UNIT 7

SPRANGER’S SIX VALUE ORIENTATIONS

1. Theoretical person
• The theoretical person is intellectual, values knowledge, seeks eternal truth rather
than the deeper meaning of things – is objective.
2. Economic person
• The economic person is constantly striving to produce something visible and useful.
The economic person uses material, time and space with thrift – gain the maximum
benefit from them.
3. Social person
• The social person is mainly focused on other people. The social person is selfless
and finds involvement with others meaningful.
4. Power person
• The power person finds meaning in life by experiencing him- or herself as a power.
His or her strongest motive is to confirm this life power by being superior to other
people or by influencing and manipulating them.
5. Religious person
• All the facets of the religious person’s life have a spiritual foundation.
6. The aesthetic person
• The aesthetic person values beauty or aesthetic experience.

HOFSTEDE THEORY ON CULTURAL VALUES

• Hofstede related values in the work situation to values systems in cultures.
• Identified types of value systems that affected the thinking of individuals and
organisations:
1. Power distance
• Large/high vs small/low power distance.
• High power distance is characterised by many inequalities, autocratic management
and large remuneration differences.
• Low power distance is characterised by all employees treated as equals, positions of
authority serve a functional purpose.
2. Individualism vs collectivism
• Individualism – individuals have more freedom to make their own decisions and
pursue their own interests.
• Focuses more on individual performance.
• Collectivism – members are strongly integrated into groups and are expected to
adhere to group norms and pursue group purposes.
• Focuses more on team accomplishment, loyalty, interdependence and group
relationships.
3. Masculinity vs femininity
• Masculine – assertiveness, ambition, performance and competition.
• Money and material success considered most important and conflict is handled
upfront.
 • Feminine – modesty, unity, quality of social relationships deemed important and
conflict is handled by careful discussion and compromise.
4. Uncertainty avoidance
• The extent to which change and uncertainty is tolerated and coped with

UNIT 2
THINKING FRAMEWORKS RELATED TO THE NATURE OF WORK AND EMPLOYEES:
1700s to early 1900s Late 1900s to today Contemporary times
• Primary focus on • Still emphasized • More humanistic
self-interest and profit but also paradigm is followed.
maximum profit; considered social • Provides more
• Represented a and humane synergy between
rational and aspects in work. individual and
economic paradigm; • Considered quality organizational need
• Workers were seen of work life and satisfaction.
as lazy, meaning in work.
untrustworthy and as • Balance between
means of production; employer,
• Workers were employee, societal
therefore managed and other interests
strictly; and work design
• Work was designed that considers
to improve work optimal fit between
efficiency and human and other
production of profits. work resources.

THINKING FRAMEWORKS RELATED TO EMPLOYEE AND ORGANISATIONAL MANAGEMENT:

Scientific/classical organisational management approach
• Emphasised the technical and structural.
• Management was mechanical, impersonal and prescriptive and control processes
and
• Regulations were designed to render work processes and procedures rational,
efficient, predictable, ordered and effective.
Complex living socio-technical systems
• All elements and behaviours are related and influential.
• The social, emotional and cognitive needs of employees, relationships in workplace
and social considerations by management are important.
• Employees are considered human capital and most important, all their internal
resources must be developed to be used effectively in business, in conjunction with
the technical and economic resources in business.
• Employees and organisations must be able to change and adapt quickly and use
modern information or intelligence and communication technology effectively in order
to function and remain relevant in the modern world of work and business.
UNIT 9
GROUP DEVELOPMENT
5-stage model of group development:
Forming:
• It involves a lot of uncertainty regarding the group's purpose, structure, and
leadership, often leading to a dependency on the leader.
• Members are unsure about the expected behaviour and may use defence
mechanisms like procrastination and denial to cope with this discomfort.
• This stage concludes when members begin to identify themselves as part of the
group.
Storming:
• It involves conflicts within the group.
• Members resist the group's constraints on individuality and compete for control or
leadership.
• Conflict may take the form of fights or avoidance.
• Pairings may also form as a coping mechanism.
• This stage concludes when a clear leadership hierarchy is established within the
group.
Norming:
• The group decides on how people should behave.
• They create rules, either clearly or without saying them out loud.
• When everyone agrees and follows these rules, the group gets closer, becomes a
united team, and feels like they are part of something special.
Performing:
• The group works well together.
• They stop focusing on getting to know each other and start getting things done.
• They work effectively to solve problems, make decisions, and finish tasks.
• This is the last stage for groups that will be together for a long time.
Adjourning:
• This stage is all about wrapping things up, reflecting on what you accomplished, and
getting ready to move on to new things.
• It's like saying "goodbye for now" to the group and the people you worked with.
The five stages Implications for managers/team leaders
Forming • Welcome members to the team.
• Acknowledge existing uncertainty.
• Organise an ice-breaker.
• Introduce team members to each other.
• Clarify the goal and purpose of the team.
Storming • Clarify leadership of the team and the leadership role.
• Assign and clarify group members’ roles.
• Resolve conflict through confrontation of issues.
• Facilitate interaction between diverse group members.
• Conduct team-building sessions.
• Foster team identity through team branding.
Norming • Discuss behavioural expectations.
• Clarify group protocol or group etiquette.
• Encourage peer control.
• Reward desired behaviour.
Performing • Facilitate information sharing.
• Facilitate problem solving and decision-making.
• Encourage creativity and innovation.
• Provide feedback on group progress.
• Stimulate constructive conflict.
Adjourning • Wrap up activities.
• Celebrate successes.
• Reflect on group experience and effectiveness.

UNIT 8
THE ORGANISATION AS AN OPEN SYSTEM
ORGANISATIONAL DESIGN
• Organisations need to decide how to group and connect people to meet its goals.
• Considers the nature, size, complexity and goals.
• End product is an organogram/ organisational chart.
• Organograms indicate:
✓ Different tasks
✓ Responsibilities
✓ Workflow
✓ Authority
ORGANOGRAM EXAMPLE

• Essentially, we can differentiate between two types of organisational designs:

1. Traditional (Mechanistic)

a) Rigid
b) Relies heavily on function and division.
c) Simple organisational structure
• Small and informal organisations
• Little or no departmentalisation, wide span of control and centralised decision
making.
 d) Bureaucracy
• Standardisation of work processes through policies, rules and uniform
procedures
• Functional departments, centralised decision making, a clear chain of command
and a narrow span of control.
e) Matrix structure
• Combines functional and product departmentalisation (construction, advertising
agencies, hospitals, etc.)
• Dual lines of authority e.g., an engineer will report to senior manager of
engineering and to the project manager.

2. Contemporary/ Modern (Organic)

a) Fluid/ flexible (adapts easier to environmental changes)

b) Fewer rules and procedures
c) Decentralised decision-making
d) Virtual organisations
• Small, core group or organisation that outsources major business functions to
outside individuals or groups.
• The different networking groups are connected via technology (e.g., internet).
e) Team based organisations.
• Self-directed – Teams are made up of employees with diverse skills relevant to
the task or project. Ongoing training. Minimal supervision.
• Cross-functional – members across various levels and departments are brought
together to address mutual problems.
FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
1. Work specialization / division of labour
• The extent to which tasks are divided into jobs.
• High degree (many jobs with a specific task assigned to them) or low degree
(modern organisations encourage multi-skilling and teamwork).
2. Standardisation
• Written procedures, job descriptions, rules and regulations that ensure that routine
jobs are performed uniformly and consistently.
3. Departmentalization
• Grouping of jobs into logical groups or departments.
• Can be based on function, product, geography, process or customer type.
4. Chain of command
• Who reports to whom.
5. Span of control
• How many employees report to a supervisor.
• Narrow span of control (only a few employees report to a supervisor) vs wide span of
control (many employees report to a supervisor).
6. Centralisation and decentralization
• Where in the organisational hierarchy are decisions being made.
• Management makes all the decisions vs empowered employees.

UNIT 6
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• People are motivated by needs that are in hierarchical in nature.
• Needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the those higher up
can be fulfilled.
• Focus was on the factors beyond the most basic survival needs that drive human
behaviour’

Self-Actualization Higher-Order

Ego

Social Lower-Order

Safety/ Security

Physiological
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
LOWER-ORDER:
Physiological needs:
• Related to staying alive and procreating.
• Experienced through physical drive.
Safety/Security:
• Relate to physical safety and psychological security.
Social:
• Relate to interaction and being with others.
HIGHER-ORDER (UNIQUE TO HUMANS):
Ego:
• Relate to people’s desire to achievements (praise, recognition & actions that
enhance social status).
Self-actualization:
• Individual’s desire to achieve one’s full potential.
FOUR ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The needs at the lower in the hierarchy need to be fulfilled before those higher up.
2. Although these needs are present in humans at all times, they are also linked to
development.
3. The needs lower in hierarchy are predominately based on physiology, those higher
up are related to life experience.
4. Personality differences also help explain why people are capable of achieving more
than others.
CRITICISM:
• Too simple, and lower order needs do not always need to be satisfied before higher
order needs can be fulfilled.

Expectancy theory
• Expectancy theory is a motivational concept that suggests an individual's motivation is
influenced by three key factors:
1. Expectancy (E-to-P expectancy): The belief that effort (E) will lead to successful
performance (P).
2. Instrumentality (P-to-O expectancy): The belief that good performance (P) will result
in desired outcomes (O).
3. Valence: The value placed on these outcomes (O).
• Motivation is highest when all three factors are strong. This theory helps explain why
people are motivated to work hard when they believe their efforts will lead to good
performance and desirable rewards.
UNIT 5
DIFFERENT STAGES OF MEMORY
Memory refers to the vast storeroom of information related to experiences, learning,
evaluations and prior knowledge.
Three stages of memory:
1. Sensory memory:
• It holds information entering from the senses for just few seconds or a fraction of a
second.
2. Short-term memory:
• encodes/interprets information from the sensory memory and can hold this
information for only 15 to 30 seconds.
3. Long-term memory:
• has a seemingly limitless capacity for retaining information.

TYPES OF MEMORY
TECHNIQUES TO PROMOTE MEMORY
1. Elaborative rehearsal
• Processing information at deeper levels by making a connection between the object
or information to be remembered and something a person already remembers.
2. Mnemonics
• A way of remembering unrelated facts or figures by organizing them in a way that
makes them easily retrievable E.g., linking them to a song, acronym, place.
3. Organizing
• Breaking up large amounts of information into a smaller section. E.g., divide a
chapter into three subsections for better understanding.
4. Chunking
• When a group of items are remembered as a unit. E.g., the use of abbreviations
such as KFC, UFS etc.
5. Mood state:
• Refers to the emotional state of the individual, and the extent to which there is
congruence between the mood of the individual & type of information to remember.
6. Humour and exaggeration
• Things are better remembered if they are out of the ordinary.
FORGETTING
• Inability to retrieve information stored in the long-term memory
• Cues from the environment may facilitate partial memory of an event, when full memory
on tip of tongue and requires cues.
REASONS FOR FORGETTING
1. Interference effects
• Proactive interference - prior learning interferes with remembering of information
learned later
• Retroactive interference occurs when information learned later interferes with
remembering of prior learning
2. Motivated forgetting
• When person consciously represses memories, ideas or feelings that are unpleasant
or that person does not agree with.
3. Distortion
• When person not exposed to information for a long time and therefore forgets
essential details.
• Forget the old remember the new
• E.g., manager rating performance and disciplinary processes
4. False memories
• Related to distortion
• Involves errors in remembering schemas, in which a person has grouped
experiences.
5. Mood
• Mood or feelings can interfere with memory if encoding did not involve congruence
between the learner’s mood and the content of the information.
PROBLEM SOLVING
• Managers and employees spend lots of time solving problems
• Refers to finding effective solutions to problems
• Analytical and systematic process
STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS
1. Acknowledge that a situation requires problem solving rather than denying that a
problem exists and persisting with ineffective actions.
2. Define and clarify the problem
3. Generate or find alternative solutions by utilising problem-solving strategies.
4. Consider the implications, advantages, disadvantages and risks involved in each
alternative solution.
5. Make a decision by choosing the alternatives with the best projected outcomes.
6. Implement the decision.
7. Reflect on the outcome of the solution as well as the decision-making process followed.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
Various strategies that individuals use to solve problems.
1. Trial-and-error
• Random, haphazard & time-consuming searches for solutions.
• Experimenting with different solutions until one that works is found.
• Used when solutions are not obvious.
2. Algorithms
• Refers to using a process or procedure that will produce a solution to a problem
sooner or later.
• Following a fixed agenda at a meeting is an example of an algorithm.
3. Analogy
• A person uses a solution to an earlier problem to help solve a new one.
4. Changing the representation
• Allows for clarification of essential aspects.
• Visual images in drawings or graphs may be more effective than verbal
presentations.
• Reframing a problem into an interesting challenge.
• This will more likely generate creative solutions than excuses or blame.
5. Heuristics
• Are short cut, best guess solutions to problems in which only the options most likely
to produce a solution are considered.
• Mental shortcuts used to find solutions to problems.
Types of heuristics
Anchoring and adjustment
• Using an estimate as an anchor and then adjusting it based on additional
information.
• E.g., salary decision of new appointment

Availability
 • Estimation of the frequency or probability that an event will occur based on his or her
ability to recall such an event.
• E.g., Manager remembers wrong delivery of supplier in previous month
Representativeness
• Seeing a new situation as similar to a previous situation.
• E.g., HR manager’s recruitment tactic of headhunting
BARRIERS TO PROBLEM SOLVING (DECISION MAKING)
1. Mental set
• A person has learnt to do things in certain ways, & applies the same method.
• People with mental sets try to use the same approach to solve different types of
problems.
• E.g., marketing manager not leveraging social media
2. Functional fixedness
• Involves focussing on the main meaning of an object instead of seeing that it can be
used effectively in other ways.
• E.g., Uber

UNIT 4
FACTORS INFLUENCING SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERCEIVER
• When an individual receives various types of stimuli the perception can be strongly and
subjectively influenced by multiple personal characteristics.
• E.g., the criteria for beauty and attractiveness may be different and subjective.
• Subjective factors include cognitive style, motivation and emotion, needs, beliefs,
preferences, expectations, values, attitudes, prejudices, unique experiences,
background, and personality attributes all influence perception.
• These factors enhance subjectivity and selectivity in perception.
ATTRIBUTES OF STIMULI
• Attributes of perceived objects (stimuli) and influences from the surrounding
environment can have an impact on what is perceived.
• Factors include motion; novelty; sound; proximity; background and size.
• Physical characteristics of people (attractiveness, how they behave, dress, social and
economic status, etc.) influence how they are perceived and judged.
• E.g., beautiful people are judged to be more intelligent than less attractive people and
consequently given preference in certain job decisions.

UNIT 1
SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Name of the subfield What does it deal with?
Clinical psychological disorders
Counselling reduce psychological pain
Career study & facilitate occupational development
Educational & school- study learning problems, teaching processes
Developmental age related changes throughout person’s
lifespan
Social interactions
Cognitive high mental processes
Personality factors that influence personality development
Physiological/Neurological generic factors, brain & nervous system
Psychological research & scientific inquiry
experimental
Psychometrics develop & apply psychological measurements
Health identify causes & symptoms of physical health
& illness
Positive positive aspects of human behaviour
Forensic causes of criminal behaviour
Community improve quality of communities & groups
Cross cultural diversity management
Organisational Psychology
• It is concerned with work organisations as systems of individual employees, work
group behaviour, and having certain structure and dynamics.
• It facilitates employee satisfaction and productivity, organisational efficiency and
employee adjustment.
• In continuously changing world of work and consumer demands, employees and
organisations must be assisted to adapt and transform to be relevant, culture fit and
competitive.
Personnel Psychology
• Focus on utilising individual differences in and between employees and predicting the
optimal employee-organisation fit.
• Tasks and functions include assessment and appraisal of employees, personnel
selection, placement and promotion of employees, training and development,
motivation, reward systems and the construction and validation of personnel-
assessment procedures, performance-appraisal procedures and other personnel
management and organisational procedures.
• Should be advisors to HR – managers and specialists.
Career or vocational psychology/counselling
• It studies career development issues with regard to individuals, employment,
unemployment, career-related issues in organisations and also non-work influencing
factors.
Employment relations/ industrial or labour relations
• It deals with behavioural dynamics, communication and conflict management between
individuals and groups of employees, employers and other parties.
Consumer psychology/ Economic or market psychology
• It is concerned with studying psychological aspects of consumer behaviour.
• Needs, interests & other personal attributes that facilitate the decision making and
motivation in buyers.
Ergonomics
• Concerned with understanding of human interaction between employees and their
technical environment.
Research Methodology
• Entails finding, exploring or verifying psychological knowledge using various methods
of obtaining & processing information to reach certain findings.
Occupational psychological assessment (Psychometrics)
• Entails the development and utilisation of assessment instruments to obtain measures
of attributes and behaviour of employees.
• Determine the validity and reliability of measures.
Human resources management
• An applied field of Personnel and Organisational psychology – involved in employment
management, the daily running and management of personnel, or human resources
and work processes.
• Tasks and roles include acquiring, training, appraising, motivating, rewarding and
disciplining employees and providing a safe, ethical and fair work environment for
employees.
EAP
• It aims to facilitate positive psychological capital or resources in organisations and
employees.
• Keep employees healthy and resilient in order to function optimally.
Other applied fields
• Cross-cultural Industrial Psychology
• Management and leadership
• Entrepreneurship and diversity management.

Nature of industrial and organisational (I-O) psychology

• The scientific study of people in their workplaces. Include application of psychological
knowledge (principles, theory, research findings & methods) to work environments.
• It aims to influence human behaviour & related processes in organisations to get optimal
work & business performance.
• Industrial psychologists & HR specialists can assume various roles & tasks depending on
the specialised field.
✓ Main role: optimise fit between employees & workplaces.
✓ I-O psychology is a science --well founded in theory, research and methodologies to
facilitate employee and organisational behaviour.

BASED ON THE GIVEN SCOPE

DO YOUR BEST!!!
GOOD LUCK!!!