Al-Iraqia University

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Electrical Circuit Analysis Lab. by

Dr. Hussain Bierk and Asst. Lecture Zahraa K. Taha
Electrical Circuit Analysis Lab.

Experiment No. 1

Power Supply and Digital Multimeter

Aim

The objective of this lab is to gain proficiency using a digital multimeter to measure resistance, DC
voltage, DC current, AC voltage, and AC current.
.
Theory
The multimeter can be used as a voltmeter, ammeter, or ohmmeter, depending on how it is configured.
A voltmeter is designed to measure the voltage between any two points in a circuit, when the circuit is
energized. If the voltage to be measured is v12 = v1 − v2, then the black probe is placed on node 2
(corresponding to v2) and the red probe is placed on node 1 (corresponding to v1). Since the voltmeter
is placed in parallel with a part of the circuit it potentially can disrupt circuit operation. Ideally, a
voltmeter’s resistance is infinite—in which case there would be no change in circuit operation.
An ammeter is designed to measure current at a point in an energized circuit. To take this reading, the
circuit must be disconnected at the point of interest and the ammeter inserted in series with the circuit
at that point. Ideally, an ammeter’s resistance is zero—in which case there would be no change in
circuit operation.
An ohmmeter is designed to measure the resistance of a device. To do so, the device must be
disconnected from the circuit (or else the resistance of the device in parallel with the circuit is
measured).

Resistors. You will also be working with resistors. These are located in the shelving units in the lab.
Resistorvalues are designated using a color code: see Figure 1.1. Most resistors have four colored
bands. The first three bands indicate the nominal value of the resistor and the fourth band indicates the
manufacturing tolerance in percentage of the total resistor value. The first two bands form the
mantissa, and the third the exponent of 10. Values corresponding to the colored bands are tabulated in
Table 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Resistor color code example

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The tolerance band is typically either gold or silver. A gold tolerance band indicates that the measured
value will be within 5% of the nominal value. A silver band indicates 10% tolerance. For example a
resistor with color code brown-black-red-silver indicates a nominal value of 1 kΩ. The first two
bands (brown-black) produce the mantissa (10) and the third band (red) is the exponent of ten (10 2 =
100). So the value is 10 × 100 = 1, 000Ω or 1kΩ. Since the tolerance band is silver, we can expect
the measured value of the resistor to be between 900Ω and 1100Ω. Resistance is calculated this
way:

Resistance = AB * 10c ± D%

Example: This resistor, read from left to right, has the colored bands of RED, VIOLET,
YELLOW, SILVER. Using the formula and chart above, the resistance would be:

Resistance = AB * 10c ± D%
R = (RED VIOLET) * 10YELLOW
R = (27) x 104
R = 27 x 10,000
R = 270,000 ( the value of the resistor to be between (270,000+270,000*0.01 and 270,000-
270,000*0.01)

Rmax=R+( R*D) & Rmin=R-( R*D)

Procedure:

1. Measuring resistance:

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 plug the red probe into the red terminal (V Ω C) and black probe into the black
terminal (COM). See figure 2.
 Rotate the function selector switch of the Digital Multimeter (DMM) to Ω position to
measure resistance.
 Place probe across resistor, then view the resistance value on display screen

Figure 2: Measure resistance using multimeter

2. Measure Voltage:

 plug the red probe into the red terminal (V Ω C) and black probe into the black
terminal (COM). See figure 3.
 Rotate the function selector switch of the Digital Multimeter (DMM) to DC voltage
position to measure DC voltage.

Figure 3: Measure voltage using multimeter

3. Measure Current

Cautation: For current measurements, the probes must be in series with loadonly and current

limited to less than 10 amper for A range and limited to less than 400mA for µA and mA ranges.

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If the circuit draws current more than specified above, a fuse will blow and disable the

instrument.

 Plug the red probe into the red terminal (A or µA/mA) and black probe into the black
terminal (COM). See figure 4.
 Rotate the selector switch of the Digital Multimeter (DMM) to A or µA/mA position
to measure DC current..
 Measure the current with probes in series with load; then view the current reading on
the display screen.

Figure 4: Measure current using multimeter

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Experiment No. Two

Ohm's Law
Object:-
To investigate the Ohm's Law

Theory:

In Fig.(1), the tungsten filament of the light bulb offers a considerable

amount of opposition, or what is called electrical resistance, to the passage
of electric current through it. Because of the high resistance of the filament,
the battery voltage (V) must be relatively high in order to produce the
amount of current (I) required to heat the filament to incandescence.

(R) denotes the value of electrical resistance, and in electrical diagrams, the
presence of resistance is representing by the symbol. Using this symbol, we
have

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redrawn Fig.(1) as Fig.(2), in which R denotes the ‘‘electrical resistance’’ of

the tungsten filament in the light bulb.

We have already learned that substances that offer very low resistance to the
passage of current are called ‘‘conductors,’’ while those that offer high resistance
are called ‘‘insulators.’’
The first comprehensive investigation into the nature and measurement of
electrical resistance was made by the German physicist Ohm (as in
‘‘home’’) around the year 1826. After a lengthy series of experiments, Ohm
was able to report that,

"The current in an element is directly proportional to the potential

difference between the terminals of the element and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the element"

The above constitutes is called ohm’s law. If we let

V = potential difference (emf) applied to the conductor,
I = current in the conductor,
R = resistance of the conductor,

Therefore, if we express V in volts, I in amperes, and R in ohms, then the basic

ohm’s law is:
R=V/I
The relationship between V & I can be represented as in Fig.(3).

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Fig.3: The relationship between current and voltage.

There are, of course, many types of conductors (and insulators). Take, for example,
two metals such as copper and tungsten. Both are classified as ‘‘conductors,’’ but a
copper wire is a better conductor than a tungsten wire of the same length and
diameter;
Conductor: A material, which releases free electron early and offers little
opposition to current flow and the unit of conductance, is (siemens). The inverse
of resistance called conductance (G) where
G=1/R

Procedure
1. Using the DC circuit board, connect the circuit shown in Fig. (4). Increase
the voltage from 0-10v and measure current in each step, and then record it
in table below.

2. Repeat step (1) with swaping the R1 with the light bulb
3. Connect the circuit shown in Fig.(5). Change the resistor value from 50-
500Ω, measure current, and voltage in each step, and then record it in table
below.

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Discussion
1. Draw the relationship between V & I form table in step 1, and the relationship
between R & I for table in step 2.
2. Is it necessary that the relationship between V & I start with the original point
(0, 0) and why?
3. For the table in step 2, find G in each step.
4. What does the slope represent in V & I relationship?
5. Why should the graphic be a straight line in step (1)?

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Experiment No. 3

Series & Parallel Circuits

Object:

To study the behavior of series and parallel connection.

Theory:-
We say that circuit elements are in series with each other when each element is connected the
next end-to-end. In other words, a series connection allows only one pathway for the current to
travel. Current, it is known, is the flow rate of electrons. The figure below shows three resistors
connected in series:

Now let’s use what we know about electricity to develop mathematical properties of a
series circuit. First, there is only one pathway for the current to travel, and we know that no
charge will accumulate on the resistors. This implies that the current through each resistor is of
the same value. Using this property, and applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, we come across
with the following equations for the above circuit diagram:

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Vtotal  V1  V2  V3
I1  I 2  I 3
Rtotal  R1  R2  R3

It is important to figure out the quantity Rtotal . This quantity is commonly called the

equivalent resistance. Let’s say you wanted to reduce the number of resistors in the circuit from
three resistors to only one resistor. You would need a resistor whose value is equal to the
equivalent resistance ( Rtotal ).

Electrical circuits may be connected in parallel as well as in series. In this configuration,

there are multiple paths for current to travel, and therefore there are different mathematical
expressions. We will start with a circuit of a parallel configuration as shown below:

Unlike a series circuit, a parallel circuit allows current to travel in more than one path.
You can think of a parallel circuit as a “current-divider”. Again, we would like to derive some
mathematical formulas to represent the total voltage, current and resistance of the circuit. Just by
looking at the parallel configuration, can you say something about the voltage drop across each
resistor? If you said that they are the same in each element, then you are correct. Let us use this
knowledge and Ohm’s law to derive some mathematical formulas for parallel circuits:

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V1  V2  V3  V
I total  I 1  I 2  I 3
V1 V2 V3  1 1 1 
I total     V    
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 
1 1 1 1
  
Rtotal R1 R2 R3

Procedure
1. Using the DC circuit board, connect the circuit shown in Fig. (4), take VT=10V,
and R1=1KΩ, R2 = 2.7KΩ and R3 =3.3KΩ.
2. Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table below

3. By using ohm's law, Calculate the RT

4. Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measure the equivalent resistance by
using the Multimeter only.

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5. Using the DC circuit board, connect the circuit shown in Fig.(5), and take VT
=10V, and R1=1KΩ, R2 = 2.7KΩ and R3 =3.3KΩ.
6. Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table below

7. Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measure the equivalent resistance by
using the AVO meter only.

fig.5

Discussion:

1. Find RT, I1, I2 and I3

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2. Find RT, and current through 33Ω.

3. Let Is= 50A, find Vx

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Experiment No. 4

Voltage and Current Divider

Object:-

In this experiment, we will be investigating the concepts of voltage and current division.
Voltage and current division is an application of Kirchoff’s Laws.

Theory:-
The Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) states that the voltage across an element or
across a series combination of elements in a series circuit is equal to the
resistance of that element or series combination of elements divided by the
total resistance of the series circuit and multiplied by the total impressed
voltage in figure(1):

fig.1: Voltage Divider

(1)

It is clear that the voltage across any resistor Ri(Ri, i= 1,2,..... n ) in a series circuit
is equal to the applied voltage (E) across the circuit multiplied by a factor ∑ ∑ .

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It worthy to known this expression is only valid if the same current I flows
through all the resistors.
The Current Divider Rule (CDR) states that the current through one of two
parallel branches is equal to the resistance of the other branch divided by the
sum of the resistances of the two parallel branches and multiplied by the
total current entering the two parallel branches in figure(2). That is,

Similarly, the current flowing through the R2 can be obtained as:

Procedure:
Part 1: Voltage Divider Rule

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1. Using the DC circuit board, connect the circuit shown in Fig. (1), take E
=10V, R1=82Ω, R2 = 100Ω and R3 =150Ω.
2. Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3".
3. Change the value of resistors as following: R1= 10KΩ, R2= 1000 Ω, R3= 50Ω.
4. Repeat step(2) , change the value of resistors as following: R1=30 Ω, R2=
500 Ω, R3= 100 Ω.
Part 2: Current Divider Rule
1. Using the DC circuit board, connect the circuit shown in Fig. (2). Take E is
10V, R1=82Ω and R2 = 100Ω .
2. Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2.
3. Change the value of resistors as following: R1= 10KΩ, R2= 1000 Ω.
4. Repeat step(2) , change the value of resistors as following: R1=30 Ω, R2=
500 Ω.
Discussion:
1. Find I3 and VR1

2. If Is=60mA, find all unknown currents

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Experiment No. 5

Delta -Star Concession

Aim

To study the properties of delta-star connection.

Theory

In solving networks (having considerable number of branches) by the

application of Kirchhoff's Laws, one sometimes experiences great
difficulty due to a large number of simultaneous equation that have to be
solve. However, such complicated networks can simplify by successively
replacing delta meshes by equivalent star systems and vice versa.

Suppose we are given three resistance R12,R23 and R13 connected in delta
fashion between terminals 1,2 and 3 as in Fig.(1-a). So far as the respective
terminals are concerned, these given three resistances can be replaced by
the three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in star as shown in Fig.(1-b).
These two arrangements will be electrically equivalent if the resistance as
measured between any pair of terminals is the same in both
arrangements.

1. To convert from delta connection to star connection.

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fig. :Convert from delta to star

2. To convert from star connection to delta connection

Procedure
1. Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit shown below.
2. Measure "I1, I2, I3 " practically.
3. Record your results in the table below
4. By using delta-star conversion, find the star resistance R1, R2, R3
theoretically.

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5.Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit shown below:

Discussion:

1. Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B

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2. Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals a and b

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Experiment No. 6

Mesh Analysis

Aim

The study of mesh analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in multi-
source DC circuits. Its application to finding circuit currents and voltages will be investigated.

Theory

Multi-source DC circuits may be analyzed using a mesh current technique. The process involves
identifying a minimum number of small loops such that every component exists in at least one
loop. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is then applied to each loop. The loop currents are referred to as
mesh currents as each current interlocks or meshes with the surrounding loop currents. As a
result there will be a set of simultaneous equations created to find unknown mesh current for
each loop. Once the mesh currents are determined, various branch currents and component
voltages may be derived.
Mesh Analysis Procedure
1. Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent, closed loop of the
network. It is not absolutely necessary to choose the clockwise direction for each loop current.

2. Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the assumed
direction of loop current for that loop. Note the requirement for the polarities be placed
within each loop. This requires, as shown in Fig. 1, that the R3 resistor have two sets of
polarities across it.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. Again, the
clockwise direction was chosen to establish uniformity and prepare us for the method to be
introduced in the next section.
a. If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current through the
resistor is the assumed current of the loop in which Kirchhoff’s voltage law is being applied,
plus the assumed currents of the other loops passing through in the same direction, minus the
assumed currents through in the opposite direction.
b. The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the assigned loop currents.

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4. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.

Fig1: Define Mesh Current

Procedure:-
1. Connect the circuit of Figure (2)
2. Measure each of the mesh currents by inserting an ammeter into the top edge of
each of the mesh windows in the circuit of Figure (2). Write down the results in the
table.

Fig 2

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3- Measure the current and voltage through each resistor and write down
the results in the table.

Discussion:
1. Find currents for each loop using Mesh analysis

2. Compute the voltage across the current source 7A.

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Experiment No. 7

Nodal Analysis

Purpose

To verify the application of nodal analysis.

Apparatus

1. Set of wires
2. DC Power supply
3. Digital Multi-meter
4. Set of resistors

Theory

A node is defined as a junction of two or more branches. If we now define one node of any
network as a reference (that is, a point of zero potential or ground), the remaining nodes of
the network will all have a fixed potential relative to this reference. For a network of N nodes,
therefore, there will exist (N-1) nodes with a fixed potential relative to the assigned reference
node. Equations relating these nodal voltages can be written by applying Kirchhoff’s current
law at each of the (N-1) nodes. To obtain the complete solution of a network, these nodal
voltages
are then evaluated in the same manner in which loop currents were found in loop analysis.
The nodal analysis method is applied as follows:
1. Determine the number of nodes within the network.
2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a subscripted value of voltage:
V1, V2, and so on.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each node except the reference. Assume that all unknown
currents leave the node for each application of Kirchhoff’s current law. In other words,
for each node, don’t be influenced by the direction that an unknown current for another
node may have had. Each node is to be treated as a separate entity, independent of the
application of Kirchhoff’s current law to the other nodes.
4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages. A few examples will clarify the
procedure defined by step 3. It will initially take some practice writing the equations for
Kirchhoff’s current law correctly, but in time the advantage of assuming that all the
currents leave a node rather than identifying a specific direction for each branch will
become obvious.

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Procedure:

1. Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit Shown in Fig. (1)
Take V1= 5 volt , V2= 9 volt. R1= 100Ω , R2= 82 Ω , R3= 250 Ω.

2. Measure the current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table below:
100Ω 82 Ω 250 Ω

I(mA)

3. Measure the voltage to each node in the cct.

VA VC VD VAB VAC VAD

V(volt)

Discussion:

1. Comment on your results and compare between the practical and

theoretical results.
2. Find voltage for each node

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3. Find power for S1 and S2

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Experiment No.8

Superposition Theorem

Purpose

To verify the application of Superposition theorem.

Apparatus

5. Bread Board
6. Set of wires
7. DC Power supply
8. Digital Multi-meter
9. Set of resistors

Theory

If a circuit of two or more independent sources, one way to find the value of any specific variable
(voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis techniques. Another mothed is to find the
contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up. This approach is called
superposition and its idea adopts the linearity property. The superposition method states that the voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or
current through) that element due to each independent source acting alone. This principle analyzes a
linear circuit with more than one independent source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately. In applying this method, we have to turn off all independent sources
except one. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every
current source with 0 A (or an open circuit) then find the output (voltage or current). It is important to
know that all dependent sources should left intact because they are controlled by circuit variable.
In brief, we can summarize the steps to apply the principle of superposition:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source, then find the output voltage or current due
to that active source by using any relevant techniques (i.e nodal or mesh analysis).
2. Repeat step 1 for each or other independent sources.

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3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all other contributions due to the
independent sources.
The main disadvantage with this theory is that involving more works especially if the circuit contains
many sources, but in the side it does help to reduce the complex circuit to simpler circuits. It is
necessary to recall that this principle is based on linearity.
Now let us explain the principle of linearity. If we plot voltage versus current for a resistance, we have
a straight line. This is illustrated in Fig.1. Thus we say that the Ohm’s law is a linear equation.

Next, we illustrate the validity of superposition for the example shown in Fig. 2, in this circuit, there
are two independent voltage sources V1, and V2.

Fig. 2

Suppose it is required to find value of voltage (V3) across the resistance R2. First, we solve for the total
response (V3) by solving the circuit with both sources in place.

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To find V3, we apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at node V3. This implies that the algebraic sum of
the currents at point of interest is equal to zero i.e I1+I2 =I3 = 0. Writing the current equation at this
node, we obtain:

+ + =0

Simplifying the equation, we get the total response V3 as follows:

V3 = … …………………………….……………(1)

If we set V2 to zero, we obtain a network as shown in Fig. 3 below.

Fig.3

Now, the response to V1 acting alone can be obtained by applying KCL at node V31 as follows:

+ + =0

V31 = ……………………………………………….....(2)

Similarly if we set V1 to zero, we obtain a network as shown in Fig. 4 below.

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Fig. 4

The response to V2 acting alone can be obtained by applying KCL at node V32 as follows:

+ + =0

V32 = ………………………………………………… .(3)

Comparing equations 1, 2, and 3, we see that

V3 = V31 + V 32

Thus, as expected from superposition principle, the total response is equal to the sum of in the
responses for each of the independent sources acting individually.

Procedure

1. Using the bread board, connect the circuit as in Fig. 5. Take V1= 10 V, R1= 1KΩ, R2= 2.7
KΩ, R3= 3.3 KΩ, and V2=8 V.
2. Measure the voltage across, and current through resistors R1, R2, and R3. Record as per
the Table (1) below.

R 1 KΩ 2.7 KΩ 3.3 KΩ
V(volt)
I (mA)

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3. Set V2 =0 and keep voltage source V1 active, measure the voltage across, and current
through resistors R1, R2, and R3. Record as per the Table (1) above.
4. Set V1 =0 and keep voltage source V2 active, measure the voltage across, and current
through resistors R1, R2, and R3. Record as per the Table (1) above.
5. Compare the results in previous questions.

Fig. 5

Discussion

1. Connect the circuit as in Fig. 5. Take V1= 10 V, R1= 1KΩ, R2= 2.7 KΩ, R3= 3.3 KΩ, and
V2=8 V. With the help of equation (1)(in theory Section), calculate the node voltage V3,
branch currents I1, I2, and I3.
2. Using Circuit in Fig.5, Verify your results in previous question using superposition
principle, calculate the node voltage V3, I1, I2, and I3.
3. Compare the theoretical and experimental results.

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Experiment No. 9

Wheatstone bridge
Purpose

To measure unknown resistance precisely

Apparatus

1. Bread board
2. Two known value fixed resistances with a variable resistance
3. One unknown resistance.
4. DC power supply
5. Detector or galvanometer.
6. Digital Miltimeter

Theory

Although the ohmmeter is a simple tool to measure the resistance, but more accurate measurement
may be obtained using the Wheatstone bridge. While ohmmeter is designed to measure resistance
in low, med, or high range, a Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the resistance in the mid-
range, say, between 1Ω and 1 MΩ. Very low values of resistances are measured with a milli-
ohmmeter, while the high values are measured with a Megger tester.

This bridge is actually used in a number of applications. In our experiment we use it for measuring
an unknown resistance. The unknown resistance RX is connected to the bridge as per Fig, 1.

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Figure 1

The Wheatstone bridge

The variable resistance is adjusted so that no current flows through the galvanometer, which is
essentially a sensitive current-indicating device like an ammeter in the range of microamp. Under
this condition (balance condition), the voltage (V1) across the resistor RX is equal to the voltage
(V2) across the variable resistor:

V1=V2

Since no current flows through galvanometer, R1 and R2 behave as they are in series and the same
as RX and R3. Applying the voltage division principle:

V1 = V = V2 = V

Hence =

R1 RX = R2 R3

RX =

If R1 = R2 , then

RX = R3

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Procedure

1. Using the bread board, connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1, take R1 = 1K Ω, R3 =2.7 K
Ω, R2= 1K Ω, RX =100 Ω, V= 20 V
2. Measure the voltage across and current through the resistors shown in Table 1. Measure
also the galvanometer current.

R1= 1K Ω R3= 2.7 K Ω R2= 1K Ω RX =100 Ω

V(volt)
I(mA)

3. Measure the voltage across and current through the resistors shown in Table 2 below at the
balance condition. Then record the value of Rx and current through the galvanometer.

R1=2.7 K Ω R3= 1 K Ω R2= 3.3 K Ω RX =

V(volt)
I(mA)

Discussion

1. Connect the circuit as per Fig.1. Calculate the voltage across and current through the
resistors shown in Table 3 below at the balance condition. Then record the value of Rx
and current through the galvanometer.

R1= 2.7 K Ω R3= 1 K Ω R2= 3.3 K Ω RX =

R1= 1 K Ω Ω R3= 1 K Ω R2= 100 Ω RX =
R1= 3.3 K Ω R3= 1 K Ω R2= 1 K Ω RX =

2. The circuit in Fig.2 below represents an unbalanced bridge. If the galvanometer has a
resistance Rm =40 Ω, find the current passing through the galvanometer. Taking R1= 3.3K

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Ω, R2 is adjusted to be 1 K Ω, R3=400 Ω, RX= 600 Ω, and V=50 V. Then calculate V1 and

V2.

Figure 2

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Experiment No. 10

Thevenin Theorem

Purpose:

To verify the application of Thevenin equivalent circuit

Apparatus

1. Bread board
2. Set of wires
3. DC power supply
4. Digital multi-meter
5. Set of resistors consistent with the experiment requirement

Theory

In real practical life, there is a particular variable element in a circuit and this is usually called the
Load while the other elements are fixed. As a typical example of that, a household outlet terminal
may be connected to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the load is
changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed. To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem
provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
According to Thevenin theorem, the linear circuit in Fig.1 (a) below can be replaced by that of
Fig. 1(b). The load in Fig.1 may be a single resistor or another circuit. The circuit to the left of the
terminals a-b in Fig. 1(b) is known as the Thevenin equivalent circuit. This theorem was
developed in 1883 by M. Leon Thevenin (1857-1926), a French telegraph e

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Figure. 1
Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevinin equivalent: (a) original circuit. (b) the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Thevenin’s Theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
The important issue here is how to find both VTh and RTh. To do so , suppose the two circuits in
Fig.1 are equivalent and this means that they have to have the same voltage- current relation at
their terminals. Now what will make these two circuits equivalent. If the terminals a-b are made
open-circuited by removing the load, no current flows, so that the open-circuit voltage across the
terminals a-b in Fig.1 (a) must be equal to the voltage VTh in Fig. 1 (b), since the two circuits are
equivalent. Thus VTh in the open-circuit voltage across the terminals as shown in Fig. 2(a), that is,

VTh = VOC

Figure 2

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(a) Finding VTh (b) Finding RTh

Again, with the load disconnected and terminals a-b are open-circuited, we can turn off all
independent sources. The input resistance (or equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit at the
terminals a-b in Fig.2 (a) must be equal to RTh in Fig.2 (b) because the two circuits are turned off,
as shown in Fig.1 (b); that is,

RTh = Rin

To apply the idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh, we have to consider two cases:

1. If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources, then RTh is
the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a-b, as shown in Fig. 2 (b).
2. If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources and leave the
dependent sources unchanged. In this case we apply a voltage source Vo at terminals a-b
and determine the resulting current Io. Then RTh can be calculated as:
RTh = Vo / Io as shown in Fig. 3(a). Alternatively, we may insert a current source Io at
terminals a-b as shown in Fig 3(b) and find the terminal voltage Vo. Again RTh = Vo / Io.
Please note that both approaches will lead to the same result. In these approaches we can
assume any value of Vo and Io. For instance, we can use Vo = 1 V or Io = 1 A, or even any
other values of Vo or Io.

Figure 3
Finding RTh for circuits with dependent sources

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Thevenin’s theorem is one of the important method for circuit analysis and simplifying the circuit.
A large circuit can be replaced by a single independent voltage source in series with single resistor
and this replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design. As previously mentioned, a
linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the
load. This equivalent circuit behaves exactly as the original circuit. Consider a linear circuit as
shown in Fig. 4(a). The current IL through the load and the voltage VL across the load can easy be
determined up on obtaining the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 4(b).

Figure 4
A linear circuit with load (a) original circuit. (b) Thevenin equivalent.

From Fig. 4(b) we get:

IL =

VL = IL RL = = RL

Now from above equations, the Thevenin equivalent is a simple voltage divider

In brief we can summarize the procedure for finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit as
following:

1. Remove the load from the original circuit.

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2. First we have to calculate the value of RTh between the terminals of the removed load.
To do so, we set all sources in the network to zero, if the network contains
independent sources. In zeroing a voltage source, we reduce its voltage to zero. A
voltage source with zero voltage is equivalent to a short circuit.
In zeroing a current source, we reduce its current to zero. By definition, an element
that carries zero current is an open circuit. Thus, to zero the independent sources, we
replace voltage sources with short circuits and replace current sources with open
circuits.
Fig. 5 shows a Thevenin equivalent before and after zeroing the sources. Looking back
into the terminals after the source is zeroed, we see the Thevenin resistance. Thus, we
can find the Thevenin resistance by zeroing the sources in the original network and
then computing the resistance between the terminals.
3. As earlier mentioned, both the original circuit and equivalent circuit are required to
have the same open-circuit voltage. Thus, the Thevenin source voltage VTh is equal to
the open-circuit voltage of the original network.

Fig. 5 illustrates all steps for finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Figure 5.

(a)Original circuit. (b) Thevenin equivalent with its source is zeroed

Now Rin is equal to RTh which is equal to R1*R2 / (R1+R2).

And VTh is equal to Vab which can be calculated as:

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Vab = R2

Procedure

1. Using bread board, connect the circuit as shown in Fig.6. R1= 1KΩ, R2=2.7 KΩ, R3=1KΩ, and
RL= 20KΩ.

2. Find Thevenin equivalent circuit. Using multi-meter to measure VTh, RTh and IL and record the
required values as per the following Table.

V1 VTh, RTh IL
10 V
20 V

3. Taking the value of V1= 10 V, measure the load current if the load is changing from 1K Ω to 5 K
Ω in step of 1 K Ω. Keep the values of all resistances constant.

4. If the load is considered to be a battery of 5V (positive terminal is connected to terminal a) in

series with 50 Ω, and V1= 10V, measure the value of IL.

Fig.6.

Discussion

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1. Comment on your experimental results with theoretical results taking only one example from
your choice.

2. Going back to Fig.6, calculate the power absorbed by load that is varied from 1 K Ω to 5 K Ω in
step of 1 K Ω, taking the input voltage V1 equal to 10V.

3. Calculate the value of the load for maximum power transfer and the maximum power transfer,
taking the value of V1=10V.

4. If you increased the value of V1 to 20 V, how that does affect the maximum power transfer to
the load.

5. If the load in Fig.6 is being replaced with a battery of 2V( its positive side is connected to the
terminal a )in parallel with a resistor of 10 Ω. Calculate the power delivered to the resistive part of
the load.

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