Section 11.6

MAT01A2
Absolute Convergence, the Ratio Test and

the Root Test
Section 11.6
Introduction
Over the last few sections, we looked at what it means for a

sequence and a series to be convergent. We also developed a
number of tests that allow us to test for convergence of a series.
Introduction

In this section, we develop two tests. For these new tests to make
sense, we need two new concepts, namely absolute and
conditional convergence.
Introduction

In this section, we develop two tests. For these new tests to make
sense, we need two new concepts, namely absolute and
conditional convergence.
P
Consider any series an . We can consider the corresponding series
∞
X
|an | = |a1 | + |a2 | + |a3 | + · · ·
n=1
whose terms are the absolute values of the terms of the original
series.
Absolutely Convergent Series
Definition
P
A series an isP
called absolutely convergent if the series of
absolute values |an | is convergent.
Absolutely Convergent Series
Definition
P
A series an isP
called absolutely convergent if the series of
absolute values |an | is convergent.
P
In the case where an is a series of positive terms, then |an | = an
and thus absolute convergence is the same as convergence.
Example 1
The series
∞
X (−1)n−1
n2
n=1
is absolutely convergent because

∞ ∞
X (−1)n−1 X 1 1 1 1
= = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 n2 2 3 4
n=1 n=1
is a convergent p-series (with p = 2).

Example 2
In the last section, we showed that the alternating harmonic series

∞
X (−1)n−1 1 1 1
=1− + − + ···
n 2 3 4
n=1
is convergent.
Example 2
In the last section, we showed that the alternating harmonic series

∞
X (−1)n−1 1 1 1
=1− + − + ···
n 2 3 4
n=1
is convergent. However, it is not absolutely convergent since the

corresponding series of absolute values is
∞ ∞
X (−1)n−1 X 1 1 1 1
= = 1 + + + + ··· ,
n n 2 3 4
n=1 n=1
which is the harmonic series (p-series with p = 1) and is therefore

divergent.
Conditionally Convergent Series
Definition
P
A series an is called conditionally convergent if it is con-
vergent, but not absolutely convergent.
Definition
P
The last example (Example 2) shows that the alternating harmonic

series is conditionally convergent.
Definition
P

Consequently, it is possible for a series to be convergent, but not

absolutely convergent.
Definition
P

Consequently, it is possible for a series to be convergent, but not

absolutely convergent.
Conversely, any absolutely convergent series is convergent (in the

usual sense) as we shall see in the following theorem.
Absolute Convergent Series
Theorem
P
If a series an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.
Theorem
P
Proof
Theorem
P
Proof
For any n ∈ N, consider an and |an |. Since |an | is never negative

we have
an ⩽ |an | (1)
Theorem
P
Proof

we have
an ⩽ |an | (1)
We add |an | to both sides of (1) to obtain
an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)

Theorem
P
Proof

we have
an ⩽ |an | (1)
an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)
Consider the possible values of an + |an |. We have three options

for the value of an :
Theorem
P
Proof

we have
an ⩽ |an | (1)
an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)
Consider the possible values of an + |an |. We have three options

for the value of an :
an < 0 or an = 0 or an > 0
Proof continued. . .
If an < 0 then an + |an | = 0.
If an = 0 then an + |an | = 0.
If an > 0 then an + |an | > 0.
These three scenarios mean that for any n ∈ N we have
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)
Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
P P
Now, if an is absolutely convergent, then 2|an | is convergent.
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
P P
Now, if aP
n is absolutely convergent, then 2|an | is convergent.
Therefore, (an + |an |) is convergent by the Comparison Test.
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
P P
Now, if aP
Therefore, (an + |an |) is convergent by the Comparison Test. In
addition, notice that we may write
X
an
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
P P
Now, if aP
X X X
an = (an + |an |) − |an |.
0 ⩽ an + |an |. (3)

0 ⩽ an + |an | ⩽ 2|an |. (4)
P P
Now, if aPn is absolutely convergent, then 2|an | is convergent.
X X X
an = (an + |an |) − |an |.
P
Hence, an is the difference of two convergent series and is
therefore convergent.
Example 3
Determine whether the series

∞
X cos n cos 1 cos 2 cos 3
= + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 12 2 3
n=1
is convergent or divergent.
Example 3

∞
= + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 12 2 3
n=1
Solution
The series has both negative and positive terms, but it is not
alternating.
Example 3

∞
= + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 12 2 3
n=1
Solution
alternating. The first term is positive, the next three are negative,
Example 3

∞
= + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 12 2 3
n=1
Solution
and the following three are positive—the signs change irregularly.
Example 3

∞
= + 2 + 2 + ···
n2 12 2 3
n=1
Solution
and the following three are positive—the signs change irregularly.
We can apply the Comparison Test to the series of absolute values
∞ ∞
X cos n X | cos n|
2
= .
n n2
n=1 n=1
Solution continued. . .
Since | cos n| ≤ 1 for all n, we have
| cos n| 1
2
≤ 2.
n n
| cos n| 1
2
≤ 2.
n n
X 1
We know that is convergent (p-series with p = 2),
n2
| cos n| 1
2
≤ 2.
n n
X 1
We know that is convergent (p-series with p = 2), hence
n2
X | cos n|
is convergent by the Comparison Test.
n2
| cos n| 1
2
≤ 2.
n n
X 1
We know that is convergent (p-series with p = 2), hence
n2
X | cos n|
is convergent by the Comparison Test.
n2
X cos n
Thus the given series is absolutely convergent and
n2
therefore convergent by the previous theorem.
The Ratio Test
The Ratio Test

∞
an+1 X
(i) If lim = L < 1, then the series an is
n→∞ an
n=1
absolutely convergent (and therefore convergent).
an+1 an+1
(ii) If lim = L > 1 or lim = ∞, then the
n→∞ an n→∞ an
∞
X
series an is divergent.
n=1
an+1
(iii) If lim = 1, then the Ratio Test is inconclusive;
n→∞ an
that is, no conclusion can be P
drawn about the
convergence or divergence of an .
Proof
Proof
(i) We shall employ the Comparison Test to show that the given
series converges.
Proof
series converges. We compare the given series to a convergent
geometric series.
Proof
geometric series. Since L < 1, we can choose a number r such
that L < r < 1.
Proof
that L < r < 1. Since
an+1
lim =L and L<r
n→∞ an
Proof
an+1
lim =L and L<r
n→∞ an
an+1
the ratio will eventually be less than r .
an
Proof
an+1
lim =L and L<r
n→∞ an
an+1
the ratio will eventually be less than r . In other words,
an
there exists N ∈ N such that
an+1
<r whenever n ⩾ N.
an
Proof
an+1
lim =L and L<r
n→∞ an
an+1
the ratio will eventually be less than r . In other words,
an
there exists N ∈ N such that
an+1
<r whenever n ⩾ N.
an
Equivalently,
|an+1 | < |an |r whenever n ⩾ N. (5)

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

obtain
|aN+1 | < |aN |r


obtain
|aN+1 | < |aN |r
|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2


obtain
|aN+1 | < |aN |r
|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2
|aN+3 | < |aN+2 |r < |aN |r 3


obtain
|aN+1 | < |aN |r
|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2
|aN+3 | < |aN+2 |r < |aN |r 3
and, generally,
|aN+k | < |aN |r k for all k ⩾ 1. (6)


obtain
|aN+1 | < |aN |r
|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2
|aN+3 | < |aN+2 |r < |aN |r 3
and, generally,
|aN+k | < |aN |r k for all k ⩾ 1. (6)
Now observe that the series

∞
X
|aN |r k = |aN |r + |aN |r 2 + |aN |r 3 + · · ·
k=1
is convergent because it is a geometric series with 0 < r < 1.

So the inequality (6) together with the Comparison Test

shows that the series
∞
X ∞
X
|an | = |aN+k | = |aN+1 | + |aN+2 | + |aN+3 | + · · ·
n=N+1 k=1
is also convergent.

∞
X ∞
X
|an | = |aN+k | = |aN+1 | + |aN+2 | + |aN+3 | + · · ·
n=N+1 k=1
∞
X
is also convergent. Consequently, the series |an | is
n=1
convergent.

∞
X ∞
X
|an | = |aN+k | = |aN+1 | + |aN+2 | + |aN+3 | + · · ·
n=N+1 k=1
∞
X
n=1
convergent. (Recall that a finite number of terms does not
affect convergence).

∞
X ∞
X
|an | = |aN+k | = |aN+1 | + |aN+2 | + |aN+3 | + · · ·
n=N+1 k=1
∞
X
n=1
convergent. (Recall that a finiteP
number of terms does not
affect convergence). Therefore, an is absolutely convergent.
an+1
(ii) If →L>1
an
an+1
(ii) If →L>1 or
an
an+1 an+1
(ii) If → L > 1 or → ∞, then the ratio will
an an
eventually be greater than 1.
an+1 an+1
an an
eventually be greater than 1. In other words, we can find an
integer N such that
an+1
>1 whenever n ⩾ N.
an
an+1 an+1
an an
integer N such that
an+1
an
and this means that |an+1 | > |an | whenever n ⩾ N.
an+1 an+1
an an
integer N such that
an+1
an
and this means that |an+1 | > |an | whenever n ⩾ N. Hence,
lim an ̸= 0.
n→∞
an+1 an+1
an an
integer N such that
an+1
an
and this means that |an+1 | > |an | whenever n ⩾ N. Hence,
lim an ̸= 0. Therefore, the Test for Divergence says that the
n→∞ P
series an diverges.
an+1
(iii) Part (iii) of the Ratio Test says that if lim = 1, the
n→∞ an
test gives no information.
an+1
n→∞ an
test gives no information. For example, for the convergent
X 1
series we have
n2
an+1
an
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2
= 1
an n2
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2
= 1
=
an n2
(n + 1)2
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
On the other hand, for the divergent series we have
n
an+1
an
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
n
1
an+1
= n+1
1
an n
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
n
1
an+1 n
= n+1
1
=
an n
n + 1
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
n
1
an+1 n 1
= n+1
1
= = 1
→1 as n → ∞
an n
n + 1 1 + n
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
n
1
an+1 n 1
= n+1
1
= = 1
→1 as n → ∞
an n
n + 1 1 + n
an+1 P
Therefore, if lim = 1, the series an might converge
n→∞ an
or it might diverge.
an+1
n→∞ an
X 1
series we have
n2
1
an+1 (n+1)2 n2 1
= 1
= 2
= 2 → 1 as n → ∞.
an n2
(n + 1) 1 + n1
X1
n
1
an+1 n 1
= n+1
1
= = 1
→1 as n → ∞
an n
n + 1 1 + n
an+1 P
Therefore, if lim = 1, the series an might converge
n→∞ an
or it might diverge. In this case, the Ratio Test fails and we
must resort to some other test.
Example 4
∞
X n3
Test the series (−1)n n for absolute convergence.
3
n=1
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
We shall employ the Ratio Test with an = (−1)n :
3n
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
an+1
lim
n→∞ an
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1
lim = lim (−1)n n3
n→∞ an n→∞
3n
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1 (n + 1)3 3n
= lim · 3
n→∞ an n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n
3n
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1 (n + 1)3 3n
= lim · 3
n→∞ an n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n
3n
3
1 n+1
= lim
n→∞ 3 n
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1 (n + 1)3 3n
= lim · 3
n→∞ an n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n
3n
3
1 3

1 n+1 1
= lim = lim 1+
n→∞ 3 n n→∞ 3 n
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1 (n + 1)3 3n
= lim · 3
n→∞ an n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n
3n
3
1 3

1 n+1 1 1
= lim = lim 1+ = <1
n→∞ 3 n n→∞ 3 n 3
Example 4
∞
X n3
3
n=1
Solution
n3
3n
(−1)n+1 (n+1)3
an+1 3n+1 (n + 1)3 3n
= lim · 3
n→∞ an n→∞ n→∞ 3n+1 n
3n
3
1 3

1 n+1 1 1
= lim = lim 1+ = <1
n→∞ 3 n n→∞ 3 n 3
Thus, by the Ratio Test, the given series is absolutely convergent.

Example 5
∞
X nn
Test the convergence of the series .
n!
n=1
Example 5
∞
X nn
n!
n=1
Solution
nn
Since the terms an = are positive, we do not need the absolute
n!
value signs.
Example 5
∞
X nn
n!
n=1
Solution
nn
n!
value signs. Hence,
an+1 (n + 1)n+1 n!
lim = lim · n
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n
Example 5
∞
X nn
n!
n=1
Solution
nn
n!
value signs. Hence,
an+1 (n + 1)n+1 n!
lim = lim · n
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n
(n + 1)(n + 1)n n!
= lim · n
n→∞ (n + 1)n! n
Example 5
∞
X nn
n!
n=1
Solution
nn
n!
value signs. Hence,
an+1 (n + 1)n+1 n!
lim = lim · n
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n
(n + 1)(n + 1)n n!
= lim · n
n→∞ (n + 1)n! n
n
n+1
= lim
n→∞ n
1 n

= lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n
Example 5
∞
X nn
n!
n=1
Solution
nn
n!
value signs. Hence,
an+1 (n + 1)n+1 n!
lim = lim · n
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)! n
(n + 1)(n + 1)n n!
= lim · n
n→∞ (n + 1)n! n
n
n+1
= lim
n→∞ n
1 n

= lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n
Since e > 1, the series is divergent by the Ratio Test.

Although the Ratio Test works, an easier way to see that the series
is divergent, would be to use the Test for Divergence.
is divergent, would be to use the Test for Divergence. Since
nn
an =
n!
nn n · n · n···n
an = = ⩾ n,
n! 1 · 2 · 3···n
it follows that an does not approach 0 as n → ∞.
nn n · n · n···n
an = = ⩾ n,
n! 1 · 2 · 3···n
it follows that an does not approach 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, the
Test for Divergence says that the given series is divergent.
The Root Test
We also have a convenient test when faced with a situation in

which we have nth powers.
The Root Test
We also have a convenient test when faced with a situation in

which we have nth powers. Its proof is similar to the proof of the
Ratio Test and is left as an exercise.
The Root Test

p ∞
X
n
(i) If lim |an | = L < 1, then the series an is
n→∞
n=1
absolutely convergent (and therefore convergent).
p p
(ii) If lim n |an | = L > 1 or lim n |an | = ∞, then the
n→∞ n→∞
∞
X
series an is divergent.
n=1
p
n
(iii) If lim |an | = 1, the Root Test is inconclusive.
n→∞
The Root Test
p
If lim n |an | = 1, part (iii) of the Root Test says that the test is
n→∞
gives
P no information on the convergence or divergence of the series
an .
The Root Test
p
n→∞
gives
an . In other words, the series may converge or diverge.
The Root Test
p
n→∞
gives
an . In other words, the series may converge or diverge. A word
of caution; if L = 1 in the Ratio Test, do not resort to the Root
Test because L will assume the value 1 again.
The Root Test
p
n→∞
gives
an . In other words, the series may converge or diverge. A word
of caution; if L = 1 in the Ratio Test, do not resort to the Root
Test because L will assume the value 1 again. Similarly, if L = 1 in
the Root Test, do not try to use the Ratio Test as it will also be
inconclusive.
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
so
p
n
lim |an |
n→∞
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
so
p
n 2n + 3
lim|an | = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 2
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
so
3
p
n 2n + 3 2+ n
lim|an | = lim = lim 2
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 2 n→∞ 3 +
n
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
so
3
p
n 2n + 3 2+ n 2
= <1
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 2 n→∞ 3 + 3
n
Example 6
∞
2n + 3 n
X
3n + 2
n=1
Solution
We have n
2n + 3
an =
3n + 2
so
3
p
n 2n + 3 2+ n 2
= <1
n→∞ n→∞ 3n + 2 n→∞ 3 + 3
n
Thus the series is absolutely convergent (and therefore convergent)

by the Root Test.
Rearrangements
Observe that if we were to rearrange the order of the terms in a

finite sum, the value of the sum remains unchanged.
Rearrangements

finite sum, the value of the sum remains unchanged. However, this
is not always the caseP for an infinite series! By a rearrangement
of an infinite series an we really mean a series obtained by
changing the order of the terms in the series.
Rearrangements

P
For example, a rearrangement of an could be:
a1 + a2 + a5 + a3 + a4 + a15 + a6 + a7 + a20 + · · ·
Rearrangements

P
a1 + a2 + a5 + a3 + a4 + a15 + a6 + a7 + a20 + · · ·
P
It turns out that if an is an absolutely
P convergent series with
sum s, then any rearrangement of an has the same sum s.
Rearrangements

P
a1 + a2 + a5 + a3 + a4 + a15 + a6 + a7 + a20 + · · ·
P
It turns out that if an is an absolutely
P convergent series with
sum s, then any rearrangement of an has the same sum s.
On the other hand, any conditionally convergent series can be

rearranged to give a different sum.
Rearrangements
To see this, consider the alternating harmonic series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rearrangements
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Multiply (7) by 1/2, to get
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2 (8)
2 4 6 8 2
Rearrangements
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2 (8)
2 4 6 8 2
By inserting zeros between the terms of this series, we obtain
1 1 1 1 1
0 + + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + · · · = ln 2. (9)
2 4 6 8 2
Rearrangements
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2 (8)
2 4 6 8 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 + + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + · · · = ln 2. (9)
2 4 6 8 2
Now, we add the series in equations (7) and (9) and use Theorem
8 (in Section 11.2) to get
1 1 1 1 1 3
1 + − + + − + · · · = ln 2 (10)
3 2 5 7 4 2
Rearrangements
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2 (8)
2 4 6 8 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 + + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + · · · = ln 2. (9)
2 4 6 8 2
1 1 1 1 1 3
1 + − + + − + · · · = ln 2 (10)
3 2 5 7 4 2
Notice that the series in (10) contains the same terms as in (7)
but rearranged so that one negative term occurs after each pair of
positive terms.
Rearrangements
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + − + − + · · · = ln 2 (7)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1
− + − + · · · = ln 2 (8)
2 4 6 8 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 + + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + · · · = ln 2. (9)
2 4 6 8 2
1 1 1 1 1 3
1 + − + + − + · · · = ln 2 (10)
3 2 5 7 4 2
Notice that the series in (10) contains the same terms as in (7)
but rearranged so that one negative term occurs after each pair of
positive terms. The sums of these series, however, are different.
Rearrangements
P
In fact, Riemann proved that if an is a conditionally
P convergent
series and r ∈ R, then there is a rearrangement of an that has a
sum equal to r .
Prescribed tutorial problems
▶ Section 11.6:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 17, 18, 19, 23, 25, 26,
27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 53

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MAT01A2

Absolute Convergence, the Ratio Test and

Over the last few sections, we looked at what it means for a

Over the last few sections, we looked at what it means for a

Over the last few sections, we looked at what it means for a

is absolutely convergent because

is a convergent p-series (with p = 2).

In the last section, we showed that the alternating harmonic series

In the last section, we showed that the alternating harmonic series

is convergent. However, it is not absolutely convergent since the

which is the harmonic series (p-series with p = 1) and is therefore

The last example (Example 2) shows that the alternating harmonic

The last example (Example 2) shows that the alternating harmonic

Consequently, it is possible for a series to be convergent, but not

The last example (Example 2) shows that the alternating harmonic

Consequently, it is possible for a series to be convergent, but not

Conversely, any absolutely convergent series is convergent (in the

For any n ∈ N, consider an and |an |. Since |an | is never negative

For any n ∈ N, consider an and |an |. Since |an | is never negative

an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)

For any n ∈ N, consider an and |an |. Since |an | is never negative

an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)

Consider the possible values of an + |an |. We have three options

For any n ∈ N, consider an and |an |. Since |an | is never negative

an + |an | ⩽ 2|an | (2)

Consider the possible values of an + |an |. We have three options

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Now we combine the inequalities (2) and (3) to give:

Determine whether the series

Determine whether the series

Determine whether the series

Determine whether the series

Determine whether the series

Since | cos n| ≤ 1 for all n, we have

Since | cos n| ≤ 1 for all n, we have

Since | cos n| ≤ 1 for all n, we have

Since | cos n| ≤ 1 for all n, we have

The Ratio Test

|an+1 | < |an |r whenever n ⩾ N. (5)

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

|aN+1 | < |aN |r

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

|aN+1 | < |aN |r

|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

|aN+1 | < |aN |r

|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2

|aN+3 | < |aN+2 |r < |aN |r 3

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

|aN+1 | < |aN |r

|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2

|aN+3 | < |aN+2 |r < |aN |r 3

|aN+k | < |aN |r k for all k ⩾ 1. (6)

If we let n successively equal to N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . in (5), we

|aN+1 | < |aN |r

|aN+2 | < |aN+1 |r < |aN |r 2