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On the influence of indigenous languages on Brazilian Portuguese
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0102-445067692919987352
D E L T A
On the influence of indigenous languages

on Brazilian Portuguese
Sobre a influência das línguas indígenas
no português brasileiro
Aryon D. RODRIGUES
(Unicamp)
The contact between the Portuguese and Brazilian Indians began

early in the 16th century. Let’s recall that Brazil was discovered by
the Portuguese in 1500 and that the settlement of Portuguese colonists
started in 1530. By that time most of the Brazilian coast was occupied
by the Tupinamba Indians, whose culture and language presented only
very slight variation in spite of the great extension of their territory.
Probably this extension without differentiation was due to a very re-
cent expansionist movement, which was yet in course and could be
observed in the beginning of the 16th century by the Portuguese (cf.
Metraux 1927).
As a consequence of this situation, the Portuguese got in contact
predominantly with local groups of Tupinamba, be it in Pernambuco
or Bahia, in Espirito Santo or Rio de Janeiro, or on the coast of São
Paulo. In spite of the presence at some spots of the coast of culturally
and linguistically different Indians, the Portuguese were led to consider
the language of the Tupinamba as the Brazilian language par excellence
(lingua brasilíca) and to build on it a binary distinction of the Indian
peoples they met: “nations of Brazilian language” and “nations of blo-
D.E.L.T.A., 30 especial, 2014 (443-446)

30 esp.
2014 Ana Carolina Vilela-Ardenghi & Ana Raquel Motta
Aryon D. Rodrigues
cked languages” (nações de língua travada). Later on the expression

língua brasílica was replaced by língua geral, “general language”.
The first Portuguese settlements in Brazil took place not through
the immigration of constituted families, but almost exclusively on the
basis of either bachelors, or married men whose wives were left back in
Portugal. The women in the settlements were Indians and the offspring
was mestizo, and the family language was of course Tupinamba. In
the first phase of the colonization, when the Portuguese had to learn
for the first time every peculiarity of the new country and of its native
inhabitants, this situation was decisive for the absorption of Tupinamba
nomenclature.
In the settlements that developed more rapidly, such as those of
Pernambuco and Bahia, the continuous immigration of the Portuguese,
now in general with their wives, and the extinction of the Indians led
to the progressive predominance of the Portuguese language over the
Tupinamba. In some of these settlements the Indian language went out
of use already by the second half of the 17th century. In areas more
removed from those centers of economical development the dialects
of língua geral lasted longer, in the south (São Paulo) until the end of
the 18th century, in the north (Pará and Amazonas) until the 19th and,
in some places, the 20th century. In both cases these dialects became
the language of pioneering penetration in the interior of Brazil. In São
Paulo língua geral was the language of the bandeiras, the expeditions
that opened to settlement the west of São Paulo, most of Minas Gerais,
Goiás, and southern Mato Grosso. In the north it spread to the west
with the catholic mission and the conquering expedition. In Amazo-
nia it came to be spoken exclusively by non Tupi-Guaranian Indians
and by mestizoes. As a result of the process of being adopted by such
non Tupi-Guarani Indians and of coexisting with Portuguese, under
conditions not yet enough known, Amazonian língua geral presents
phonological and grammatical simplification coincident with pronoun-
ced assimilation to Portuguese patterns.
No other of the more than 100 Indian languages of Brazil offers
a parallel to the long and widespread interaction of Tupinamba with
Portuguese. Contacts of Portuguese with other languages were more
restricted as to place and as to time. For most cases of contacts that
444
30 esp.
Brasil-paraíso:
On the influence of indigenousestereótipo
languagese circulação
on Brazilian Portuguese 2014
must have occurred in the past we have no data thus far. One of the
few known cases has to do with Kiriri (Kipeá), a language formerly
spoken in northern Bahia and on the São Francisco river, but now
completely replaced by Portuguese. It should be noted that no Indian
language other than Tupinamba and Kiriri was object of description by
the Portuguese in the three centuries of their colonial rule.
Cases of more recent contact with marked reflexes at least in place
names are those of Kaingang in the southern states from São Paulo to
Rio Grande so Sul, which dates from the first half of the 19th century,
and Bororo and Paresi in western Mato Grosso, mostly in the 20th
century.
In the present state of the genetic classification of Brazilian Indian
languages we distinguish about 20 language families. Each language
family comprises from two to twenty or more languages supposed to
have a common origin. Some families are comprised in greater units,
the linguistic stocks. The Tupi stock comprises seven families – Tupi-
Guarani, Munduruku, Juruna, Arikem, Tupari, Monde, Ramarama – and
a linguistic isolate, the language Purubora. Just now we are working
out evidences of genetic relationship of the Carib family with the Tupi
stock, as well as evidences for connecting to this stock the Je family.
Tupinamba is a member of the Tupi-Guarani family. Another
member of the family plays a role in the contacts with Brazilian
Portuguese – Guarani. Old Guarani was abundantly documented by
a Spanish missionary in the 17th century in the west of present day
State of Paraná. Modern Guarani dialects are spoken today by Indians
in the States of São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do
Sul as well as in southern Mato Grosso (extending also to Paraguay
and Bolivia).
In the study of Portuguese lexical borrowings from the Indian lan-
guages we can distinguish words originated in Tupinamba from word
coming from the Guarani dialects and those stemming from Amazonian
língua geral. On the one hand the geographical distribution of the lo-
anwords is relevant – Guarani contributed only to dialects of Portuguese
in Southern Brazil, and Amazonian língua geral only to Amazonian
Portuguese; on the other hand the phonology of loanwords gives many
cues for identifying the source. For instance, Tupinamba /w/ and /b/ are 445
30 esp.
2014 Ana Carolina Vilela-Ardenghi & Ana Raquel Motta
Aryon D. Rodrigues
reflected in Brazilian Portuguese as /gw/ and /b/ or /v/, respectively. In

Amazonian lingua geral both Tupinamba phonemes merged into /w/
and this is reflected in regional Portuguese as /w/: Jaguaribe /zagwa-
ribe/, a placename in Pernambuco, comes from Tupinamba yawarɨpe
‘at the river of the jaguar’, while Iauarete /yaware/, a placename in
Amazonas, comes from Amazonian língua geral yawarete ‘true jaguar’;
Itapeva /itap va/ in São Paulo procedes from Tupinamba itapeba ‘flat
stone’, while Itapeua /itap wa/ in Pará stems from Amazonian língua
geral itapewa, with the same meaning. In comparison with Tupinam-
ba, the Guarani dialects lost final unaccented syllables, and Brazilian
Portuguese reflects this difference: Piratininga in eastern São Paulo
comes from Tupinamba /piratinina/ ‘dried fish’, while Piratini in Rio
Grande do Sul is due to Guarani piratini with the same meaning.
Sometimes it has been claimed that Tupinamba (Old Tupi) strongly
influenced Brazilian Portuguese phonology. In general such claims have
been put forward without an appropriate knowledge of the indigenous
language, and thus far no good case of phonological interference was
satisfactorily demonstrated. One of those claims tries to justify the
lost of word final –r in Brazilian Portuguese under the assumption that
the so-called Tupi language had no final consonants. The assumption
is false in so far as Tupinamba, the most probable source for such a
phonological interference, does have final consonants, including final
–r: aypotar ‘I will it’, opor ‘he jumped’, oypɨter ‘he sucked it’, eresem
‘you went out’, oymoneb ‘he introduced it’, and so on. As a matter of
fact, it is Amazonian língua geral that does not present final consonants
(saputari, upuri, upitera, resema, umuneu for the same meanings as
above). But Amazonian língua geral could not exert such a general
influence on Brazilian Portuguese as the lost of the -r.
The study of possible phonological and grammatical influence of
Indian languages on Brazilian Portuguese should be made not only
on the basis of a good knowledge of the Indian language or languages
involved, but also taking into account the particular dialects of Bra-
zilian Portuguese, where the investigated fact really occurs. Thus far
we lack studies conjugating knowledge of both, the Indian languages
and Brazilian Portuguese dialects.
446

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On the influence of indigenous languages on Brazilian Portuguese

On the influence of indigenous languages

The contact between the Portuguese and Brazilian Indians began

D.E.L.T.A., 30 especial, 2014 (443-446)

cked languages” (nações de língua travada). Later on the expression

reﬂected in Brazilian Portuguese as /gw/ and /b/ or /v/, respectively. In

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