Experiment - 1

Aim of Experiment: -
To determine Resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a Graph for Potential difference (V) versus
Current (I).

Apparatus Required: -
 A wire of unknown Resistance (Wire)
 A Battery (Battery Eliminator)
 A Voltmeter (0-3) Volt
 An Ammeter (0-3) Ampere
 A Rheostat
 A Meter scale
 One-way Plug key
 Connecting wires

Theory: -
According to the Ohm‟s law, the electric current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends, provided the physical state/conditions
(pressure, temperature, and dimensions) of the conductor remains unchanged or the same.
If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential difference across its ends, then
according to Ohm‟s Law,

V∝I
hence V = RI
or V/I = R (Main Formula)

where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the Electrical resistance of the conductor.
Resistance (R) depends on the Nature of material, Temperature & Dimensions of the conductor. In
S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt (V) and the current I in Ampere (A), The
resistance R is measured in ohm.

Note: The relationship between the resistance of a material and its length and area of the cross-
section is given by the formula:
R=
where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is a characteristic of the material of the given wire.
(i) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V/I remains constant
for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference (V) and the electric current
(I) must be a straight line.
(ii) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, (V/I = R).

Circuit Diagram
Procedure
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with the help of sandpaper to remove any insulating coating
on them.
2. Connect the Resistance, Rheostat, Battery, key, Voltmeter, and Ammeter as shown in the figure.
3. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement or circuit diagram.
4. Make sure that the pointers in the Voltmeter and Ammeter coincide with the zero mark on the
measuring scale. If not, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw
provided at the base using a screwdriver.
5. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of Voltmeter and Ammeter are joined towards the +ve
terminal of the battery.
6. Determine the Range and Least count of Voltmeter and Ammeter and also note the zero error if
any.
7. Plug the key K and slide the rheostat to the end where the current flow is minimum. Ensure see
that Voltmeter and Ammeter are working properly.
8. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passed through the
resistance coil or the resistance wire.
9. Note down the value of Potential difference (V) from Voltmeter and Current (I) from Ammeter.
10. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both Ammeter and Voltmeter show full division readings
and not in friction.
11. Record the readings of the Voltmeter and Ammeter.
12. Take at least five sets of independent observations.
13. Now finally Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminal, stretch it and find
its length by the Meter scale.
14. Record your observations.

Observations
Length:
Length of the Resistance wire l = 50 cm.
Range:
Range of the given Ammeter = 0.3A.
Range of the given Voltmeter= 0-3V.
Least Count:
Least count of Ammeter = 0.05.
Least count of Voltmeter = 0.05.
Zero Error:
Zero error of Ammeter = nil.
Zero error of Voltmeter = nil.
Zero Correction:
Zero Correction for the given Ammeter = 0A.
Zero Correction for the given Voltmeter = 0V.

Observations Table
Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
So, mean Value of Resistance R = 7.5 ohms.

Calculations
1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference (V) and current (I), taking V along X-axis and I along Y-
axis. After plotting the graph it‟s comes to be a straight line as shown below.

From graph, the resistance can be calculated.

In ∆ABC tanø = AB/CB = ∆I/∆V,
or cotø = ∆V/∆I
but R = ∆V/∆I
Then, R = cotø
Therefore, R = (3.00-0.75)/ (0.40-0.10)
So, R = 7.5 ohm.
3. Constant ratio V/I gives resistance of the wire.
4. Resistance of the wire per centimeter (cm):
R = 7.5/50 ohm/cm (Ωcm-1),
Therefore, R = 0.15 Ωcm-1.

Result
The Resistance of the given wire = 7.5 Ω (ohm).
The Resistance per cm of the wire = 0.15 Ωcm-1 (ohm/cm).
Ohm‟s law verified as the graph between Potential difference (V) and Current (I) is a straight line.
 Experiment - 2
Aim of Experiment:
To verify the Laws of Combination (Parallel) of Resistances using a Meter bridge.

Apparatus Required
 A Meter bridge
 Battery Eliminator
 A Galvanometer
 A Resistance box
 A Jockey
 Two Resistance coils/wires
 A Set square
 Connecting wires.

Theory
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by r = ( )
Where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the Meter
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
(ii) When and are connected in parallel then their combined resistance is given by-

Circuit Diagram

Resistance in parallel

Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as and .
2. To find and process same way as in experiment 1 (if and unknown).
3. Connect the two coils and in parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter bridge and
find the resistance of this combination, Take at least three sets of observations.
4. Record your observations.
Observations

Value of

Calculations
Calculations for verification of laws and in parallel:
The Experimental value of = 0.36 ohm.
The Theoretical value of = = (0.693×1.729)/ (0.693+1.729) = 0.4667 ohm.
Experimental Error (Difference if any) = [(0.36-0.4667)/ (0.36×100)] = 29.6%.
Result
Within limits of Experimental Error, Experimental and Theoretical values of are same, Hence, law
of resistances in parallel is verified.
 Experiment - 3
Aim of Experiment
To verify the Laws of Combination (Series) of Resistances using a Meter bridge.

Apparatus Required
 A Meter bridge
 Battery Eliminator
 A Galvanometer
 A Resistance Box
 A Jockey
 Two Resistance wires
 A Set square
 Connecting wires.
Theory
(i) The resistance (r) of resistance wire or coil is given by r = ( )
Where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and l is the length of the Meter
bridge wire from zero ends up to the balance point.
(ii) When two resistors and are connected in series, their combined resistance is given by =
+ .

Circuit Diagram

Series Combination of Resistances

Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.
2. To find the value of r1 and r2, follow the same steps as Experiment 2. (if r1 and r2 unknown).
3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter bridge and
find the resistance of this combination, Take at least three sets of observations.
4. Record your observations as follows.
Observations

Calculations
Calculations for verification of laws and in series:
The Experimental value of = 2.615 ohm.
The Theoretical value of = + = 1.616+1.015 = 2.631 ohm.
Experimental Error (Difference if any) = [(2.615-2.631)/2.615]×100 = 0.6%.

Result
Within limits of Experimental Error, Theoretical and Experimental values of Rs are the same. Hence,
the law of resistance in series is verified.
 Experiment - 4
Aim of Experiment
To determine Resistance of a Galvanometer by Half-Deflection Method and To fiind Its Figure of Merit.

Apparatus Required
 A Battery (Battery Eliminator)
 A Weston Type Galvanometer
 A Voltmeter
 An Ammeter
 Two Resistance Boxes
 Two One-way Keys
 A Rheostat
 A Screw gauge
 A Meter Scale
 Connecting wires
 A piece of Sand paper.

Theory
1. The Resistance of the given Galvanometer as found by half deflection method is given by G= (Eq.
1)
where R is the resistance connected in series with the Galvanometer and S is the Shunt resistance.
2. The Figure of Merit, k=E/[(R+G)θ] (Eq. 2)
where E is the e.m.f. of the Cell and θ is the deflection produced with resistance R.
3. The maximum current that can pass through the Galvanometer, Ig=nk (Eq. 3)
where n is the total no of dimension on the Galvanometer scale on either side of zero.

Circuit Diagram

Procedure
Resistance of Galvanometer by Half-Deflection Method:
1. Connect the Apparatus and make the connection as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Ensure that all the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. Now Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key K 1
only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
5. Note the deflection (say θ).
6. Now insert the key K 2 without changing the value of R. Adjust the value of S, such that the value of
the deflection reduces to exactly half the value obtained which is half of θ, (Step 5) i.e. θ/2.
7. Note down the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of Resistance (R) and adjusting the
Shunt resistance (S) every time.

Figure of Merit:
1. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting
+ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the cell, (Say E).
2. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
3. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.
4. Note down the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
5. Now change the value of R and note the Galvanometer deflection again and note it.
6. Repeat the (Figure of Merit) steps 1 to 5 with both cells of the battery with different values of
Resistance (R) and adjusting the Shunt resistance (S) every time.
7. Now find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observations

Calculations
Calculation for G:
Calculate G, using formula G= and write it in column 6 of Table 1.
Take mean of value of G recorded in column 6 of Table 1.
Calculation for k:
Calculate k, using formula k=E/[(R×G)θ] and write it in column 6 of Table 2.
Take mean of value of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.

Result
The resistance of the given galvanometer = 81.09 Ω.
The Figure of Merit of a given Galvanometer = 1.9×10-5 A/dn.
 Experiment - 5
Aim of the experiment
To Determine Angle of minimum Deviation for a given Prism by Plotting a Graph between Angle of
Incidence & the Angle of Deviation

Apparatus Required
 A Drawing board
 A Prism
 A white sheet of paper
 Drawing pins
 A Pencil
 A half meter scale
 Graph Paper
 Office pins
 A Protractor.

Theory
Angle of Prism – The angle between the two refractive surfaces is called angle of prism.
Angle of Deviation – The angle through which a ray of light turn away from its original path on
passing through a prism, is called angle of deviation.
Angle of minimum Deviation – The least value of angle of deviation is known as angle of minimum
deviation.
The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by:
* +
n=

where A is angle of the prism and Dm is the minimum deviation.

Ray diagram

Refraction through prism at different angles to find angle of minimum deviation

Procedure
1.Take & place the white sheet of paper and fix it on drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
2.Draw a straight line XX‟ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
3.Mark the three points Q1, Q2 and Q3 at suitable distances on the straight line XX‟.
4.Draw normal N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3 on these three points Q1, Q2, Q3 as shown in ray diagram.
5.Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 making angles of 35°, 40°, 45° and so on, with the normal
drawn at each of these points.
6.Measure the prism angle A is with the help of protector and note it.
7.Mark one coner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all the
observations.
8.Put the prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX‟ and point Q1 in the middle of AB, then
mark the boundary of the prism.
9.Fix two or more office pins P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1 making angle 35° with the normal.
The distance between the pins should be 10 mm or more.
9.Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC and close your left eye and bring open right eye
in line with the two images.
10.Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically and 10 cm apart such that the open right eye sees pins P4
and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight lines.
11.Now remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.
12.Repeat the same steps of procedure 8 to 12 with points Q2 and Q3 for i = 40° and 60° respectively.
13.To Measure D in different cases:
14.Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays T1, S2T2, S3T3
and so on.
16.Then produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3 inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident
rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 at points F1, F2, and F3.
17.Now measure angles K1F1S1, K2F2S2 and K3F3S3 these gives angle of deviation D1,D2 and D3
then note values of these angles on the paper.

Observations
Angle of prism „A‟ = 60°.

Calculations
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along X-axis and ∠D
along Y-axis. From this graph, calculate the value of single of minimum deviation Dm corresponding
to the lowest point of the graph.
Graph between Angle of incidence and Angle of deviation
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation = 38°.

* +
Then, n=

* +
n=

= sin(49°)/sin(30°)
So, n = 1.5°

Result
The Angle of minimum Deviation, Dm = 38°.
Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5°.
Graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (∠i) increases, the angle of deviation (∠D) first
decreases and attains a minimum value and then starts increasing for further increase in the angle of
incidence.
 Experiment - 6
Aim of Experiment:
To determine Refractive Index of a glass slab using a Travelling Microscope.

Apparatus Required:
 A Marker
 A Paper
 Three “Glass slabs” of different thickness but same material
 A Travelling Microscope
 Lycopodium powder.

Theory:
When a glass slab is placed on a horizontal surface, and its bottom surface is viewed from the top, it
appears to be elevated due to refraction. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined by the
distance between the apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index with respect
to the medium and air is given as:
n=

Diagram
Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope

Procedure
Adjustment of a travelling microscope

1. To get sufficient light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
5. Mark point P on the microscope‟s base using black ink.
6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical
and focus on P.
7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab with the least thickness over the mark P.
 9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P 1 .
10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7.
11. Sprinkle a few particles of Lycopodium powder on the slab‟s surface.
12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
13. For reading, R3 on the vernier scale repeat step 7.
14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.
15. Record the observations.

Observations
Table for Microscope Readings:

(RVS) – Reading on Vertical scale when Microscope is focused on.

Calculations
Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope= 0.001 cm.
Mean n = = =3.66/3=1.22

Result
The ratio is constant. It gives the refractive index of the glass slab.
 Experiment – 7
Aim of the experiment;
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.

Apparatus Required;
 An optical bench with three uprights
 A concave mirror
 A mirror holder
 Two optical needles
 A knitting needle
 A half-meter scale

Theory:
We use mirror formula for the determination of focal length.
Mirror formula is given as:

From the above equation, we get the focal length as:

where,
f is the focal length of a concave mirror.
u is the distance of object needle from the pole of the mirror.
v is the distance of image needle from the pole of the mirror.
The value of f will be negative. This is according to the sign-convention; u and v have negative values.

Ray Diagram

Procedure
Direct Method:
 The leveling screws of optical bench were adjusted with a mercury level.
 A concave mirror was placed on one of upright of optical bench and object pin was kept
in front of it.
 The pin height was adjusted up to the centre of concave mirror.
 The position of pin stand was so adjusted that its real image just coincided with the object
pin.
 The parallax error was avoided between the object and the image.
 The position of concave mirror and the object pin were recorded using the scale of optical
bench.
 Three such readings were recorded by adjusting the mirror and the object pin then the
mean focal length was calculated.
U-V method:
 The concave mirror mounted on a stand was placed on the optical bench such that silvered
back side of the mirror remained towards zero of the scale.
 The pin with stand was placed in front of the mirror very close to it. the height of the
pin was so adjusted that its tip come up to the center of the mirror.
 The object pin was moved along the line towards and away from the mirror until a real,
inverted and magnified image of the pin was appeared.
 The object pin was placed between F and C and image is formed beyond C.
 The second pin (image pin) was taken beyond C by adjust it on the on the line so that
its tip and inverted tip of image of the object pin coincided avoiding parallax.
 Keeping the position of mirror fixed, five observations were recorded by shifting the
object pin gradually further away from the mirror such that real, inverted and magnified
image was formed.
 Keeping the mirror unchanged, the object pin was moved away from the mirror along the
line until a real, inverted and diminished image of the pin was seen.
 Here the image was formed between F & C when the object pin was placed beyond C, at
different positions.
 Ten such observations were taken by interchanging the position of image & object pin

OBSERVATION:
DIRECT METHOD:
No. of Position of mirror Position Radius of Focal length Mean
obs. (a) in cm ofobject Curvature R fin
pin in cm R=a~b in f = in cm cm
(b) cm 2
1 85 123. 38.2 19.1
2
2 80 118. 38.3 19.1 19.13
3 5
3 75 113. 38.3 19.1
3 5

UV METHOD
No. Position Position Position Object Image Focal length Mea
of of mirror ofobject ofimage distan distan u.v u nf
obs (a) in cm pin pin ce ce f = in
V=a~b V=a~c +v cm
(a) in cm (c) in cm
in cm in cm in cm
1 50 77.0 116.6 27.0 66.3 19.18
2 50 81.7 98.5 31.7 48.5 19.17
3 50 83.0 96.7 33.0 46.7 19.33
4 50 84.0 94.7 34.0 44.7 19.31 19.26
5 50 124.5 75.8 74.5 25.8 19.16
6 50 120.0 76.6 70.0 26.6 19.28
7 50 102.4 80.5 52.4 30.5 19.28
8 50 96.7 83.1 46.7 33.1 19.37

Result:
By direct method, focal length of concave mirror
f=19.13 cm
By U-V method, focal length of concave mirror f=19.26
cm
From these two values of „f‟ obtained nearly equal.
 Experiment – 8
Aim of the experiment
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Apparatus Required

 A P-N junction diode

 A 3-volt battery
 A 50-volt battery
 A high resistance rheostat
 One 0-3 volt voltmeter
 One 0-50 volt voltmeter
 One 0-100 mA ammeter
 One 0-100 μA ammeter
 One way key
 Connecting wires
 Piece of sandpaper

Theory
Forward bias characteristics
The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current
increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics
The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small change in the current but the reverse current
increases to a higher value with an increase in the voltage.

Diagram
NATURE OF GRAPH:
I~V Characteristics: of a pn-junction in forward & reverse condition can be shown as

Procedure
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be brought near
the negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards the
positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the V F becomes 0.7 V,
the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward breakdown
stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won‟t change as V F increased beyond forward
breakdown.
11. Record the observations.
For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K and bring the
rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so as to flow
the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When V R becomes 20 V, the
current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse breakdown
stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.

Observations
For forward bias
Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = ……..mA

Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = ……..μA
Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Calculations
For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF (column 2) and forward current I F (column 3) taking
VF along X-axis and I F along Y-axis.
This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction diode.
For reverse-bias

Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR (column 2) and reverse current I R (column 3) taking
VR along X-axis and I R along Y-axis.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.

Result
Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohms

Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 106 ohms.

 Experiment – 9
Aim of the experiment: draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.
Apparatus Required

 One 0-100 mA ammeter

 One 20 Ω resistance
 High resistance rheostat
 One Zener diode (reverse breakdown voltage value of around six volts (Vz = 6 V))
 Ten-volt battery
 One-way key
 Connecting wire
 Two 0-10 V voltmeter

Theory
A zener diode is heavily doped special diode, operated in the reverse biased region.
In reverse biased condition initially a very small leakage current flows due to minority charge
carriers
When the reverse current exceeds the breakdown value, the barrier breaks and the reverse
current increases sharply
The potential across the diode remain constant.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Here, B=Battery
V=Voltmeter
μ A=Micro
Ammeter
Rh=Rheostat
(K)=Key

NATURE OF GRAPH:
Plotting a graph between voltage along X-axis and current along Y-axis. The graph as.
 PROCEDURE:
 Initial zero connections were checked both the voltmeter and ammeter in the circuit.
 In each step 0.5 V was increased, the supply and the corresponding current were recorded
in each time.
 At a particular voltage the current was raised suddenly and became maximum and by
further increase of diode voltage, no effect on that current was marked.
 The other rating of Zener diodes were used to repeat the procedure.

Least count of voltmeter = =0.25V

Least count of ammeter = =0.25mA

Observation

Table for Reverse Biased:

No. of Reverse voltage Vr in Reverse current Ir in A/mA

obs. volt
1 0 0
2 1.0 0
3 2.0 0
4 3.0 0
5 4.0 0
6 5.0 0.025
7 6.0 0.525
8 7.0 1.275
9 8.0 Out of Scale
Result
The reverse breakdown voltage of this Zener diode is 5 volt.
 Experiment – 10
Aim of the experiment
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired
range and to verify the same.

Apparatus Required:
 A galvanometer
 A voltmeter 0-3V,
 Battery
 2 resistance boxes
 2 one way keys
 A rheostat
 Connecting wires
Theory:
A galvanometer is an ideal device that is capable of detecting even the weakest electric currents in an
electric circuit. It features a coil suspended or pivoted between concave pole faces of a strong
laminated horseshoe magnet. The galvanometer shows the deflection when an electric current is
passed through the coil. The deflection is directly proportional to the current passed. A voltmeter is
an instrument used for estimating the electrical potential difference between 2 points in an electric
circuit.

Series resistance required for conversion

V-range of conversion

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the resistance box in series combination with the galvanometer and take the plugs of
resistance R.
2. A and B are the fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal of the rheostat.
3. Now the galvanometer functions as a voltmeter of range V Volts.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
5. By using a key, adjust the movable contact of the rheostat such that the deflection of the
galvanometer becomes maximum.
6. Note both the readings of the galvanometer and voltmeter.
7. Convert the readings of the galvanometer into volts.
 8. Find the difference in the reading. This difference between voltmeter reading and galvanometer
reading gives the error.
9. By moving the variable contact of rheostat, take 5 readings covering the range of voltmeters
from 0-3 Volts.
10. Record your observation
11.
Observation

Calculation
 The resistance of the given Galvanometer (G) = 80 ohm.
 Figure of Merit (k) = 1.9×10-5 Amp/Div.
 Number of divisions (Galvanometer scale) (n) = 30.
 Current (Full scale deflection) (I g) = nk = 57×10-5 = 0.00057A.
 Range of conversion (V) = 0-3 Volt.
 Resistance to be placed in series with Galvanometer = R=V/Ig-G =3/0.00057-80 =
5183.15 ohm.

Result:-
The value of the actual and measured value of the potential difference is very small and conversion is
perfect.