UNIT III

PART-A
1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GRANITE AND MARBLE ROCK (AUC

APRIL/MAY 2010)

Rock may be defined as plutonic light colored igneous rocks. These are among the most
common igneous rocks. The work granite is derived from Latin word geranium meaning a
grain and obviously refers is the equigranular texture of the Marble is a Essentially a granular
metamorphic rock composed Chiefly of recrystallized calcite. It is a Characterized by a
Granular Structure but the Grain Size shows

2. LIST THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC

GROUP.(AUC APRIL/MAY 2010)
Sedimentary group3

• Sandstone
• limestone
• Shale Congo
• Ganglomerate Metamorphic group

• Quartzite
• Marble
• Slate
• Phyllite
3.WRITE ABOUT THE MINERAL COMPOSITION, ORIGIN AND
PROPERTIES AND USES OF BASALT (AUC NOV/DEC 2009)
Basalts are volcanic igneous rocks formed by rapid coding from lava flows from
volcanoes either over the surface (or) under water on oceanic floors.
COMPOSITION:
Basalts are commonly made up of calcic plagioclase feldspars and a number of Ferro
– magnesium minerals like Augite, hornblende. In fact many types of basalts are
distinguished on the basis of the type and proportion of Ferro magnesia minerals in
them.

OCCURRENCE:

The basaltic rocks form extensive lava flows on the continents and also on the oceanic floors
in almost all the regions of the world.
4. BRING A SHORT NOTE ON DOLERITE (AUCNOV/DEC2009)
It is an intermediate type of igneous rock of plutonic origin with silica percentage generally
lying between 52 – 66 %.

COMPOSITION:There are typically rich in feldspar plagiocose of zodiac group, diorites

also contain accessory minerals like hornblende, biotite and some pyroxenes. TEXTURE:In
texture, diorites show close resemblance to granites and other plutonic rocks. They are coarse
to medium grained and holo-crystalline. OCCURRENCE:Diorite commonly occurs as small
intrusive bodies like dikes, sills, stocks and other irregular masses.

5. GIVE A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF LIMESTONE (AUC NOV/DEC 2011)

These are the most common sedimentary rocks from the non clastic group and are composed
chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate proportions of carbonate of magnesium.
TEXTURE:

• Fossiliterous nature
• Dense and compact texture

TYPES:

Following are common types of limestone’s:

1. Chalk:
2.Shelly limestone:
3.Argillaceous limestone:
4.Lithographic limestone:
6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE CONGLOMERATE AND BRECCIAS
(AUC NOV/DEC 2011)
BRECCIAS:
It is a mechanically formed sedimentary rock. It consists of angular fragments of
heterogenic composition embedded in a fine matrix of clayed material.
The angularity of the fragments indicates that these have suffered very little or even

o Aphaeretic
o Glassy or vitreous o Pyroclastic
o Phaneritic
o Pagmatite

no transport after their disintegration from the parent rocks.

CONGLOMERATES :

These are clastic nature and also belong to rudaceous group. They consist mostly of rounded
fragments of various sizes but generally above 2 mm.The roundness of gravels making the
rock is a useful characteristic to differentiate it from Breccias in which the fragments are
essentially angular.

7. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN BLACK GRANITE (DIORITE) (AUCNOV/DEC

2009)
DIORITE:It is an intermediate type of igneous rock of plutonic origin with silica percentage
generally lying between 52 – 66 %.

COMPOSITION:There are typically rich in feldspar plagiocose of sodic group, diorites also
contain accessory minerals like hornblende, biotite and some pyroxenes. TEXTURE:coarse
to medium grained and hole crystalline. OCCURRENCE:Diorite commonly occurs as small
intrusive bodies like dikes, sills, stocks and other irregular masses

8. DEFINE THE TERM METAMORPHISM . GIVE EXAMPLES (AUC MAY/ JUNE

2010)
It may define as metamorphic process involving essentially formation of new minerals by the
mechanism of chemical replacement of pre-existing minerals under the influence of
chemically active fluids.Three major kinds of Metamorphism differentiated on the basis of
dominant factors are thermal metamorphism, dynamic metamorphism and Dynamo thermal
metamorphism

9. LIST THE FEW TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS (AUC MAY/ JUNE 2012)
The term texture has been defined as the mutual relationship of different mineralogical
constituents in a rock. It is determine by size, shape and arrangement of these constituents
within the body of rock.

10. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN LIMESTONE AND SHALE (AUC MAY/ JUNE 2012)
These are the most common sedimentary rocks from the non clastic group and are composed
chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate proportions of carbonate of magnesium.

It is fine-Grained sedimentary rocks of argillary, composition, these are made up of very

particle of slit and clay
11. DEFINE PETROLOGY?
The branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks such as their formation,
classification and occurrence is called petrology.

12. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MONOMINERALIC ROCK AND POLYMINERALIC

ROCK WITH EXAMPLES?
MONOMINERALIC ROCK:
Rocks composed by a single mineral (e.g.) pyroxenes which is composed at pyroxene only.

POLYMINERALIC:

Rocks composed at more than one mineral and polymineralized rock (e.g.) Granite.

13. DIFFERENTIATE: PLUTONIC ROCK AND VOLCANIC ROCK?

Igneous rocks which have formed at a depth are known as plutonic igneous rock. (e.g.
granite) and those formed from lava and formed mainly at the surface are known as volcanic
igneous rock (e.g Basalt)

PART-B
1. What do you understand by the terms texture is igneous rocks? (AUC

NOV/DEC 2014)

It is defined as the mutual relationship of different mineralogical constituents in a rock. It is

determined by the size, shape and arrangement of these constituents within the body of the
rock.
FACTORS EXPLAINING TEXTURE:

The three factors are,

A. DEGREE OF CRYSTALLIZATION:

All the constituent minerals may be present in distinctly crystallized forms and easily
recognized by unaided eye in non-crystallized form.
1.holocrystaline 2.merocrystaline 3. holohyaline

I. HOLOCRYSTALINE:

When all the constituent minerals are distinctly crystallized.

II. HOLOHYALINE:

When all the constituents are very fine is size and glassy or non crystalline in nature.

B. GRANULARITY:

This defines the grain size of the various components of a rock. Thus the rock texture is
described as:
I. COARSE GRAINED – when the average grain size is above 5 mm the constituent
minerals are then easily identified with naked eye.

II. MEDIUM GRAINED:When the average grains size lies between 5 mm and 1mm use of
magnifying less after becomes necessary for identifying all the constituent mineral
components diagram.
III. FINE GRAINED: When the average grain size is less than 1mm. In such rocks
identification of the constituent mineral grains is possible only with the help of microscope
for which very this rock sections have to be prepared.

C. FABRIC:

This is a composite term expressing the relative grain size of different mineral constituents in
a rock and well as degree of perfection in the form of the crystals. Fabric will be defined by
three terms.
I. PANDO MORPHIC:

When majority of the components are in fully developed shapes.

II. HYPIDIOMORPHIC:

The rock contains crystals of all the categories:

III. ALLOTRIMORPHIC:

When most of the crystals are of anhedral or irregular shapes.

Types of Texture:
These can be broadly divided into five categories.

• Equigranular texture
• In equigranular texture
• Directive texture
• Intergrowth texture
• Inter granular texture
EQUIGRANULAR TEXTURE:
All these textures in which majority of consistent crystals of a rock are broadly equal
in size. In igneous rocks these textures are shown by granites and felsites are often
named as granitic and felsitic textures.
In granitic texture, the constituents are either all coarse grained or all medium grained
and the crystals show ethereal to subhedral outlines. In the felsitic texture the rock is
micro granular the grains being mostly microscopic crystals but these invariably show
perfect outlines.
IN EQUIGRANULAR TEXTURE:
The constituent minerals show marked difference in their relative grain size are
grouped as in equigranular texture.Porphyritic and policlinic textures are important
examples of such textures.
DIRECTIVE TEXTURES:
These textures that indicate the result of flow of magma during the formation of rock
are known as directive texture.
The exhibit perfect parallism of crystals or crystallites in the direction of the flow of
magma. Frachytic textures are common examples.
INTERGROWTH TEXTURE:
During the formation of the igneous rocks two or more minerals may crystallize out
simultaneously in a limited space. So that the resulting crystals are mixed up or
intergroup. Graphic and granophyres texture is example.
INTER GRANULAR TEXTURE:

In certain igneous rock crystals formed at earlier stages may get to arranged that polygonal or
trigonal spaces are left in between them. This texture so produced is called an intergranular
structure.

2. Explain briefly about structure and forms of an igneous rock? (NOV/DEC 2013)
1. STRUCTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are developed on a large scale in the body of an extrusion or intrusion giving rise
to conspicuous shapes or forms are included under the term structures. TYPES

Igneous rocks can be broadly grouped under three headings.

A. STRUCTURE DUE TO MOBILITY OF MAGMA (OR) LAVA:

The mobility of Magma is responsible for a variety of structures that will acquire.

• Flow structure
• Pillow structure
• ropy and blocky lava
• Spherulitic structure
 • Orbicular structure.
FLOW STRUCTURE:
It is defined by the development of parallel or nearly parallel layers or bands in the
body of an igneous rock.

PILLOW STRUCTURE:

This is characterized by the development of bulbous, over lapping, pillow like

surfaces in the body of igneous mass. It is typical structure at rocks formed form
mobile basaltic lava.

1.pillow structure 2. Blocy lava

ROBY AND BLOCKY LAVA:
Highly viscas dry lavas undergo very little movement after their eruption and before cooling.
Their surfaces show broken and fragmented appearance. These are called blocky lag .The
upper surface is smoothly wrinkled rather than actually broken. The surface structure is then
referred as nosy lava.
SPHERULITIC STRUCTURE:
It is distinguished by the presence of this mineral fibers of various sizes arranged in perfect or
semi perfect radial manner about a common centre.

ORBICULAR STRUCTURE:

It is a range type of structure of igneous rocks in this a rock mass appears as if composed of
ball like aggregations.
JOINING STRUCTURE:
Cooling of magma or lava is very often accompanied by development of cracks or joints in
the rocks formed form these sources.

VESICULAR STRUCTURE:

The process of cooling and crystallization is generally accompanied by the escape of these
gases. This leads commonly to the formation of cavities of various sizes and shapes in the
cooled mass.
2. FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The cooled igneous masses occur is nature in a variety of shapes (or) forms. The igneous
mass will acquire on cooling depends on a number of factor such as
a. The structural disposition of the host rock b. The Viscosity of the magma
c. The composition of the magma

d. The environment of which injection of magma

CONCORDANT BODIES: All those nitrogen in which the magma has been injected and
cooled along or parallel to the structural planes of the host rocks are grouped as concordant
bodies. Most important concordant forms are sills, batholiths, laccoliths and laccoliths

SILLS:

These igneous intrusions that have been injected along or between the bedding plane or
sedimentary sequence are known as sills. It is typical of sills that their thickness is much
small than their width and length.
Sills are commonly subdivided into following types:

a. Simple sills
b. Multiples sills
c. Composite sills
d. Differentiated sills
e. Inter formational sheets

PHACOLITHS

These are concordant, small sized intrusive that occupy positions in the through and crests of
bends called folds.

LOPOLITHS:

These igneous intrusions which are associated with structural basins, that are

sedimentary beds inclined towards a common center are termed or Lopoliths. They 70
IGNEOUS EXTRUSIONS:

may from huge bodies of consolidated magma, often many kilometers long and thousands of
meters thick. Lopoliths like sills may be simple, complex or differentiated in character the
terms having same connotations.

LACCOLITHS:

These are concordant intrusion due to which the invaded strata have been arched up or
deformed into a dome. Laccoliths are formed when the magma being injected is considerably
viscous so that it is unable to flow and spread for greater distances. Extreme types of
laccoliths are called bysmaliths and in these the overlying strata get ultimately fractured at the
top of the dome because of continuous injections. DISCORDANT BODIES :

Important types of discordant intrusion are dykes, volcanic necks, and batholiths.

DYKES (DIKES):

These may be defined as columnar bodies of igneous rocks that across the bedding plane (or)
unconformities or cleavage planes and similar structures.
Dykes show great variations in their thickness, length texture and composition. They may be
only few centimeters or many hundred of meters thick.

It is customary to classify dykes as simple dykes, multiple dykes, composite dykes,

differentiated dykes.
TYPES OF DYKES

1. Radiation Dyke 2. Ring Dyke

3. Cone Sheet Dyke

VOLCANIC NECKS:

In such congealed intrusions are termed volcanic necks or volcanic plugs. In outline these
masses may be circular, semicircular, or irregular and show considerable variation is their
diameter.
BATHOLITHS:

These are huge bodies of igneous masses that show both concordant and discordant relations
with the country rock.
In composition batholiths may be made of any type igneous rock. They also exhibit many
types of textures and structures.

The igneous extrusions do not show much complexity in their form. They generally occur as
widely speed, extensive flows covering enormous area and the existing toposcraphy. These
may be layers other sedimentary materials deposited during the volcanic intermissions which
are called inter trapped layers.

3. Write short notes on: i. Granite ii. Diorite iii. Syerite iv. Basalt v. Gabbro.
(MAY/JUNE 2014)(NOV/DEC 2013)
GRANITE
It may be defined as plutonic light color igneous rock. The word granite is derived from Latin
word granum meaning a grain and refers to the equigranular texture of the rock.

COMPOSITION:

Two most common and essential mineral constituents of granites are;

Quartz and Feldspar. Quartz is always recognized by its glassy luxture, high hardness, and
cleavage less transparent. Feldspar may be of two varieties. The potash feldspar and soda
bearing feldspar.
TEXTURE:
Granites are generally coarse to medium grained, Holocrystaline and equigranular rocks.
Granites, graphic, porphyritic and intergrowth texture are the most common types of textures,
met with is granites of different varieties.
TYPES:
Many types of granites are distinguished on the basis of relative abundance is them of some
particular accessory mineral.
White mica, muscovite is present as a prominent accessory mineral. The granite may be
distinguished as muscovite granite.
USE:
Granite finds extensive use in architectural and massive construction where they are finding
in abundance. These rocks have been used extensively in monuments and memorials as
columns and steps and as theoring in buildings.
DIORITE

DEFINITION:

It is an intermediate type of igneous rock of plutonic origin with silica percentage generally
lying between 52 – 66 %.
COMPOSITION:
There are typically rich in feldspar plagiocose of sodic group, diorites also contain accessory
minerals like hornblende, biotite and some pyroxenes. Texture:

In texture, diorites show close resemblance to granites and other plutonic rocks. They are
coarse to medium grained and holo crystalline.
OCCURRENCE:
Diorite commonly occurs as small intrusive bodies like dikes, sills, stocks and other irregular
masses.

SYENITES
DEFINITION:
These are volcanic rocks in which plagioclase feldspar are the predominant constituents
making the potash feldspar only a subordinate member. COMPOSITION:

The most common feldspars of Syenites are orthoclase and alite microcline, Oligoclase and
anorthite are also present is then is subordinate amounts.
TEXTURE:
Syenites show textures broadly similar to those of granites, that is they are coarse to

medium grained Holocrystaline is nature.

TYPES:

Few – Well known types of syenites as follows

I.)NORDMARKITE:
a syenite that contains some amount of quarts in then.
II)MONAZITE :
Feldspar become almost equal to the potash feldspar as essential minerals. LARVIKITE:
It is also sometimes known as blue granite, it is however actually a syenite that contains
feldspar laboratories as a predominant constituent.
NEPHELINE:
These are a group of syenite rocks in which nepheline becomes an important constituent.

GABBRO
DEFINITION:
These are coarse, grained plutonic rocks of basic character. Plagioclase feldspars, of lime –
soda composition are the chief constituents of gabbro’s.
TEXTURE:
Gabbro shows variable texture, generally coarse to medium grained, reaction rim structure is
seen in some gabbro’s.
TYPES:
I. NORITE:
Contains orthomorphic pyroxene like hypersthenes and enstatite in addition to labradorite.
II. GABBRO
It contains monoclinic pyroxenes as the dominant mafic mineral besides the typical feldspars.
III. ANORTHOSITE:
It is a typical monominerallic rock containing generally feldspar labrodorite.
IV. EUCRITE:
It is a gabbroic rock in which feldspar bytwonite or anorthite dominates.
V. TROCTOLITE:
It is that gabbroic rock which contains mainly feldspars and oliumie.
VI. DUNITE:
This gabbroic rock is characterized with the typical absence of felspars and dominance of
oliuise and pyroxenes.
BASALTS
DEFINITION:
Basalts are volcanic igneous rocks formed by rapid coding from lava flows from volcanoes
either over the surface (or) under water on oceanic floors. COMPOSITION:
Basalts are commonly made up of calcic plagioclase felspars and a number of ferro –
magnesian minerals like augite, horn blende. In fact many types of basalts are distinguished
on the basis of the type and proportion of Ferro magnesian minerals in them.

OCCURRENCE:

The basaltic rocks form extensive lava flows on the continents and also on the oceanic floors
in almost all the regions of the world.

4. Explain briefly about Formation and Texture of sedimentary rocks? (MAY/JUNE

2014)(NOV/DEC 2013)
Sedimentary rocks are also called as secondary rocks. This group includes a wide variety of
rocks formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation of sediments.

FORMATION:

The process of formation of sedimentary rocks is ever prevailing. The sediments so produced
are transported to the settling basins such as sea floors where they are deposited, get
compacted and consolidated and finally transformed into a cohesive solid mass.

Sedimentary rocks are broadly grouped into three classes on the basis of their mode of
formation.
Mechanically formed (or) clastic rocks Organically formed rocks
Chemically formed rocks.

1.CLASTIC (MECHANICALLY) FORMED ROCKS:

A. DECAY AND DISINTEGRATION:
The rocks existing on the surface of the earth are exposed to decay and disintegration by the
action of natural agencies like atmosphere, water and ice on them.
The original hand and weren’t rock bodies are gradually broken down into smaller fragments
grains and particles. The disintegrated, loosened material so formed and accumulated near the
source is called as detritus. Hence classic rocks are often also called as detrital rocks.
B. TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS:
The detritus produced from the decay and disintegration of the pro existing rocks forms the
source of the sedimentary rocks but it has to be transported to a suitable place for
transformation again into a rock mass. The running water bodies transport the sediment load
as bed-load, suspended load and dissolved load al dumped at the setting basins.

C. GRADUAL DEPOSITION:

The sediments as produced through weathering and erosion are transported to setting basins.
These basins may be located in different environments such as on the continents, along the
seashores or in deep or in deep – sea environments. In the continental environments may be
included the glacis deposits the fluvial deposit, the glacio fluvial deposits and the eolian
deposits each type giving rise to a definite type of sediment accumulation.

D. DIGENESIS:
The process of transformation of loose sediments deposited in the settlement basins to solid
cohesive rock masses either under pressure a. This cementation is collecting known as
Diagnosis.
2. CHEMICALLY FORMED (NON- CLASTIC) ROCKS:

Water is a great solvent. Water from rains, springs streams, rivers, lakes and underground
water bodies dissolves many compounds from the rocks with which it comes into contact.
In all cases a stage may be reached when the dissolved salts get crystallized out either
through evaporation or through precipitation.

Rock salt may be formed form sodium chloride rich seawater merely by the process of
continued evaporation in bays and lagoons.
C. ORGANICALLY FORMED ROCKS:
These extensive water bodies sustain a great variety of animal and plant life. The hard parts
of many sea organisms are constituted chiefly of calcium and magnesium. Limestone’s are
the best examples of organically formed sedimentary rocks. ENVIRONMENT OF
FORMATION:

FACIES:

The concept of formation of a sedimentary rock in a particular type of environment is

explained by the term facies. There are three main facies a sedimentary rock. a.
CONTINENTAL FACIES:
Sedimentary rocks formed on the continents such as in lakes, rivers, streams, and alluvial
fans are said to belong to the continental facies. Coarse grained rocks like breccia,
Conglomerates and soft sand stone are typical examples of rocks of

continental facies.The rocks of continental facies are, in general relatively less dense, loosely
packed, and often cemented.
B. TRANSITIONAL FACIES:
Some sedimentary rocks may be formed by accumulation and composition of sediments
along the seashore or on the continental shelt that remains partly submerged under sea such
an beaches and deltas. These sediments and rocks developed from the represent the
transitional facie

C .MARINE FACIES:

All sedimentary rocks formed at sea floor and ocean floors are covered under marine facies.
These may be further subdivided in shallow sea deposits and deep marine deposits formed on
ocean floors.
TEXTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

This texture is determined by at least six contributing factors.

I. ORIGIN OF GRAINS:

A sedimentary rock may be partially or wholly composed of clastic grains, or of chemically

formed or organically contributed parts. Thus the rock may show a clastic texture or an on
clastic texture.
II. SIZE OF GRAINS
The grain size in the sedimentary rock varies within wide limits. Three textures recognized
on the basis of grain size are:
Coarse grained rock - average grain size > 5 mm.
Medium grained rock - average grain size between 5 and 1 mm Fine grained rock -
average grain size < 1mm.

III. SHAPE OF GRAINS

The sediments making the rocks may be of various shapes, rounded surrounded, angular and
sub angular.
IV. PACKING OF GRAINS:
Sedimentary rocks may be open packed or porous in textures or densely packed depending
upon their environment of formation. The degree of ___ is generally related to the load of the
overlying sediments during the process of deposition.

V. FABRIC OF GRAINS:

It may contain many elongate particles. Their orientation is studies and described in 77

terms of orientation of their longer axes

5.Write short notes on: 1. Breccias

2. Conglomerate

3. Sand stone
4. Lime stone (MAY/JUNE 2014)

BRECCIAS:

It is a mechanically formed sedimentary rock. It consists of angular fragments of heterogenic

composition embedded in a fine matrix of clayed material.
The angularity of the fragments indicates that these have suffered very little or even no
transport after their disintegration from the parent rocks.

TYPES:
A. BASAL BRECCIAS:
This rock is formed by the sea waters advancing over a coastal region covered with fragments
of cherty and other similar rocks .Once seawater retreats, the loose chert fragments get
cemented together as breccias rocks.
B. FAULT BRECCIAS:
These rocks are made up of angular fragments that have been produced during the process of
faulting.
CONGLOMERATES :
These are clastic nature and also belong to rudaceous group. They consist mostly of rounded
fragments of various sizes but generally above 2 mm.
The roundness of gravels making the rock is a useful characteristic to differentiate it from
breccias in which the fragments are essentially angular.
TYPES:
There are three types:
I. BASAL CONGLOMERATES:
Having gravels derived from advancing sea –waves over subsiding land masses.
II. GLACIAL CONGLOMERATE:
In which gravel making the conglomerate are distinctly of glacid origin.
III. VOLCANIC CONGLOMERATE:

LIME STONES

These are distinct volcanic origins but have subsequently subjected to lot of transport
resulting in their smothering and polishing on litho logical basis conglomerates are grouped
in two classes.
a. OLIGOMICITIC:

Simple in composition, these gravels are made up of quarts, chert and calate.

b. POLYMICTIC:

In this constituent gravels re derived from rocks a all sorts. Igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic all cemented together.
SAND STORES:
These are mostly composed at sand grade particles that have been compacted and
consolidated together in the form of beds in basins of sedimentation. Composition: Quartz
(SiO2) is the most common mineral making the sand stones. Beside, quartz, minerals like
feldspars, micas, garret and magnetite may also be found is small proportions in much
sandstone.

TEXTURE:

Sand stones are in general medium to fine gravised in texture. The individual grains may be
round or angular in outline, loosely packed or densely passed and in sample or interlocking
arrangement.
COLOUR:

Stones naturally occur in a variety of colors, red, brown, grey and white being the most
common colors.
TYPES:
Following types are of common occurrence.

i. SILICEOUS SAND STONES:

Silica (SiO2) is the cementing material in these sand stones. Tis is named Quartzite.

ii. CALCAREOUS SAND STONES:

Those varieties of sandstones in which carbonates of calcium and magnesium are the
centering materials.
iii. ARGILLACEOUS SANDSTONES:
These are among the soft varieties of sandstone because the cementing material is clay that
has not much inherent strength.
DEFINITION: These are the most common sedimentary rocks from the non clastic group
and are composed chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate proportions of carbonate
of magnesium.
COMPOSITION:

Pune limestone is invariably made up of mineral calcite (CaCO3). In the limestone rock
formations, however, presence of dolomite CaMg (CO3)2, quartz, (SiO2) feslpar minerals
and Iron Oxide is rather a common feature.
TEXTURE:

The most important textural feature of limestone’s in their fossiliterous nature. Other varieties
of limestone’s show dense and compact texture. Some may be loosely packed and highly
porous. Others may be compact and homogenous.
TYPES:

Following are common types of limestone’s:

1. CHALK:

It is the purest form of limestone characterized by fine grained earthly texture.

2. SHELLY LIMESTONE:

It has a rich assemblage of fossils that are fully or partly preserved.

3. ARGILLACEOUS LIMESTONE:

It contains clay as a significant constituent and are clearly of alocathonous origin.

4. LITHOGRAPIC LIMESTONE:

These are compact massive homogenous varieties of pure limestone’s that find extensive use
of in litho printing.

6. List the various field and laboratory tests carried out to determine the engineering
properties of rocks (AUC MAY/JUNE 2015)
(A)Laboratory Test
(i) Uniaxial laboratory test

Test carried out on cylinder core sample length diameter ratio of 2 .The results are reduced to
length:diameter ratio of 1 using the relationship

Co=Cs (0.8 + 0.2/L/D)

Co is the observed compressive strength , L and D are the length and diameter of the
specimen actually used in the test
Compressive strength of rocks can be found out.
(ii) Tensile Strength
Can be determined by directly or indirectly.
Direct method is complicated which requires fixing the plate specimen using strong epoxy
resin.
Indirect method is done and calculated using the relation .

Ts= 2P/πDL
L and D are the length and diameter of the specimen

It consist of loading a test cylinder diametrically in such a way that the applied loads would
develop tensile rupturing along the diametrical plane of specimen. Loading is increased
gradually till the test specimen fractures.
(iii)Shear Strength

In lab testing, Bar shaped specimen held with grips supported on both the ends is loaded
slowly at constant rate. Rupture occurs as shear strength of the specimen is exceeded and is
indicated by failure along two planes. The shear strength is found using the relation

S= {1/2P}/A

P – Load at failure
A – Area of cross section (iv) Modulus of elasticity

Indicates the property of undergoing deformation when loaded. The deformation is recovered
when load is removed. Determined with reference to Hook’s law. Test carried out on cylinder
core sample length diameter ratio of 2. The E value depends upon composition, texture and
structure. Rock is grouped into three classes Quasi-elastic rock, Semi-elastic and non-elastic
rocks

E= stress/strain (or) modulus of elasticity

(v) Triaxial test

Assess the behavior of rocks to confining pressure. Cells or jackets have to be used to
perform this test. Consist of metallic container into which oil or liquid is

filled at pressure. Test carried out on cylinder core sample length diameter ratio of 1. Inserted
in the cell and placed under vertical load. Horizontal stress by injecting the fluid.
Deformation at different axial and confining load recorded till failure.

(B)Field Test
(i)Jack Test
It is a Static test conducted to determine the in-situ deformation characteristics of rocks. A
hydraulic is made to rest on one side of the excavation on a base plate or on a concrete
platform cast in-situ.After firmly adjusting the jack ,load is applied through the jack on the
rock wall .Resulting deflections with increasing loads are recorded by strain gauges.

ε= 4P (1-ν2)/Πd2E

(ii)Shear test
The in-situ shear strength of rock is also determined by applying jack test in a slightly
modified manner.it is required that rock exposed for testing should be at least 1m2 at the base
and should have sufficient height to impose sufficient vertical load at the proposed vertical
shearing plane. Each of these blocks is then loaded, one by one, from side by a jack. Any
displacement of the block under such conditions gives an assessment of the shearing
resistance of the rock once applied shearing force and the vertical load are known.

(iii)Seismic test

In an artificial shock, elastic waves originate from the point of shock similar in the earth
quake. The P waves and S waves are taken into consideration while studying

Compos ition

Texture

Occurr ence

the elastic characteristics of rock.