signal
transmitted over a dispersive multipath channel. It is an extension of the concept of
the matched filter.
In a multipath channel, delayed reflections interfere with the direct signal.
However, a DS-CDMA signal suffering from multipath dispersion can be detected
Page No: 44

by a rake receiver. This receiver optimally combines signals received over multiple
paths.
Like a garden rake, the rake receiver gathers the energy received over the
various delayed propagation paths. According to the maximum ratio combining
principle, the SNR at the output is the sum of the SNRs in the individual branches,
provided that
we assume that only AWGN is present (no interference)
codes with a time offset are truly orthogonal
Program:%RAKE RECIVER OVER SLOW FADING CHANNEL PROG-7
clc;
clear all;
e=1;
snrdb=0:1:20;
n=1000;
L=length(snrdb);N=7;code=[1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1];G=7;chipsperslot=7;
bfad=randn(1,10);%[0.1 -0.2 0.3];
bfadt=conj(fliplr(bfad));%[0.3 -0.2 0.1];
ts=100;
tb=200;
t=0:ts:((n*tb/2)-ts);
sp=10;
for ii=1:L
pe1=0;
snr=10^((ii-1)/10);
sigmao=sqrt(sum(bfad.*bfadt)*G/snr);
%%%data generater
d=rand(1,n)>.5;
d1=2*d-1;
%%%%SPREADING THE DATA
% out=conv(d1,code);
out=[];
for i=1:n
out=[out d1(i)*code];
end
K=length(bfad);
mfdata=conv(out,bfad);
%
%% AWGN CHANNEL
w=sigmao.*randn(1,length(mfdata));
rx=w+mfdata;
%
%%AT RECEIVER SIDE
%%%matched filter
mfdata1=conv(rx,conj(fliplr(bfad)));
%delay=length(code)+length(bfad);
getdata=mfdata1(3:length(mfdata1)-2);
%getdata=mfdata1(delay:delay+chipsperslot);
%getdata=getdata(K:length(code):length(getdata));
rdata=getdata;
for i=1:n
rdata(i)= getdata(((K)+(i-1)*N));
end
rd=rdata>0;
Page No: 45

for i=1:n
if(rd(i)==d(i))
else
pe1=pe1+1;
end
end
pe2(ii)=pe1;
%%probability error in simulated system
BER(ii)=pe2(ii)/(n);
%%probability error in theoretical function
geta=G*(sum(bfad.*bfadt)/sigmao^2);
qf4(ii)=0.5*(1-sqrt(geta/(1+geta)));
end
disp(pe2);
disp(qf4);
disp(BER);
hold all;
%axis([0 14 10e-7 10e-1]);
legend(' praticalBER','theoreticalBER');
title('BER performance of RAKE Receiver')
xlabel('snrdb--->');
ylabel('Pe--->');
grid;
Output:bit error rate is

0.2990 0.2930 0.3060 0.2540 0.2520 0.2510 0.2220
0.2000 0.2000 0.1890 0.1740 0.1820 0.1910 0.1740
0.1850 0.1950 0.2100 0.2100 0.2140
0.2040
0.2080
Page No: 46

Result:Performance evaluation of RAKE Receiver is been simulated and verified.
Page No: 47

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G.

PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY: KURNOOL

LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS:

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Rayleigh Fading Channel By Using JAKES or CLARKES Model

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

JAKES Model Diagram:Jakes'

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

The weighting functions Ak(n) are the kth Walsh-Hadamard sequence in n.

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Output results:enter the Doppler spread frequency fm=100Hz

CLARKES MODEL FOR DIFFERENT DOPPLER SPREAD

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Spectral shape due to Doppler spread in Clarkes model:

Steps to implement the Clarkes simulator:

Specify the number of frequency domain points (N) used to represent

N is usually a power of two.

1). This defines the time duration of a fading waveform T=1/f.

frequency components of the noise source by conjugating positive frequency

values and assigning these of negative frequency values.

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Program:%clarkes simulation methodology for multipath fading channel-PROGM-12

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Output Results:enter the no value of N= 200

2.MAXIMAL SEQUENCE & GOLD SEQUENCE

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Aim:To generate the maximal sequences and gold sequences.

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

disp('gold sequences is NOT exist between the selected taps');

Output Results:enter the size of shift registers m =7

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

3. FIR FILTER DESIGN

The magnitude response of Lowpass filter with specifications is shown below.

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

) of a filter is periodic in frequency and

can be expanded in fourier services. The resultant services is given by

for |n| >

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

The frequency response is H(

) of the filter can be obtained by convolution of

are periodic functions the operation is often

called as periodic convolution.

) depends on the frequency response of

therefore, the window, chosen after truncating the infinite impulse

response should here some desirable characteristics. They are

%FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTION

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

using triangular window technique

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

using Kaiser window technique