4

CHAPTER

Ecosystems
4.1 4.2 4.3
Energy, Producers, Energy Flow Cycles of Matter
and Consumers in Ecosystems
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 VIDEO

 AUDIO

 INTERACTIVITY

 eTEXT
A Common Kingfisher
captures its meal
 ANIMATION

 VIRTUAL LAB

 ASSESSMENT

HS-LS2-2, HS-LS2-3, HS-LS2-4, HS-LS2-5, HS-LS4-5,

HS-LS4-6, HS-ESS2-6, HS-ETS1-3

112 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

CASE STUDY

What’s to blame for the bloom?

Green slime. Toxic muck. Tourist-repelling, fish-killing scum. Guacamole-thick sludge.
These are just a few of the more polite words used to describe an ugly green “living
carpet” that spread across bodies of water in and around Florida during the summer
of 2016. That “carpet” was an algal bloom— an out-of-control growth of algae. Often,
either algae themselves, or bacteria that grow on dead algae, release poisonous and
often foul-smelling compounds that can kill aquatic animals and affect human health.
Natural blooms of aquatic algae can appear in What’s going on? Some algal blooms—
freshwater and salt-water ecosystems at certain usually mild ones—occur naturally in freshwa-
times of year. Usually natural blooms provide ter and salt-water ecosystems when available
some extra input into the food chain, and color nutrients combine with favorable tempera-
the water green for a while. But not-so-natural tures and other environmental factors. In
blooms produced by the effects of human lakes, natural blooms often occur in spring-
activity, can cause serious problems. The giant time. In coastal oceans, they often occur in
2016 bloom in Florida, for example, started summer. But around the world, in fresh and
in Lake Okeechobee. From there, thick, float- salt water alike, bigger and more frequent
ing mats of algae spread along rivers and into blooms seem to result from several factors
coastal areas along both the Atlantic and Gulf involved in global change.
Coasts. These poisonous mats, so large that Researchers hypothesize that the Florida
they could be seen from space, fouled beaches bloom—which involved both freshwater and
and marinas and killed fish. salt-water ecosystems—was triggered by
Unfortunately, this is not an isolated event. unusually heavy rains. The West Coast bloom
Toxic algal blooms are happening more fre- seems to have been caused by unusually
quently and in more places, growing larger, and warm water in the Pacific.
lasting longer. In 2015, the biggest algal bloom Why would heavy rains trigger a bloom
ever recorded on the United States West Coast in Florida? And why would higher tempera-
stretched all the way from California’s Channel tures cause one off the coast of California?
Islands to the Alaskan Peninsula. That bloom Despite their different causes, did those
forced closures of fish and shellfish industries blooms have anything in common? Do we
in California, Oregon, and Washington for know enough to act in ways that could head
months, causing losses of millions of dollars. off future blooms?
Freshwater algal blooms also occur in small Throughout this chapter, look for
lakes and streams, and can cover many square connections to the CASE STUDY to help you
kilometers in both Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. answer these questions.

Unit 2 Ecology 113

 LESSON

4.1 Energy, Producers,

and Consumers

KEY QUESTIONS
• What are primary
producers?
• How do consumers
obtain energy and
nutrients?

HS-LS2-3: Construct and revise an

explanation based on evidence for the
cycling of matter and flow of energy in
aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

All living things need energy. You think about energy and its rela-
VOCABULARY
tionship to your life all the time, whether you realize it or not, and
autotroph
primary producer
not just when you grab an “energy bar” on your way to exercise. To
photosynthesis control your weight, you need to balance energy you take in, energy
chemosynthesis your body uses at rest, energy you “spend” during exercise, and
heterotroph energy your body stores. When we burn “fossil fuels” we release
consumer energy captured and stored by ancient organisms! But where does
detritus all that energy come from?

READING TOOL Primary Producers

As you read, make a No living thing can create energy, but organisms called autotrophs
concept map to show the can capture energy from nonliving sources and convert it into forms
relationships between living cells can use. Autotrophs also store energy in ways that make
different types of it available to other organisms, which is why they are also called
organisms. Complete the
primary producers. Primary producers are the first producers
concept map in your
of energy-rich compounds that can be used later by other organ-
Biology Foundations
isms. All life depends on primary producers.
Workbook.

Energy From the Sun The energy that powers most life on
Earth comes from sunlight. Algae and plants harness solar energy
to build living tissues through photosynthesis, using that energy
to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich
carbohydrates such as sugars and starches. Photosynthetic primary
producers also add oxygen to the atmosphere and remove carbon
dioxide. Plants are the main primary producers on land. Algae and
plants share that role in freshwater ecosystems, and algae do most
of the heavy lifting in sunlit parts of the ocean. Certain bacteria also
harness sunlight, but use a different kind of photosynthesis. These
bacteria are important primary producers in places such as tidal flats,
salt marshes, and mangrove forests.

114 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

Life Without Light In 1979, biologists discovered thriving eco- BUILD VOCABULARY
systems inhabited by strange animals around volcanic vents spewing
Prefixes The prefix chemo-
superheated water in the pitch-black depths of the Pacific Ocean. means “chemical,” or
Where did the energy that powers life in these ecosystems come “chemistry.” The process of
from? It turns out that the water gushing from those vents is rich in chemosynthesis uses chemi-
energy-rich inorganic compounds. Some bacteria can not only toler- cal energy to produce organic
ate high temperatures near the vent, but can also harness chemical compounds in an organism.
energy from inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide. These
bacteria use a process called chemosynthesis (kee moh sin thuh sis)
in which chemical energy is used to produce carbohydrates as shown
 VIDEO

on the right in Figure 4-1. Around the vents, many chemosynthetic Watch an interactive video
bacteria live inside the tissues of certain types of worms and large that compares the flow of
energy and the roles of pro-
clams. The bacteria pass some of the carbohydrates they produce to
ducers and consumers in two
their animal partners. ecosystems: a kelp forest and
This astonishing discovery opened researchers’ eyes to the eco- a hydrothermal vent.
logical importance of chemosynthesis. Thanks to studies that were
inspired by this work, we now know that chemosynthetic primary pro- Figure 4-1
ducers are a lot more common, and live in many more environments,
than anyone expected. Recent studies have shown that chemosyn-
Photosynthesis
thetic bacteria thrive deep within Earth’s crust, in total darkness and
and Chemosynthesis
exposed to extremely high temperatures. They are also found closer Plants use the energy from
to the surface in underground streams and caves previously thought sunlight to carry out the proc-
to be lifeless. Still other chemosynthetic bacteria live buried in the ess of photosynthesis. Other
mud of tidal flats all over the world. We have a great deal more to autotrophs, such as sulfur
learn about these lightless ecosystems—all of it fascinating. bacteria, use the energy stored
in chemical bonds in a process

 READING CHECK Compare and Contrast How are called chemosynthesis. In both
cases, energy-rich carbohy-
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis similar? How are they different?
drates are produced.

Carbon dioxide
+
Carbon dioxide
Water +
+ Oxygen Carbohydrates
+ +
Carbohydrates Hydrogen sulfide Sulfur
Light Energy + Chemical Energy compounds
Oxygen

Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis

4.1 Energy, Producers, and Consumers 115

 INTERACTIVITY Consumers
Animals, fungi, and many bacteria cannot harness energy directly
Explore producers and from the environment as primary producers do. These organisms,
consumer types such as
known as heterotrophs, must acquire energy from other organisms,
herbivores, omnivores, car-
nivores, scavengers, decom-
usually by eating them. Heterotrophs are also called consumers.
posers, and detritivores. Consumers are organisms that rely on other organisms for
energy and nutrients.

Types of Consumers Consumers are classified by the way

they acquire energy and nutrients from other organisms. Some exam-
ples of the different types of consumers are shown in Figure 4-2.

Beyond Consumer Categories Many organisms do not

fit neatly inside the tidy categories ecologists try to place them in.
 INTERACTIVITY For example, some animals usually described as carnivores, such as
hyenas, will scavenge if they get a chance. Many aquatic animals eat
Figure 4-2 a mixture of algae, bits of animal carcasses, and tiny bits of organic
Consumers matter—including the feces of other animals! Toucans use their razor-
sharp bills to cut up fruit, but they also can swallow frogs, small mam-
Consumers rely on other mals, and even baby monkeys! Consumers often lumped together
organisms for energy and
may also differ from one another in more subtle ways. Herbivores
nutrients. The Amazon
may select different parts of the plants they eat. That’s important
rain forest shelters examples
of each type of consumer, as because different plant parts often contain very different amounts of
shown here. available energy.

Herbivores like this military

macaw obtain energy and
Carnivores kill and eat nutrients by eating plant
other animals. Carnivores leaves, roots, seeds, or fruits.
include snakes, dogs, cats, Common herbivores include
and this giant river otter. cows, caterpillars, and deer.

Scavengers are animals that consume Omnivores are animals that

the carcasses of other animals that eat both plants and other
have been killed by predators or animals. Humans, bears,
have died of other causes. pigs, and this white-nosed
This king vulture is coati are omnivores.
a scavenger.

Detritivores
Decomposers “feed” by chemically breaking such as this giant
down organic matter. This process produces earthworm chew or grind detritus
detritus, or small pieces of dead and particles into smaller pieces. Many
decaying plant and animal types of mites, snails, shrimp, and crabs
remains. Bacteria and fungi, are detritivores. They commonly digest
like these mushrooms, decomposers that live on, and in,
are decomposers. detritus particles.

116 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 Fruits, such as berries are easy to digest,
Analyzing Data
and are usually rich in energy and nutrients.
So it isn’t surprising that many birds and mam-
Ocean Water and
mals feed on these types of foods. The world’s
Oxygen Concentration
human population also gets much of its
Samples of ocean water are taken at different
energy from the seeds of grasses: rice, corn,
depths, and the amount of oxygen in the water
wheat, oats, and barley. at each depth is measured. The results are shown
Leaves are plentiful in many ecosystems, but in the data table.
are low in energy and tough to digest. Why? 1. Analyze Data Describe what happens to
Leaves are composed largely of cellulose. No the amount of available oxygen as you get
deeper in the ocean.
multicellular organism can manufacture an
enzyme to break down cellulose molecules. 2. Infer Light can penetrate to only a depth of
between 50 and 100 m in most ocean water.
Only fungi and certain single-celled organisms
What effect does this have on the water’s
manufacture those enzymes. So how can many oxygen concentration? Explain.
animals eat leaves? Animals that eat leaves have
microorganisms inside their guts that digest cel-
Concentration of Oxygen
lulose for them!
Depth of Oxygen Concentration
Cattle and many other grazing animals Sample (m) (ppm)
spend a long time chewing their food into a 0 7.5
pulp. When they swallow this pulp, it enters a 50 7.4
complex digestive tract, part of which supports 100 7.4
microorganisms that can break down cellulose. 150 4.5
Many grazers periodically regurgitate the mix- 200 3.2
ture of food and bacteria, which is called cud. 250 3.1
Then they chew the cud and reswallow it. Even 300 2.9
with all this extra work, grazers can extract rela-
tively little energy from each mouthful of leaves.
They therefore spend a lot of their time eat-
ing. What’s more, the kind of digestive system
needed to extract energy and nutrients from
leaves is very heavy. That’s why only a handful
of birds eat leaves.

HS-LS2-3

 LESSON 4.1 Review

KEY QUESTIONS 4. Construct an Explanation Termites are insects
that feed on wood, which contains cellulose.
1. What are the two primary sources of energy that
Scientists have observed that some termite spe-
power living systems?
cies prefer wood that has been attacked by fungi.
2. How do consumers obtain energy? Construct an explanation for this observation.
CRITICAL THINKING
3. Develop Models Draw a model to illustrate
the flow of energy from a nonliving source to
an herbivore.

4.1 Energy, Producers, and Consumers 117

 LESSON

4.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

KEY QUESTIONS
• How does energy
flow through
ecosystems?
• How do ecological
pyramids help analyze
energy flow through
trophic levels?

HS-LS2-4: Use mathematical

representations to support claims for
the cycling of matter and flow of energy
among organisms in an ecosystem.

When one organism eats another, energy moves from the “eaten” to
VOCABULARY the “eater.” That sounds simple, but you would be surprised at how
food chain complicated ecological studies of “Who eats whom?” can be!
phytoplankton
food web
trophic level
Food Chains and Food Webs
ecological pyramid In every ecosystem, primary producers and consumers are linked
biomass through feeding relationships. Details of those relationships vary
a lot among ecosystems, but energy always flows in similar ways.
READING TOOL Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from
primary producers through various consumers.
As you read, identify the
main idea and supporting Food Chains The simplest way to think of energy moving through
details under each an ecosystem is to imagine it flowing along a food chain. A food chain
heading. Take notes in your
is a series of organisms in which energy is transferred from one organ-
Biology Foundations
ism to another. Some food chains are very short. In Gorongosa National
Workbook.
Park in Mozambique, an antelope feeds on grass, a primary producer.
A lion feeds upon the antelope, making the lion two steps removed
from the primary producer.
In the open ocean, food chains can be much longer. There, pri-
mary producers are usually tiny floating algae called phytoplankton,
which are mostly eaten by small animal plankton. There are typically
two or three more steps in this food chain to larger fish like tuna,
which are four or five steps from primary producers.

Food Webs In most ecosystems, energy and matter move through

feeding relationships that are much more complicated than a simple
chain. Why? Many animals eat more than one kind of food. For exam-
ple, in many salt marshes along the coast of Florida and other Gulf
states, raccoons and moorhens eat several species of plants, as shown
in Figure 4-3. Several predators, such as alligators and panthers, in turn,
often prey upon these animals. Ecologists call this network of feeding
interactions, through which both energy and matter move, a food web.
118 Chapter 4 Ecosystems
  INTERACTIVITY
Figure 4-3
Food Web Vulture

This illustration of a food web shows

some of the feeding relationships
within a typical marsh ecosystem along
the Gulf Coast. One food chain within
the food web is highlighted in orange.

Alligator

Anhinga
Largemouth bass

Panther

Pig frog

Killifish

Moorhen

Everglades crayfish
Flagfish
Raccoon

White-tailed
deer
Grass shrimp
and worms

Scavenger
Decomposer
Detritivore
Algae Omnivore
Plants, leaves,
Carnivore
seeds, and fruits
Herbivore
Primary producer
Detritus, bacteria, and
associated fungi Consumed after death
Detritus pathway
Feeding relationship

4.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 119

 Food Chains Within Food Webs Look back at Figure 4-3.
 INTERACTIVITY Starting with a primary producer, see how many different routes, or
Use the interactive food food chains, you can take to reach the vulture, panther, or alligator.
web activity to explore the One path, from the algae to the alligator, is highlighted in orange. A
effects of invasive species food web, therefore, is a network that includes all the food chains in
on food webs. an ecosystem. Note that this is a highly simplified representation of
this food web, in which many species have been left out. Now, you
can appreciate how complicated food webs are!

BUILD VOCABULARY Decomposers and Detritivores in Food Webs Decomposers

Academic Words The word and detritivores have vital roles in the movement of energy and
convert means “to change matter through food webs. Look again at the food web. Although
from one form to another.” white-tailed deer, raccoons, shrimp, and flagfish feed at least partly
Decomposers convert, or on primary producers, most producers die without being eaten. In
change, uneaten dead plant the detritus pathway, decomposers convert that dead material to
matter into detritus.
detritus, which is eaten by detritivores, such as shrimp and crayfish.
Decomposition also releases matter in the form of nutrients that
can be used by primary producers as shown in Figure 4-4. Without
decomposers, nutrients would remain locked within dead organisms.

Food Webs and Disturbance Food webs are complex, so

it is difficult to predict exactly how they will respond to an environ-
mental change. Look again at Figure 4-3. Think about questions an
ecologist might ask about changes following a disturbance. What if
an oil spill caused a serious decline in the number of the bacteria and
fungi that break down detritus? What effect do you think that might
have on populations of shrimp and crayfish? Do you think those
Visual Analogy populations would decline? If they did, how might pig frogs change
Figure 4-4 their feeding behavior? How might changes in frog behavior affect
Earth’s Recycling other species?
Center Because food webs contain so many different interactions among
so many different organisms, you might expect that answers to these
Decomposers break down
questions would not be simple or easy to predict—and you’d be
dead and decaying matter and
right! Sometimes the effects of disturbances are minor. Other times a
release nutrients that can be
reused by primary producers. disturbance can have dramatic effects throughout the web.
 Use Analogies How are
decomposers like a city’s recy-  READING CHECK Explain How are food chains and food
cling center? webs related?

Decomposers Primary Producers

120 Chapter 4 Ecosystems
Ecological Pyramids READING TOOL
Each step in a food chain or food web is called a trophic level. Refer to the Pyramid of
Primary producers make up the first trophic level. Various con- Energy visual. Draw a
sumers occupy other levels. One way to illustrate trophic levels concept map that shows
in an ecosystem is with a model called an ecological pyramid. how the terms are related.
Ecological pyramids are models that show the relative amount of
energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain
or food web.

Figure 4-5
Pyramids of Energy Theoretically, there is no limit to the
number of trophic levels in a food web, or the number of organ- Pyramid of Energy
isms on each level. But there’s a catch. Only a small portion of the
Pyramids of energy show the
energy stored in any trophic level is available to organisms at the
amount of energy available at
next level. This is because organisms use up much of the energy they
each trophic level. An ecosys-
acquire on life processes, such as respiration, movement, growth, tem requires a constant supply
and reproduction. Most of the remaining energy is released into the of energy from photosynthetic
environment as heat—a byproduct of these activities. Pyramids or chemosynthetic producers.
of energy show the relative amount of energy available at each
trophic level of a food chain or food web. Third-level
0.1%
consumers
The shape of a pyramid of energy depends on the efficiency
of energy transfer from one trophic level to the next. On average, Second-level
about 10 percent of the energy available within one trophic level 1%
consumers
is transferred to the next trophic level, as shown in Figure 4-5. For
instance, one tenth of the solar energy captured and stored in the First-level
10%
leaves of grasses ends up stored in the tissues of cows and other consumers
grazers. One tenth of that energy—10 percent of 10 percent, or
1 percent of the original amount—gets stored in the tissues of Primary
100%
humans who eat cows. producers

HS-LS2-4

Quick Lab  Open-Ended Inquiry

How Can You Model ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE

Energy Flow in Ecosystems? 1. Use Models About how much energy
1. Using materials of your choice, develop a mathematical is transferred from one trophic level to
model of energy flow through four trophic levels in an eco- the next? How does your model show
system. To start, decide what will represent one energy unit. this flow of energy?
Then, decide what will represent the trophic levels. 2. Evaluate Claims A classmate claims
2. Model the amount of available that energy is conserved as it flows
energy in the first trophic level. through an ecosystem. Use your
Set up a data table to record the model and scientific reasoning to
number of energy units available support or refute this claim.
in your model. 3. Support Claims Support the claim
3. Next, model how this energy that matter is conserved when one
transfers to the second, third, and organism eats another.
fourth trophic levels. Record your
data in your data table.

4.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 121

 Pyramids of Biomass and Numbers The
total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level
is called its biomass. Biomass is usually measured in
grams of organic matter per unit area. The amount
of biomass a given trophic level can support is deter-
mined, in part, by the amount of energy available
to the organisms in that trophic level. A pyramid
of biomass is a model that illustrates the relative
amount of living organic matter in each trophic level
of an ecosystem.
Ecologists interested in the number of organisms
at each trophic level often use a pyramid of numbers.
A pyramid of numbers is a model that shows the
relative number of individual organisms at each
Figure 4-6 trophic level in an ecosystem. In most ecosystems, the
Pyramids of Biomass and Numbers pyramid of numbers is similar in shape to the pyramid
of biomass. The numbers of individuals on each level
With each step to a higher trophic level, decrease from the level below it. To understand this
biomass and numbers decrease. The pyramid point more clearly, imagine that an ecologist marked
shape shows this relationship. off a large field, and then weighed and counted every
organism in that area. The result might look something
like the pyramid in Figure 4-6.
In some cases, however, consumers are much
smaller in size and mass than the organisms they feed
upon. Thousands of insects may graze on a single tree,
 INTERACTIVITY for example. In such cases, the normal pyramid of
numbers may be turned upside down, but the pyramid
Learn more about how energy flows
of biomass usually has the normal orientation. Even a
through ecosystems by interacting with
single tree has a lot more biomass than the insects that
ecological pyramids.
feed on it!

HS-LS2-4

 LESSON 4.2 Review

KEY QUESTIONS 4. Calculate Imagine you have a five-step food
chain. If 100 percent of the energy is available at
1. Energy is said to flow in a “one-way” stream
the first trophic level, what percentage of energy
through an ecosystem. In your own words,
is available at the highest trophic level?
describe what that means.
5. Use Models Choose one of the food chains
2. What are the three types of ecological pyramids?
shown within the food web in Figure 4-3. Write
Explain how each type of pyramid models energy
a paragraph describing the feeding relation-
and matter in ecosystems.
ships among the organisms in the food chain.
CRITICAL THINKING Hint: Use the terms producers, consumers, and
decomposers in your description.
3. Construct an Explanation Suppose there was
a sudden decrease in the number of crayfish in 6. Construct an Explanation Why are decom-
the food web shown in Figure 4-3. Construct posers and detritivores essential parts of all
an explanation to explain how this change may food webs?
affect the food web.

122 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 4.3

LESSON
Cycles of Matter

KEY QUESTIONS
• How does matter
flow between trophic
levels and among
ecosystems?
• How does water cycle
globally?
• What is the
importance of the
main nutrient cycles?
• How does nutrient
availability affect
primary productivity?
All organisms are composed of compounds that act as the building
blocks of living tissue: water, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and HS-LS2-3: Construct and revise an
proteins. Those compounds are mainly made up of elements often explanation based on evidence for the
cycling of matter and flow of energy in
called essential nutrients. Six of these elements—oxygen, hydro- aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
HS-LS2-4: Use mathematical
gen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—are required in representations to support claims for
relatively large amounts. But organisms can’t manufacture these ele- the cycling of matter and flow of energy
among organisms in an ecosystem.
ments and they never get “used up.” So, where do essential nutri- HS-LS2-5: Develop a model to illustrate
the role of photosynthesis and cellular
ents come from? How does their availability affect ecosystems? respiration in the cycling of carbon among
the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere,

Recycling in Nature
and geosphere.
HS-ESS2-6: Develop a quantitative model
to describe the cycling of carbon among
You might think that matter would flow through ecosystems as the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere,
and biosphere.
energy does. But there’s a big difference. As nutrients move through
ecosystems, the compounds they form are often transformed. But
matter is never created or destroyed. Matter flows from one VOCABULARY
trophic level to another, and elements are recycled within and biogeochemical cycle
nutrient
among ecosystems. These cycles, called biogeochemical cycles,
nitrogen fixation
are powered by the flow of energy as shown in Figure 4-7. denitrification
limiting nutrient
Visual Analogy
Figure 4-7 READING TOOL
The Matter Mill Before you read, preview
y and compare each of
rg
e

the cycle diagrams. Take

En

Nutrients are recycled through

Matter
biogeochemical cycles. These cycles of notes in your Biology
es

are powered by the one-way flow of Foundations Workbook.

Cycl

energy through the biosphere, similar

to water powering a mill’s water wheel.

4.3 Cycles of Matter 123

 The processes that drive these cycles can be classified
as biological processes, geological processes, physical and
chemical processes, and processes driven by human activ-
ity, as shown in Figure 4-8. This cycling continues indefi-
nitely, because matter is never created or destroyed.
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Biological Processes Biological processes consist of
any activities performed by living organisms. These include
photosynthesis, eating, “burning” food (respiration), and
eliminating waste products. These processes occur mainly
in the biosphere, but affect the other three spheres as well.

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Geological Processes Geological processes include
volcanic eruptions, formation and breakdown of rock,
and major movements of matter within and below Earth’s
surface. These processes occur mainly in the geosphere,
but also affect the other three spheres.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Physical and Chemical Processes Physical and chemi-
cal processes include cloud formation and precipitation,
the flow of running water, and the action of lightning. These
processes occur primarily in the hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and geosphere, but also affect the biosphere.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Human Activities Human activities that affect these
cycles on a global scale include mining and burning of fos-
sil fuels, clearing land for building and farming, cutting or
burning and replanting of forests, and manufacture and use
of fertilizers. Human causes of global change are found in
the outermost ring of our global change model. Humans
F GLOBAL CHA
ES O NG can change system processes in the four spheres leading to
AUS E
C
EA RTH SYSTEM measurable changes in the system.
E WO
TH
W RK
Hu
es

O re s
us

H he cle Ele B
m io
Ca

an
S

Cy Ec e
Ca
an

n p

Figure 4-8
sp al C s

os
me os

te
Gl
t

nt ste
Cl tal
Hum

ge

he ycle

use
Ele tm

ob
a

re
y
ud

im
A

s
al E

Global Processes and Global Systems

yB

nerg
Global Energ

MEASURABLE
Budget

CHANGES IN THE Biological, geological, physical, and chemical processes,

EARTH SYSTEM as well as human activities, cycle atoms like carbon and
nitrogen, through the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and geosphere. These processes and the Elemental Cycles
s
er cle
El e Hy d
Ec en

a te
os

ph l C y

s
are represented in the Understanding Global Change model.
m r

t te im
e
y

os al C m s Cl nt
e
ph yc e m eos Human activities are located in the model’s outer ring,
e r le s E l G
e
labeled “Causes of Global Change.” Human activities can
affect the global system processes located within the model’s
middle ring, and result in “Measurable Changes in The Earth
Non-hum n Causes
a System.”

124 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

The Water Cycle
Every time you see rain or snow, or watch a river flow, you are wit-
nessing part of the water cycle. Water cycles among the hydro-
sphere, the atmosphere, and the geosphere—sometimes outside
the biosphere and sometimes within it. As Figure 4-9 shows, water
molecules typically enter the atmosphere as water vapor, a gas, when
they evaporate from the ocean or other parts of the hydrosphere.  ANIMATION
Water can also enter the atmosphere from the biosphere by evapo-
rating from leaves of plants in the process of transpiration. This cycle Figure 4-9
is represented in the Understanding Global Change diagram within The Water Cycle
the hydrosphere.
This diagram shows the main
Water vapor may be transported through the atmosphere over
processes involved in the
great distances by winds. If the air carrying the water vapor cools, the
water cycle. Scientists estimate
water condenses into tiny droplets that form clouds. When the drop- that it can take a single water
lets become large enough, they fall as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. On molecule as long as 4000 years
land, some precipitation flows along the surface in what scientists call to complete one cycle.
runoff, until it enters a river or stream that carries it to an ocean or lake.
F GLOBAL CH
SO AN
Water can also be absorbed into the soil and is then called USE GE
CA EARTH SYSTEM
E
groundwater. Groundwater can enter plants through their roots, TH ere Bio
W
ph

Atm W
s

O here
or flow into rivers, streams, lakes, or oceans. Some groundwater

RK
HO
os

S
penetrates deeply enough into the ground to become MEASURABLE
Atmospheric CHANGES IN
part of underground reservoirs. Water that reenters circulation THE EARTH
the atmosphere through transpiration or evaporation SYSTEM

Hyd

e re
begins the cycle anew. So the water cycle, like other Water

ro
ph

ph
H2O
os

s
cycle e re
cycles of matter, can be shown as passing through the Ge
Ocean
atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere. circulation

Water from Atmospheric

oceans and Water (H2O gas)
lakes Water falls to
evaporates the surface as
and then precipitation.
condenses to Surface runoff
form clouds. leads through
rivers to lakes
Groundwater and oceans.
is taken up by Some water
plant roots and seeps into the
then, through ground and
transpiration, becomes
released to the groundwater.
atmosphere.

Ocean
Groundwater

Biological
Physical/Chemical

4.3 Cycles of Matter 125

 In the past, many people viewed the water cycle as a physical phe-
nomenon that affects life but is itself little affected by life. But we now
know that water cycles locally through the biosphere, and that rainfall
patterns can be strongly affected by living organisms. For example,
rainforest trees (Figure 4-10) return a great deal of water to the atmo-
sphere through transpiration from their leaves. That moisture feeds
heavy local rainstorms. Cutting down large tracts of rainforests can
interrupt this cycle, and can cause long-lasting local climate change.
As you will see in subsequent chapters, other human-caused changes
in the biosphere may also affect the global water cycle.

 READING CHECK Interpret Visuals What are the two primary

ways that precipitation passes through the water cycle?

Nutrient Cycles
Nutrients are elements that an organism needs to sustain life.
Every organism needs nutrients to build tissues and carry out
life functions. Like water, nutrients pass through organisms and
the environment through biogeochemical cycles. The cycles that
Figure 4-10 carry carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus through the biosphere
are especially vital for life.
Rainforests Have Many
Benefits Note that oxygen participates in parts of the carbon, nitrogen,
and phosphorus cycles by combining with these elements and
Rainforest trees return water cycling with them through parts of their journeys. Oxygen gas in the
to the atmosphere through atmosphere is released by one of the most important of all biological
transpiration. The trees also activities: photosynthesis. Oxygen is also used in cellular respiration
absorb excess carbon dioxide
by all multicellular forms of life, and many single-celled organisms.
from the atmosphere.

The Carbon Cycle Carbon is a major component of organic

compounds, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
 INTERACTIVITY
acids. In fact, carbon is such a key ingredient of living tissue that
Apply your engineering life on Earth is often described as “carbon-based life.” Carbon in
skills to design a wetland the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is an essential part of many
ecosystem. different kinds of animal skeletons and is also found in several kinds
of rocks. Other forms of carbon make up fossil fuels. Carbon and
oxygen form carbon dioxide gas (CO2), an important component of
the atmosphere. Major reservoirs of carbon are located in all four
global systems. The carbon cycle is shown in Figure 4-11.

Biological Processes Across the biosphere, plants and algae

remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosyn-
READING TOOL thesis, and return some carbon dioxide to the atmosphere through
As you read about a respiration. Primary producers use the carbon dioxide taken in
process, locate it in the during photosynthesis to build carbohydrates. Those carbohydrates
corresponding cycle pass from primary producers to heterotrophs, where they are used
diagrams to help you as energy sources or as part of the raw materials to build proteins,
understand the text. lipids, and nucleic acids.

126 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 When organisms die, decomposers usually break down their bodies,
releasing carbon (and other nutrients). But sometimes, primary producers
are buried before they decompose. Million of years ago, remains of many
Figure 4-11
land plants were buried, and transformed, over time, into coal deposits.
Similarly, buried remains of marine algae were transformed into oil or The Carbon Cycle
natural gas. Over geologic time, this process removed carbon from the
Carbon is found in several large
atmosphere and stored it in the geosphere. That’s why coal, oil, and natu- reservoirs. In the atmosphere, it
ral gas are called fossil fuels. They are, in fact, “fossilized” organic carbon! can be found as carbon dioxide
gas (CO2); in the hydrosphere,
OB
OF GL AL CHA Agricultural as dissolved carbon dioxide; in
S ES NG
U ARTH SYSTEM E activities the geosphere, in rocks and soil,
Burning of CA E eE
H r
T he lemental Cy W
fossil fuels p E
cles Bi
o s
Deforestation/ and underground, as coal and
At OW

O phe
reforestation
s

RK re
petroleum, and calcium carbon-
mo
H

S
Greenhouse MEASURABLE ate; and in the biosphere as
effect Photosynthesis
CHANGES IN organic matter.
THE EARTH CO2

SYSTEM Respiration
Hy

Biological
e
dr

ph er
os

ph

Volcanism er Ele
e m e ntal C yclesGe
os C Carbon cycle Human
Geological
Rock cycle
Physical/Chemical

Atmospheric
Carbon (CO2 gas) Geological activity
releases CO2.

CO2 dissolves
in rainwater.
Burning of forests
and fossil fuels
releases CO2.
CO2 dissolves in
oceans and returns
to the atmosphere.
Forests

Dissolved CO2
CO2 is taken up by
producers during
photosynthesis and
released by cellular
Fossil Fuels respiration. Consumers
(coal, oil, and eat producers and Carbonate
Green
natural gas) release CO2 through Rocks
Algae
cellular respiration.

Decomposition, pressure,
and heat turn organic
matter to fossil fuel over
Geological activity
millions of years. Carbon in turns marine
Marine Sediments sediments into rock.

4.3 Cycles of Matter 127

 Amazingly, we can measure the effects of photosynthesis, res-
 INTERACTIVITY piration, and decomposition on the atmosphere! During our north-
Examine the effects of ern temperate zone summer, primary producers photosynthesize
human activities on the actively, removing carbon dioxide from the air. In winter, photosyn-
water, carbon, and nitrogen thesis slows down, but respiration and decomposition continue,
cycles. returning carbon dioxide to the air. These biological processes cause
enough of a change in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration to
show up in measurements taken at a research station in Hawaii, as
shown in Figure 4-12.

Geological Processes Dissolved carbon dioxide in the oceans

may combine with calcium and magnesium to form insoluble com-
pounds called carbonates. These carbonates can accumulate on
the ocean bottom and combine with skeletons of marine organisms
to form vast deposits that harden into sedimentary rocks such as
limestone and dolomite. In certain places, geological activity forces
those rocks beneath the surface, so deeply that intense heat drives
the carbon dioxide out in gaseous form. When volcanoes erupt, this
underground carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Chemical and Physical Processes Carbon dioxide is constantly

exchanged between the atmosphere and oceans through chemical
Figure 4-12
and physical processes. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also
Atmospheric Carbon dissolve in rainwater, forming a weak acid.
Dioxide Concentrations
Human Activity When we extract coal, oil, and natural gas from the
The graph shows a steady
carbon reservoir in the geosphere and burn them, we return carbon
increase in atmospheric CO2
that was removed and stored over millions of years to the atmosphere
concentrations over the last
several decades. Seasonal in a very short time. We also release carbon from the carbon reserve in
variations—the regular ups the biosphere by clearing and burning forests. The change in atmo-
and downs in the graph—are spheric carbon dioxide levels is shown in Figure 4-12. The carbon
due to variations in photosyn- released by human activity has a significant impact on the global
thesis between summer and carbon cycle. Our addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is
winter. The green regions of significantly adding to the greenhouse effect, raising average global
the satellite map (right) show temperature and driving climate change.
areas of active photosynthesis
in summer.

Atmospheric CO2 Levels

(Mauna Loa Observatory)
Parts per million

400 Monthly values

Normalized values
380
360
340
320

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year
Graph and data copyright Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, December 2016

128 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 Atmospheric
N2 gas is turned Nitrogen (N2 gas)
into fertilizer and Some N2 gas is
applied to crops. fixed by lightning.
Excess may wash
into rivers, streams,
Fertilizer
and the ocean as
plant
runoff. Bacteria fix
Bacteria release N2 gas.
Bacteria fix N2 gas through
Crops
N2 gas. denitrification.
Bacteria
Animals
Bacteria

Bacteria
Dissolved Nitrogen

Roots Soil Nitrogen

(NH3, NO2–, Bacteria
Green
NO3–) Algae
Biological
Human Nitrogen is taken up by primary producers,
reused by consumers, and released by Photosynthesis Respiration
Physical/Chemical
excretion and decomposing matter. CO2

OB
OF GL AL CHA
S ES NG
U ARTH SYSTEM E
The Nitrogen Cycle All organisms require CA E eE ntal C
H r
T he leme ycle Bi W
p E s o s
nitrogen to make amino acids, which combine to form

At OW

O phe
s

RK re
mo
Nitrogen &

H
s

S
Human Cause
proteins, and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA.

Hum
phosphorus NP MEASURABLE
cycles

an Causes
Many different forms of nitrogen occur naturally. The CHANGES IN
THE EARTH
largest reservoir of nitrogen is in the atmosphere, Agricultural SYSTEM

Hy
where nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78 percent of the activities

e
dr

er
ph

os

ph
air we breathe. Nitrogen reservoirs in the biosphere er E le os
e m e ntal C yclesGe
Gl et
oba d g
and geosphere include nitrogen-containing substances such as l E n e rg y B u
Non s
-hu m an C ause
ammonia (NH3), nitrate ions (NO3−), and nitrite ions (NO2−), which are
found in soil, in wastes produced by many organisms, and in dead
and decaying organic matter. There is also a large reservoir of dis- CASE STUDY
solved nitrogen in the hydrosphere. Figure 4-13 shows how different Figure 4-13
forms of nitrogen cycle through the biosphere.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Natural Processes Nitrogen gas is abundant, but most organ- The atmosphere is the larg-
isms can’t use it. Among living organisms, only certain types of est reservoir of nitrogen.
bacteria can convert nitrogen gas into ammonia, a process known as Nitrogen also cycles through
nitrogen fixation. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in soil and on the biosphere, geosphere, and
the roots of plants such as peanuts and peas. Lightning can fix small hydrosphere.
amounts of nitrogen in a process called atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
Other bacteria convert ammonia into nitrite and nitrate, which can
be used by primary producers. When consumers eat producers, those
nitrogen compounds are reused. The bacteria and fungi that act as
decomposers are also vital parts of the nitrogen cycle. Decomposers
release nitrogen compounds from animal wastes and dead organisms
that producers may take up again. Some bacteria obtain energy by
converting nitrates into nitrogen gas, which is released into the atmo-
sphere in a process called denitrification.
4.3 Cycles of Matter 129
 Human Activities Humans have used various forms of organic
CASE STUDY matter as fertilizer for a long time. But our involvement in the nitro-
gen cycle skyrocketed in the early twentieth century after two Nobel
 Exploration Lab Prize-winning German chemists developed an industrial process that
could remove nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and transform it
Guided Inquiry into forms that could be used in fertilizer. Today, the use of this pro-
The Effect of cess around the world enables humans to fix more nitrogen than all
Fertilizer on Algae natural processes combined.
Problem How do excess
nutrients affect the growth The Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorus is essential to life because
of algae? it is part of molecules such as DNA and RNA. Unlike carbon, oxygen,
In this lab, you will plan and and nitrogen, phosphorus does not cycle through the atmosphere.
carry out an investigation One reservoir of inorganic phosphorus is found in the geosphere in
that tests the effects of fertil- the form of phosphate rock and soil minerals. Another reservoir is
izer concentration on algae located in the hydrosphere, in the form of dissolved phosphate and
growth. You will select nutri-
phosphate sediments in both freshwater and marine environments.
ent amounts and compare the
growth of algae when nutrients
The phosphorus cycle is shown in Figure 4-14.
are limited and when nutrients
are abundant. Nutrient Limitation
You can find this lab in your Ecologists are often interested in an ecosystem’s primary productivity—
digital course.
the rate at which primary producers create new organic material.
If ample sunlight and water are available, the primary produc-
tivity of an ecosystem may be limited by the availability of nutri-
CASE STUDY ents. If even a single essential nutrient is in short supply, primary
Figure 4-14 productivity will be limited. All nutrient cycles work together like the
The Phosphorus Cycle gears in Figure 4-15. If any nutrient is in short supply—if any wheel
“sticks”—the productivity of the entire food web can be limited. Any
Phosphorus in the biosphere nutrient whose supply limits productivity is called a limiting nutrient.
cycles among the land, ocean
sediments, and living organisms.

Biological
Human Mine Phosphorus is mined, turned into
Geological fertilizer, and applied to crops.
Excess may wash into rivers,
Fertilizer streams, and the ocean as runoff.
plant
Crops
Phosphate Rock

Geological activity
washes phosphates
Animals Soil from rock into the
Phosphates ocean.

Dissolved
Phosphates Green
Phosphorus is taken up by primary Algae Geological activity
producers, reused by consumers, turns marine sediments
and released by excretion and into rock.
decomposing matter. Phosphates in
Marine Sediments
130 Chapter 4 Ecosystems
Nutrient Limitation in Soil In all but the
Potassium
richest soil, plant growth can be limited by a short
Magnesium Phosphorous
supply of one or more nutrients. Nutrient limitation
is the reason farmers use fertilizers to maximize
crop growth. Most fertilizers contain nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, all of which help
plants grow better in poor soil. Micronutrients such
as calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, and manga-
nese are sometimes included in small amounts. Calcium
Carbon is not included in fertilizers because plants
absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Iron
Applying too much fertilizer to soil near streams
and rivers, however, can disrupt natural nutrient
cycles, with serious consequences.
Boron
Sulfur
Nutrient Limitation in Aquatic
Ecosystems In the ocean, nitrogen is often
the limiting nutrient. Seawater typically contains Nitrogen
only 0.00005 percent nitrogen, or 1/10,000 of the
amount often found in soil. In streams, lakes, and freshwater environ- Visual Analogy
ments, on the other hand, phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient. Figure 4-15
Sometimes, runoff from heavy rains carries large amounts of a Interlocking Nutrients
limiting nutrient from heavily fertilized fields into aquatic ecosystems.
This fertilizer runoff delivers abnormally high concentrations of limit- The movement of each
nutrient through ecosystems
ing nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus into bodies of water.
depends on the movements of
These nutrients stimulate primary producers such as algae to grow
all the others, because all are
and reproduce far beyond their normal rates, causing what is called needed for living systems to
an algal bloom. Severe algal blooms can cover the water’s surface function.
and disrupt the functioning of an entire ecosystem. In the ocean,
excess nitrogen is often the cause of an algal bloom. In freshwater
environments, excess phosphorus is usually the cause.

HS-LS2-3, HS-LS2-4, HS-LS2-5, HS-ESS2-6

 LESSON 4.3 Review

KEY QUESTIONS 6. Construct an Explanation Describe one way in
which water from the ocean may make one com-
1. How does the way that matter cycles through an
plete cycle through the atmosphere and back to
ecosystem differ from the way that energy flows?
the ocean. Include the names of each process
2. What two processes cycle water from the land to involved in your cycle.
the atmosphere?
7. Develop Models Although oxygen does not
3. Why do living organisms need nutrients? have an independent cycle, it moves through the
4. Explain how a nutrient can be a limiting factor in biosphere as part of the carbon cycle. Develop a
an ecosystem. model to illustrate how oxygen fits into the car-
bon cycle. Include the various forms that oxygen
CRITICAL THINKING takes in your model.
5. Analyze Data Based on your knowledge of the 8. CASE STUDY Review the nitrogen and phos-
carbon cycle and the graph in Figure 4-12, pre- phorus cycles. How is fertilizer runoff related to
dict what will happen if humans continue to clear algal blooms?
and burn vast areas of forests for farming.

4.3 Cycles of Matter 131

CASE STUDY WRAP-UP

What’s to blame for

the bloom?
Global change is causing rapidly-spreading, severe algal blooms.
HS-LS2-2, HS-LS4-5, HS-LS4-6

Make Your Case

You’ve learned that algal blooms can form when limiting nutrients
are present, and that other environmental factors help drive rapid
algal growth. Often, global climate change plays a major role. In
2016, winter rains in Florida were unusually heavy. And water in
the eastern Pacific Ocean was unusually warm. But heavy rains and
warmer water alone couldn’t have caused blooms. What other fac-
tors were involved? In Florida, rains washed fertilizer containing both
nitrogen and phosphorus into Lake Okeechobee. The lake reached
flood stage, so that nutrient-rich water had to be diverted into rivers
that flowed to both coasts, driving blooms in both freshwater and
salt water. Might similar factors have fuelled the West Coast bloom?

Communicating Information
1. Ask Questions How could human activities have contributed to both
blooms in different ways? Examine limiting factors for algal growth as
you gather evidence to support your argument.
2. Construct a Solution What actions could be taken in Florida to help
prevent the same situation from occurring again? Conduct research
and cite evidence to support your solution. (Hint: Through what
ecosystem did overflow from Lake Okeechobee pass before people
changed the drainage pattern?)
132 Chapter 4 Ecosystems
 Technology on the Case
Turning Waste Into a Solution
Thick, brown sludge. Clogged pipes. If you think
that’s a problem, you would be correct. But it
turns out it can also be a solution.
Wastewater from homes, businesses, and
even farms often ends up in wastewater treat-
ment plants. These plants process wastewater
so that the water can be returned safely to the
environment. Wastewater contains much more
than just water, including food, feces, dirt,
Careers on the Case soaps, and industrial chemicals.
One of the challenges of treating wastewa-
Work Toward a Solution ter is removing the limiting nutrients, such as
People in many careers help keep aquatic ecosys- phosphorus and nitrogen. If the nutrients are
tems healthy and the water safe for human use. not removed, they may end up in our lakes and
streams. One way that scientists and engineers
Water Quality Technician are working to make wastewater treatment
Bodies of water can be fouled plants more efficient at removing phosphorus is
by living things, such as by harnessing a chemical called struvite. Struvite
bacteria and algae. The itself is a problem for wastewater treatment
water can also contain plants because it accumulates on the walls of
toxic elements or other pipes, eventually leading to clogged pipes.
harmful chemicals. The However, water treatment plants are now being
job of the water quality designed to intentionally make struvite. Why?
technician is to test water Because struvite can be used as a fertilizer.
supplies to make sure they Struvite crystals contain phosphorus, nitro-
meet environmental standards. gen, and magnesium. Producing and collect-
ing struvite results in less phosphorus entering
 VIDEO our waterways. In addition, selling struvite as a
fertilizer allows the facilities to offset the costs
Watch this video to learn about of wastewater treatment. Another benefit of
other careers in biology.
struvite is that the struvite crystals slowly release
nitrogen and phosphate. This slow release
decreases the runoff of limiting nutrients.

Case Study Wrap-Up 133

CHAPTER 4
STUDY GUIDE

Lesson Review
Go to your Biology Foundations Workbook for longer versions of these lesson summaries.

4.1 Energy, Producers, 4.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

and Consumers Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way
With few exceptions, energy for life ultimately stream, from primary producers to various con-
comes from the sun. Primary producers are the first sumers. A food chain is a series of steps in which
producers of energy-rich compounds that are later organisms transfer energy by eating and being
used by other organisms. Primary producers are eaten. A food web is a network of complex feed-
also called autotrophs. ing relationships in an ecosystem.

Organisms that rely on other organisms for energy Ecological pyramids show the relative amount of
and nutrients are called heterotrophs, or consum- energy or matter contained within each trophic
ers. Consumers can be further classified according level in a given food chain or food web. Pyramids
to the type of food they eat. Herbivores eat plants. of energy show the amount of energy available at
Carnivores kill and eat other animals. Omnivores each trophic level. Pyramids of biomass and num-
eat both plant and animal matter. Scavengers bers show the relative amounts of living organic
eat the carcasses of dead animals. Decomposers matter and relative numbers of individual organ-
chemically break down organic matter, producing isms, respectively, at each trophic level.
detritus. Detritivores eat detritus.
• food chain • trophic level
• autotroph • heterotroph • phytoplankton • ecological pyramid
• primary producer • consumer • food web • biomass
• photosynthesis • detritus
• chemosynthesis
4.3 Cycles of Matter
Matter is recycled within and among ecosystems,
unlike the one-way flow of energy. Matter cycles
through organisms and the environment through
biogeochemical cycles. The flow of matter can
involve biological processes, geological processes,
chemical and physical processes, and human activ-
ity. These global processes cycle matter through
global systems.
A B
Water cycles among the oceans, atmosphere, and
land. The water cycle affects life and is affected by
living organisms.

Every organism needs nutrients to survive. The

carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are espe-
cially important for life. The availability of nutrients
can influence the long-term survival of organisms.
If ample sunlight and water are available, the
C D
primary productivity of an ecosystem may still be
limited by the availability of nutrients.
 Identify Is each organism shown a producer,
an herbivore, a carnivore, or a decomposer?
• biogeochemical cycle • denitrification
• nutrient • limiting nutrient
• nitrogen fixation

134 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 Photosynthesis Respiration
CO2

F GLOBAL CH
E SO AN
AUS A RTH SYSTE GE
C E E M
THherelemental Cycles BioW
p E s
At OW

O phe
s

RK re
Nitrogen & mo
H
s

S
Human Cause

Hum
phosphorus N
P MEASURABLE
cycles

an Causes
CHANGES IN
THE EARTH
Agricultural SYSTEM
Hy

activities

e
dr

er
ph
os

ph
er E le os
e m e ntal C yclesGe
Gl t
oba ge
l E n e rg y B u d
Non s
-hu m an C ause

 Evaluate Models T hrough which spheres does nitrogen cycle?

Describe how photosynthesis, respiration, and agricultural activities
influence the nitrogen cycle.

Organize Information
Cite evidence for each statement from the text, investigations, and other activities you have completed.
Then, draw a model to support each statement.

Statement Evidence Model

Consumers are dependent on producers. 1. 2.
The amount of available energy is reduced 3. 4.
at each successive trophic level.
Water cycles through ecosystems. 5. 6.

Study Guide 135

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT

Can Algal Blooms

Be Useful?

Evaluate a Solution
HS-LS2-5, HS-ETS1-3, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.1

STEM A significant amount of primary pro- 2 Atmospheric CO2 can dissolve in the ocean,
duction occurs in the sea, as marine or can be released from the ocean into the atmo-
algae take in carbon dioxide to build living tissue. sphere, depending on its relative concentrations
Studies had shown that surface water in parts of in air and water. When atmospheric carbon diox-
the ocean contains high enough concentrations ide concentrations rise, or when dissolved CO2
of nitrogen and phosphorus to support higher concentrations drop, more dissolves in the ocean.
rates of primary production than naturally occur
there. What’s missing? A vital micronutrient: iron. 3 Algae take up dissolved carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis (3a). Some of this carbon is released
So it seemed reasonable, back in when the algae respire (3b), and some is stored in
the 1990’s, when scientists trying cell structures.
to avoid human-caused climate
change proposed to stimulate algal 1
growth by adding iron to the ocean. CO2 CO2
They hoped that this increased
2 CO2 CO2
marine primary productivity would CO2
remove carbon dioxide from the 3a 3b 4b
atmosphere and store it at the bot-
tom of the sea. Here is the system
that researchers hypothesized (and Stored
Carbon
hoped!) they could tweak, using iron
Phytoplankton Zooplankton
fertilization, to accomplish that goal.

1 Iron, a micronutrient essential 4a 5

to algal growth, is added to parts Stored Carbon Stored Carbon
of the ocean where the lack of iron
6
limits phytoplankton growth.
7 Ocean Floor 7

136 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

 ENGINEERING PROJECT

Floating algae are important primary producers in the sea. Could they be useful in
removing large amounts of excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere? Or is the
ocean’s role in the carbon cycle more complicated than it appears?

4 Some algae are eaten by zooplankton and 2. Construct an Argument Closely examine each
other consumers. These organisms store some of step in your model to see which pathways store
that carbon, and release some when they respire. carbon, and which end up releasing it back into
the atmosphere. What assumptions about the
5 If algae die without being eaten, they may rate of processes in each step are necessary
in order to hypothesize that iron fertilization
sink to the bottom of the ocean, taking captured
would reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide
carbon with them. Other organisms that also die
concentrations?
and sink to the bottom, along with their solid
wastes, also carry stored carbon with them. 3. Conduct Research In the years since ocean iron
fertilization was proposed, researchers gathered
6 If the remains of those organisms, along with data to test those assumptions and hypotheses.
Search for information about those experiments.
solid wastes of consumers, are buried rapidly,
What is the current scientific consensus on
this captured carbon can be stored on the
whether or not ocean iron fertilization could help
ocean floor. to limit climate change? Do current data support
or reject the hypothesis that this solution would
7 Dead organisms on and near the ocean floor work? Why or why not?
could decompose, returning carbon to the sea,
4. Communicate Write an evaluation of the ocean
and, ultimately to the atmosphere.
iron fertilization solution to climate change.
Support your argument with evidence from your
1. Develop Models Using Figure 4-11, the
research and the model you developed.
Understanding Global Change model, and your
own research, develop a model that focuses on
carbon cycle pathways in the ocean. Be certain to
include any step whose rate could affect where
carbon ends up!

Performance-Based Assessment 137

CHAPTER 4

 ASSESSMENT

KEY QUESTIONS AND TERMS 7. The total amount of living tissue at each trophic
level in an ecosystem can be shown in a(n)
4.1 Energy, Producers, a. pyramid of energy.
b. pyramid of numbers.
and Consumers c. pyramid of biomass.
HS-LS2-3
d. biogeochemical cycle.
1. Primary producers are organisms that
8. Which group of organisms is always found at the
a. rely on other organisms for their energy and
base of a food chain or food web?
food supply.
b. consume plant and animal remains and other 9. What ultimately happens to the bulk of matter in
dead matter. any trophic level of a pyramid of biomass—that is,
the matter that does not get passed to the trophic
c. use energy they take in from the environment
level above?
to convert inorganic molecules into complex
organic molecules. 10. Why is the transfer of energy in a food chain usu-
d. obtain energy by eating only plants. ally only about 10 percent efficient?
2. Which of the following organisms is a carnivore? 11. Describe the flow of energy in an ecosystem.

4.3 Cycles of Matter

HS-LS2-3, HS-LS2-4, HS-LS2-5, HS-ESS2-6

a. c. 12. Which of the following is NOT true about matter

in the biosphere?
a. Matter is transferred in one direction through
the biosphere.
b. Biogeochemical cycles transform and
reuse molecules.
b. d. c. The total amount of matter decreases over time.
d. Human activity does not affect the movement
3. How are detritivores ­different from decomposers? of matter.
Provide an example of each.
13. Nutrients move through an ecosystem in
4. Classify each of the following as an herbivore, a a. biogeochemical cycles.
carnivore, an omnivore, or a detritivore.
b. water cycles.
a. an earthworm that eats the decaying remains of
c. pyramids of energy.
plants and animals
d. ecological pyramids.
b. a bear that feeds on plants and animals
c. a cow that feeds only on plants 14. Which biogeochemical cycle does NOT include a
d. a snail that feeds on plants, algae, and fungi major path in which the substance cycles through
the atmosphere?
e. an owl that feeds only on animals
f. a human that feeds on plants and animals 15. List two ways in which water enters the atmo-
sphere in the water cycle.
5. What are the two basic processes in which energy
from nonliving sources is captured and stored in 16. Describe three ways in which carbon is stored in
molecules that can be used by living things? How the biosphere.
are they similar? How are they different? 17. Explain the process of nitrogen fixation.
18. What is meant by “nutrient limitation”?
4.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 19. How do changes in nutrient levels affect the struc-
HS-LS2-4
ture of aquatic food webs?
6. The series of steps in which a large fish eats a 20. Construct a table with a row for each of the follow-
small fish that has eaten algae is a ing cycles of matter (water, carbon, and nitrogen)
a. food web. and a column for each process (physical/chemical,
b. food chain. biological, geological, and human). Fill in the table
c. pyramid of numbers. with examples of each process, using the text and
d. pyramid of biomass. figures in Lesson 4.3.
138 Chapter 4 Ecosystems
CRITICAL THINKING 25. Analyze Text Structure Using the text from
HS-LS2-3, HS-LS2-4, HS-LS2-5
Lessons 4.2 and 4.3, analyze the relationships
among the key terms food chain, food web,
21. Develop Models Give an example of an ecologi- nutrient, and biogeochemical cycle.
cal phenomenon that could be studied by model-
ing. Explain why modeling would be useful. 26. Construct an Explanation Why are normally
unseen members of the food web, such as soil
22. Ask Questions You live near a pond that you have microorganisms, essential to the nitrogen cycle?
observed for years. One year you notice the water Use a model to support your answer.
is choked with a massive overgrowth of green
algae. What are some of the questions you might 27. Cite Evidence Ecologists discovered that larger-
have about this unusual growth? than-normal numbers of trout were dying in a
stream that ran through some farmland. A local
23. Use Models Study the food web shown. scientist claimed nitrogen fertilizer that was used
a. Use the food web to identify and distinguish the on the crops caused the deaths. Explain the
producers and consumers. types of evidence that would support the scien-
b. Identify examples of decomposers that could be tist’s claim.
added to the food web. How are decomposers
28. Use Models Using a flowchart, trace the flow of
distinguished from producers and consumers?
energy in a simple marine food chain. Then, show
c. Identify and draw two different food chains from
where nitrogen is cycled through the chain when
the food web: one food chain that ends with a
the top-level carnivore dies and is decomposed.
second-level consumer and one that ends with a
third-level consumer. 29. Construct an Explanation Explain the role of
d. Using the two food chains, compare the energy photosynthesis in the carbon cycle.
available to the second-level consumer with the 30. Evaluate a Solution Phosphate detergents are
energy available to the third-level consumer. effective for cleaning laundry and dirty dishes.
Assume that the amount of energy supplied by However, these phosphorus-laden products have
producers is the same in all food chains. been banned in Australia, the European Union,
Canada, and some states in the United States.
Why do you think the detergents were banned?
How might you evaluate the effectiveness of this
solution?
31. Construct an Explanation Explain why available
energy is reduced as energy transfers through the
trophic levels of an ecosystem.

24. Form a Hypothesis People who explore caves

where there is running water but no sunlight often
find them populated with unique types of fishes
and insects. What testable hypothesis can you
develop to explain the ultimate source of energy
for these organisms?

Chapter Assessment 139

CHAPTER 4

 ASSESSMENT

CROSSCUTTING CONCEPTS MATH CONNECTIONS

32. Energy and Matter The cycling of matter is Analyze and Interpret Data
dependent on the flow of energy. Using the car-
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSN.Q.A.1
bon cycle, explain how this flow of energy drives
the cycling of carbon through the environment. The graph below shows the effect of annual rainfall on
the rate of primary productivity in an ecosystem. Use
33. Systems and System Models Think about the
this graph to answer questions 34–36.
connections and interactions among processes
and phenomena in the Understanding Global
Change model. The Effect of Rainfall on Plant Productivity

Tissue Production
a. Select at least one topic from each of the three 3000

(g/m2 per year)

Rate of Plant
categories in the Understanding Global Change
model (Causes of Global Change, How the Earth 2000
System Works, and Measurable Changes in the
Earth System) and explain if and how these pro- 1000
cesses or phenomena are related.
0
b. For each of your chosen topics, use words 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
and arrows to describe how these phenomena or
Average Annual Rainfall (mm)
processes are related to three additional concepts
discussed in Chapter 4.
34. Analyze Data What happens to productivity as
rainfall increases?
OF GLOBAL CHA
USES NG 35. Construct Graphs What do you think the graph
CA E
would look like if the x-axis were extended out to
E EARTH SYSTEM
TH WO 6000 mm? Represent your prediction in a graph
W RK
Hu
es

O re s and explain your answer.

us

H he cle Elem Bio

Ca

an
S

Cy Ec e
Ca
an

n p

sp al C s

os
36. Draw Conclusions What factors other than water
me os

te
Gl
A t

nt ste
Cl tal
Hum

ge

he ycle

use
Ele tm

ob
a

re
y
ud

im

might affect primary productivity?

s
al E
yB

nerg
Global Energ

MEASURABLE LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTIONS

Budget

CHANGES IN THE
EARTH SYSTEM
Write About Science
CCSS-ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.2
s
er cle
El e Hy d
Ec en

37. Conduct Research Projects Sustainable agricul-

a te
os

ph l C y

s
m r

t te im
e
y

os al C m s Cl nt
ph yc m
e s
o
ture is a method of growing and raising food by
e r le s Ele Ge
e taking advantage of natural biogeochemical cycles
without disrupting them. Write down a question
you have about sustainable agriculture and con-
Non-hum n Causes duct a research project to answer your question.
a
Use multiple sources to gather your information.

Read About Science

CCSS-ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.1
38. Cite Textual Evidence Describe how biogeo-
chemical cycles provide organisms with the raw
materials necessary to synthesize complex organic
compounds. Cite textual evidence from Chapter 2
to support your response.

140 Chapter 4 Ecosystems

CHAPTER 4
END-OF-COURSE TEST PRACTICE
1. A carnivore obtains energy by eating other ani- 3. The ecological pyramid models energy flow in a
mals. Which of the following shows the process by particular ecosystem.
which energy flows to a carnivorous animal?
A. light energy → plant → carnivore
B. plant → light energy → carnivore Third-level
0.1%
C. light energy → herbivore → carnivore consumers
D. light energy → plant → herbivore → carnivore
Second-level
E. light energy → plant → decomposer → 1%
consumers
herbivore → carnivore
2. The diagram is a pyramid of biomass for a
First-level
meadow ecosystem. The triangular shape of the 10%
consumers
diagram is useful for explaining which relationship
among the trophic levels in this ecosystem?
Primary
100%
producers

If the primary producers produce 5000 energy

units, about how much of this energy is available
to the secondary consumers?
A. 5 energy units
B. 50 energy units
C. 1000 energy units
D. 5000 energy units
E. 5,000,000 energy units
4. Which of the following explains the role of plants
in the carbon cycle?
A. Plants transfer carbon in the atmosphere to
carbohydrates in the biosphere.
B. Plants transport carbon dioxide in the atmo-
sphere to groundwater.
C. Plants transfer oxygen and carbon in the bio-
sphere to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
A. The amount of living organic matter is equal at D. Plants transfer oxygen in the atmosphere to
all trophic levels in this ecosystem. fossil fuels.
B. Third-level consumers in this ecosystem have E. Plants transfer carbon in the groundwater to
the greatest amount of living organic matter. carbohydrates in the biosphere.
C. With each step to a higher trophic level in this
ecosystem, the amount of living organic mat-
ter increases.
D. Third-level consumers in this ecosystem pro-  ASSESSMENT
vide living organic matter to producers and
other consumers. For additional assessment
E. The amount of living organic matter decreases practice, go online to access
at each trophic level in this ecosystem. your digital course.

If You Have Trouble With…

Question 1 2 3 4
See Lesson 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.3
Performance Expectation HS-LS2-3 HS-LS2-4 HS-LS2-4 HS-LS2-5

End-of-Course Test Practice 141