Telegram Channel:

https://t.me/dapenglish
Done By:
https://t.me/rogwili
The Study of Language/ CH. 11/Discourse Analysis
Semantics: is the study of the meaning of the words, phrase, and sentences.
We also have Pragmatics which looks for meaning, but what kind of meaning?
-Referential/ conventional/ dictionary/ objective meaning that we look for in
semantics within the text. The meaning is not associative/ subjective/ personal
meaning.
EX/ the word “needle” it is a thin, sharp, steel, instrument (Referential
meaning). But it is blood, pain, hospital when comes to (associative meaning).
Pragmatics: is what speaker’s mean (intention) by their utterances in a
particular context. It is more about the invisible meaning.
EX/ God opens his (door) to those who hope(metaphorical meaning) is
(pragmatics).
Discourse Analysis: is the study of language in text and conversations,
because discourse is define as language beyond the sentence.
1-how we make sentence of what we read/listen to.
2-how we recognize well-constructed texts from incoherent text
3-how we understand speakers who communicate more than they say.
4-how we successfully take part in conversation.
Ex: Trains collide two die.
Ex: No shoes, no service.
Interpreting discourse: is the effort of interpreting discourse and the
purpose of accomplishing it. It is about "how" to make sense of discourse to
arrive at a reasonable interpretation.
Cohesion: it refers to the formal ties and connections that exist within texts. It
helps writer /speakers structure what they want to say. It's worth nothing that
the only connection between words, phrases, and sentences are not enough to
help readers / listeners make sense of texts. Rather, cohesion and coherence
should work together to build a well-constructed and understandable text.
Coherence: is about fitting things together well. It is not simply the knowledge
of words and sentences, but something that exists in people's minds /
assumptions / experiences / contexts shared by them about the way the world
is.
EX/ A woman robs a bank with a sandwich
cooperative principle: there are four maxims for they cooperative and these
as follows :
The Quantity maxim: Make your contribution as informative as is required, but
not more, or less, than is required.
-Where have you been?
-How’s your sandwich?
The Quality maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be false or for which
you lack adequate evidence.
The Relation maxim: Be relevant.
The Manner maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.
Hedges: a word or phrases used to indicate that we are not really sure that
what we are saying is sufficiently correct or complete like, )as far as I know,
correct me if I'm wrong......, may, might, possible, kind of, could, likely, I think, I
feel) ‫كلمة او عبارة نستخدمها لنستدل على اننا غير متأكدين م ّما نقوله‬
- John is guilty ( we are sure that John is guilty)
- John may be guilty ( we are not sure about it)

Implicatures: is an additional conveyed meaning that is not stated directly or

literary that it is say speaker imply something that is not say.
1/ ex: A: Are you coming to the party tonight?
B: I have got an exam tomorrow.
2/ex: A: Can I get a ride with you?
B: My car is not working
3/ex: A: Would you like having coffee?
B: Coffee keep me awake.
Background knowledge: a conventional knowledge we already had about
well through which we arrived at interpretation of what we read or hear, it is a
critical part of discourse analysis.
schema: is a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that exist in
memory.
1/ex: a classroom is schema.
2/ex: supermarket is schema.
3/ex: pank is schema.
Scripts: is many ways similar to a schema it is dynamic that is instead of the
typical set of fixed feature in schema, a script has a series of conventional
actions that take place.
ex: Go to the dentist
Ch. 12/ Language and the Brain
Neurolinguistics: The study of the relationship between language and the
brain.
- two areas located in the left hemisphere of the brain are responsible for
speech comprehension and speech production.
Broca's area: name after Paul Broca, a French surgeon in 1860 s.Is responsible
for speech production. Whereas wernicke's area, named after the German
doctor 1870 s, responsible for speech comprehension.
-The former area is technical describe as anterior speech cortex. While, the
latter area is called the posterior speech cortex.
Motor cortex: controls movement of the muscles.
Arcuate fasciculus: connection between Wernicke's and Broca's areas.
The localization view: This is called the localization view and it has been used
to suggest that the brain activity involved in hearing a word, understanding it,
then saying it, would follow a definite pattern. The word is heard and
comprehended via Wernicke's area. This signal is then transferred via the
arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area where preparations are made to generate a
spoken version of the word. A signal is then sent to part of the motor cortex to
physically articulate the word.

Tongue tips and slips

( sleepy, ciying, nervous, lying, exhausted, talking fast, shocked, angry, stressed,
under pressne, sick, tired, undermed, shy, annoyed, scaned, delightful, excited)
The tip of the tongue phenomenon:
Words sometimes elude us.
Words won't come to the surface of the tongue though we know:
-their phonological outline / structure.
-their initial or final sounds.
-their number of syllables.

Reasons behind the difficulty of retrieving some words than others:

- some words uncommon to us than other words.
- some words have strong phonological similarition with others.
EX// fire extinguisher(target word)
fire distinguisher( mistake/ mistaken word)
EX// sextant ( navigational instrument, target word)
sextet, sexton (mistake)
EX// medication(target)
meditation(mistake)
EX// we need a few laughs to break up monotony(target word)
we need a few laughs to break up monogamy(mistake word)

Slips of the brain

The text discusses slips of the brain, including word substitutions and three
types of common errors: perseveration, anticipation, and exchange. It
highlights instances like a US president's verbal slip and suggests that these
errors may stem from the brain's challenges in organizing and generating
linguistic messages.
EX/we are not targeting anyone else in Gaza but civilians.....but rather but
rather uh uh terrorists of course.
EX/we are not the victims..sorry we are the victims.
EX/our queer old dean
our dear old queen
*Memorize the chart on page 189*

Aphasia: is an impairment/disorder/malfunction of language function due to

localized damage in the brain that leads to difficulties in understanding and /or
producing linguistic forms.
We have two main causes for Aphasia :
1-Stroke blood vessel (blocked, burst)
2-Traumatic head injuries (accidents)
Types of Aphasia :
1-Broca's Aphasia (Expressive aphasia), It is characterized by :
-Substantial reduced amount of speech.
-Distorted articulation.
-Slow and effortful speech.
-Often using lexical morphemes (nouns, verbs, adjectives,....).
-Omission of functional morphemes (articles, prepositions,....).
-Omission of inflectional morphemes (plural-s, past tense-ed,....).
2-Wernicke's Aphasia (Receptive Aphasia)
It is characterized by :
-Difficulty in auditory comprehension.
-Can produce very fluent speech but often difficult to understand.
-Difficulty in finding correct words (anomia).
-To overcome the difficulty of words-finding, they resort to the description or
talking about their purposes
3-Conduction Aphasia (Caused by a damage in the Arcuate Fasciculus)
It is characterized by :
-Sometimes mispronounce words.
-Don't have articulation problems.
-They are fluent but may disrupt rhythm because of pauses and hesitations.
-Comprehension is normally good.
-Face major difficulties in repeating words (base_vayss, wash_fash).
-What they comprehend well cannot be transferred successfully for speech
production

-Left and right brain hemispheres of the brain:

1/both hemispheres work together for language communication.
2/left hemisphere of the Brain controls the right hand side of the body vice
versa.

Dichotic Listening: An experimental technique that has demonstrated a left

hemisphere dominance for syllable and word processing.
What is hard first in two different singles in comment throw simulaseat?
- Is subject more often differ the sound that come via the right ear because a
couldn't ear will directly go to the left hemisphere, unlike come in the left ear
words should firstly go to the right hemisphere.
Left brain, right brain:
- Both hemisphere work together for language communication.- Left
hemisphere of the brain controls the right hand side of the body, vice vera.
Q/ What is mean right the ear advantage?
-The language signal resave the throw the left ear is first sent to the right
hemisphere and then has to be sent to the left hemisphere ( language central )
for processed. This non direct threw takes long then linguistic signal receive to
threw the right ear, which goes directly to left hemisphere.

However, we can't process linguistic communication without the right

hemisphere, which specializes in contextual understanding, using intonation
and phrasing, and non-literal meaning with inferences and all that is involved
in pragmatics. Without the right hemisphere, we would never understand a
joke.

The Critical Period: is a period when the human brain is most ready to
receive input and learn a particular language. Though there is increasing
evidence that it may actually start earlier in the womb, the general view is that
the critical period for language acquisition lasts from birth until puberty. If
children do not acquire language during this period, for any one of a number of
reasons, then they will find it almost impossible to learn language later on.
Genie: As might be expected, Genie was unable to use language when she was
first brought into care. However, within a short period of time, she began to
respond to the speech of others, to try to imitate sounds and to communicate.
Her syntax remained very simple. The fact that she went on to develop some
speaking ability and understand a fairly large number of English words
provides some evidence against the notion that language cannot be acquired at
all after the critical period. Yet her diminished capacity to develop gramma-
tically complex speech does seem to support the idea that part of the left
hemisphere of the brain is open to accepting a language program during
childhood and, if no program is provided, as in Genie's case, then the facility is
closed down.

In Genie's case, tests demonstrated that she had no left hemisphere language
facility. So,how was she able to learn any part of language, even in a limited
way? Those same tests appeared to indicate the quite remarkable fact that
Genie was using the right hemisphere. of her brain for basic language
functions. In dichotic listening tests, she showed a very strong left ear
advantage for verbal as well as non-verbal signals. Such a finding, sup- ported
by other studies of right brain function, raises the possibility that our capacity
for language is not limited to only one or two specific areas, but is based on
more complex connections extending throughout the whole brain. When Genie
was beginning to use speech, it was noted that she went through some of the
same early "stages" found in normal child language acquisition.
CH. 13/ First Language Acquisition
Q/What's the basic characteristics of language acquisition?
1-language acquisition remarkable for the speed with which it takes place.
2-long before a child start school, he/she become extremely sophisticated
language user that know other creature or computer comes close to matching.
3-language acquisition occurs without an overt instruction.
These three points features provide strong supports for the idea that there is
innate predisposition in the human infant to occur language.
basic requirements for language acquisition;
1. A child must be physically capable of sending and receiving... language sound
signals. (This is not) if a child is born to a deaf parents, he or she will learn the
sign language use by their parents at the age of 3.
2. A child requires interaction with other language users. Ex/ genie represents
an example of a child who has been deprived of interaction with language
users.
3. Language is not genetically acquired or inheritic, it should be transmitted
culturally. A child acquires in a particular language using environment.
Input: represents language samples provided by older children and adults in
the home environment for the child.
What are the characters/ features of the caregivers speech/baby talk/mothers’
speech?
1. Using simplified words, alternative forms.
2. Repeated symbol, sounds and syllables.
3. Frequent use of questions.
4. Exaggerated intonations, extra loudness, slower tempo, longer possess.
Acquisition schedule: all normal children develop biologically and linguistically
at roughly the same time.

Cooing: is the earliest use of speech-like sound by infants. Before four months,
children are able to produce high vowels similar to ‫[ اي‬i] [u] ‫او‬.
By 4 months, infants develop the ability to bring the back of the tongue into
contact with the back of pallet producing sounds similar to velar consonant [k,
g].
By 5 months, babies differentiate between vowels [i ،‫اي‬u ‫ ]آ‬and discriminate
between syllables like (ba, ga)