Chapter 2:-

2.1 Scalars and Vectors

What is Scalar? Define Scalar?
 A scalar is any positive or negative physical quantity that can be completely
specified by its magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities include length, mass,
and time. A scalar is any positive or negative physical quantity that can be
completely specified by its magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities include
length, mass, and time.
What is Vector? Define Vector?
 A vector is any physical quantity that requires both a magnitude and a direction
for its complete description. Examples of vectors encountered in statics are force,
position, and moment.

The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector,

and the angle u between the vector and a fixed axis defines the
direction of its line of action. The head or tip of the arrow
indicates the sense of direction of the vector.
*In print, vector quantities are represented by boldface letters such as A, and the
magnitude of a vector is italicized, A. For handwritten work, it is often convenient to
denote a vector quantity by simply drawing an arrow above it.

2.2 Vector Operations

Multiplication and Division of a Vector by a Scalar. If a vector is multiplied by a
positive scalar, its magnitude is increased by that amount. Multiplying by a
negative scalar will also change the directional sense of the vector.

Vector Addition. When adding two vectors together it is important to account for both their
magnitudes and their directions.

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To do this we must use the parallelogram law of addition. To illustrate, the two component
vectors A and B in are added to form a resultant vector R = A + B using the following
procedure:
 First join the tails of the components at a point to make them concurrent.
 From the head of B, draw a line parallel to A. Draw another line from the head of A that is parallel
to B. These two lines intersect at point P to form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
 The diagonal of this parallelogram that extends to P forms R, which then represents the resultant
vector R = A + B.

We can also add B to A, using the triangle rule, which is a special case of the parallelogram
law, whereby vector B is added to vector A in a “head-to-tail” fashion, i.e., by connecting the
head of A to the tail of B. The resultant R extends from the tail of A to the head of B. In a similar
manner, R can also be obtained by adding A to B. By comparison, it is seen that vector addition
is commutative; in other words, the vectors can be added in either order, i.e., R = A + B = B + A.

As a special case, if the two vectors A and B are collinear, i.e., both have the same line of
action, the parallelogram law reduces to an algebraic or scalar addition R = A + B.

Vector Subtraction. The resultant of the difference between two vectors A and B of the same
type may be expressed as
R’ = A - B = A + (-B)

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This vector sum is shown graphically below. Subtraction is therefore defined as a special case
of addition, so the rules of vector addition also apply to vector subtraction.

2.3 Vector Addition of Forces

Finding a Resultant Force. The two component forces F and F2 acting on the pin in Fig. 2–7a
can be added together to form the resultant force FR = F1 + F2, as shown in Fig. 2–7b. From
this construction, or using the triangle rule, we can apply the law of cosines or the law of sines
to the triangle in order to obtain the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction.

Finding the Components of a Force. Sometimes it is necessary to resolve a force into two
components in order to study its pulling or pushing effect in two specific directions. For example,
in the figure below, F is to be resolved into two components along the two members, defined by
the u and v axes. In order to determine the magnitude of each component, a parallelogram is
constructed first, by drawing lines starting from the tip of F, one line parallel to u, and the other
line parallel to v. These lines then intersect with the v and u axes, forming a parallelogram. The
force components Fu and Fv are then established by simply joining the tail of F to the
intersection points on the u and v axes. This parallelogram can then be reduced to a triangle,
which represents the triangle rule. From this, the law of sines can then be applied to determine
the unknown magnitudes of the components.

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Addition of Several Forces. If more than two forces are to be added,
successive applications of the parallelogram law can be carried out in
order to obtain the resultant force. For example, if three forces F1, F2,
F3 act at a point O, the resultant of any two of the forces is found, say,
F1 + F2—and then this resultant is added to the third force, yielding the
resultant of all three forces; i.e., FR = (F1 + F2) + F3. Using the
parallelogram law to add more than two forces, as shown here, often
requires extensive geometric and trigonometric calculation to determine
the numerical values for the magnitude and direction of the resultant.

Important Points
 A scalar is a positive or negative number.
 A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude, direction, and sense.
 Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar will change the magnitude of the
vector. The sense of the vector will change if the scalar is negative.
 As a special case, if the vectors are collinear, the resultant is formed by an
algebraic or scalar addition.

Procedure for Analysis

 Parallelogram Law.
 Two “component” forces F1 and F2, add according to the parallelogram law,
yielding a resultant force FR that forms the diagonal of the parallelogram.
 If a force F is to be resolved into components along two axes u and v, then start
at the head of force F and construct lines parallel to the axes, thereby forming the
parallelogram. The sides of the parallelogram represent the components, Fu and
Fv.
 Label all the known and unknown force magnitudes and the angles on the sketch
and identify the two unknowns as the magnitude and direction of FR, or the
magnitudes of its components.

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 Trigonometry.
 Redraw a half portion of the parallelogram to illustrate the triangular head-to-tail
addition of the components.
 From this triangle, the magnitude of the resultant force can be determined using
the law of cosines, and its direction is determined from the law of sines. The
magnitudes of two force components are determined from the law of sines.

Problems:

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2.4 Addition of a System of Coplanar Forces
When a force is resolved into two components along the x and y axes, the components
are then called rectangular components. For analytical work we can represent these
components in one of two ways, using either scalar or Cartesian vector notation.

Scalar Notation. The rectangular components of force F are found using

the parallelogram law, so that F = Fx + Fy. Because these components
form a right triangle, they can be determined from

Instead of using the angle u, however, the direction of F can also be defined using a
small “slope” triangle, as in the example shown here. Since this triangle and the larger
shaded triangle are similar, the proportional length of the sides gives

or

and

or

*Here the y component is a negative scalar since Fy is directed along the negative y axis.

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Cartesian Vector Notation. It is also possible to represent the x and y
components of a force in terms of Cartesian unit vectors i and j. They
are called unit vectors because they have a dimensionless magnitude
of 1, and so they can be used to designate the directions of the x and
y axes, respectively. Since the magnitude of each component of F is
always a positive quantity, which is represented by the (positive)
scalars Fx and Fy, then we can express F as a Cartesian vector,

Coplanar Force Resultants. We can use either of the two methods

just described to determine the resultant of several coplanar forces,
i.e., forces that all lie in the same plane. To do this, each force is
first resolved into its x and y components, and then the respective
components are added using scalar algebra since they are
collinear. The resultant force is then formed by adding the resultant
components using the parallelogram law. For example, consider the
three concurrent forces in the figure, which have x and y
components shown in the Fig. Using Cartesian vector notation,
each force is first represented as a Cartesian vector, i.e.,

The vector resultant is therefore,

If scalar notation is used, then indicating the positive directions of components along the
x and y axes with symbolic arrows, we have

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We can represent the components of the resultant force of any number of coplanar
forces symbolically by the algebraic sum of the x and y components of all the forces,
i.e.,

Once these components are determined, they may be sketched

along the x and y axes with their proper sense of direction, and the
resultant force can be determined from vector addition, as shown
here. From this sketch, the magnitude of FR is then found from the
Pythagorean Theorem; that is,

Also, the angle u, which specifies the direction of the resultant force, is determined from
trigonometry:

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 2.5 Cartesian Vectors
The operations of vector algebra, when applied to solving problems in three dimensions,
are greatly simplified if the vectors are first represented in Cartesian vector form. In this
section we will present a general method for doing this; then in the next section we will
use this method for finding the resultant force of a system of concurrent forces.

Right-Handed Coordinate System. We will use a righthanded coordinate

system to develop the theory of vector algebra that follows. A rectangular
coordinate system is said to be right-handed if the thumb of the right hand
points in the direction of the positive z axis when the right-hand fingers
are curled about this axis and directed from the positive x towards the
positive y axis.

Rectangular Components of a Vector. A vector A may have one, two, or

three rectangular components along the x, y, z coordinate axes,
depending on how the vector is oriented relative to the axes. In general,
though, when A is directed within an octant of the x, y, z frame, then by
two successive applications of the parallelogram law, we may resolve
the vector into components as A = A’ + Az and then A’ = Ax + Ay.
Combining these equations, to eliminate A’, A is represented by the
vector sum of its three rectangular components,

Cartesian Unit Vectors. In three dimensions, the set of Cartesian unit vectors, i, j, k, is
used to designate the directions of the x, y, z axes, respectively. As stated, the sense
(or arrowhead) of these vectors will be represented analytically by a plus or minus sign,
depending on whether they are directed along the positive or negative x, y, or z axes.
The positive Cartesian unit vectors are shown in figure.

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Cartesian Vector Representation. Since the three components of A above,
act in the positive i, j, and k directions, we can write A in Cartesian vector
form as

There is a distinct advantage to writing vectors in this manner. Separating the

magnitude and direction of each component vector will simplify the operations of vector algebra,
particularly in three dimensions.

Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector. It is always possible to obtain the

magnitude of A provided it is expressed in Cartesian vector form. As
shown in Figure, from the blue right triangle, A=√ A ' 2 + Az2, and from
the gray right triangle, A’ =√ Ax 2 + Ay 2. Combining these equations to
eliminate A’ yields

Hence, the magnitude of A is equal to the positive square root of the

sum of the squares of its components.

Coordinate Direction Angles. We will define the direction of A by the coordinate

direction angles α (alpha), β (beta), and Ɣ (gamma), measured
between the tail of A and the positive x, y, z axes provided they are
located at the tail of A. Note that regardless of where A is directed,
each of these angles will be between 0° and 180°. To determine α, β,
and Ɣ, consider the projection of A onto the x, y, z axes. Referring to
the colored right triangles shown in the figure, we have

These numbers are known as the direction cosines of A. Once they have been obtained,
the coordinate direction angles a, b, g can then be determined from the inverse cosines.

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An easy way of obtaining these direction cosines is to form a unit
vector uA in the direction of A. If A is expressed in Cartesian vector
form, A = Axi + Ayj + Azk, then uA will have a magnitude of one
and be dimensionless provided A is divided by its magnitude, i.e.,

where A = Ax + Ay + Az By comparison with the eqn way above, it is seen that the i, j, k
components of uA represent the direction cosines of A, i.e.,

uA = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k

Since the magnitude of a vector is equal to the positive square root of the sum of the
squares of the magnitudes of its components, and uA has a magnitude of one, then
from the above equation an important relation among the direction cosines can be
formulated as

Here we can see that if only two of the coordinate angles are known, the third angle can
be found using this equation. Finally, if the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of
A are known, then A may be expressed in Cartesian vector form as

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Transverse and Azmuth Angles. Sometimes, the direction of A
can be specified using two angles, namely, a transverse
angle Θ and an azmuth angle Φ (phi), such as shown in the
figure. The components of A can then be determined by
applying trigonometry first to the light blue right triangle, which
yields

and

Now applying trigonometry to the dark blue right triangle,

Therefore A written in Cartesian vector form becomes

A = A sin Φ cos Θ i + A sin Φ sin Θ j + A cos Φ k

You should not memorize this equation, rather it is important to understand how the
components were determined using trigonometry.

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2.6 Addition of Cartesian Vectors
The addition (or subtraction) of two or more vectors is greatly
simplified if the vectors are expressed in terms of their Cartesian
components. For example, if A = Ax i + Ay j + Azk and B = Bxi +
By j + Bzk, then the resultant vector, R, has components which
are the scalar sums of the i, j, k components of A and B, i.e.,

R = A + B = (Ax + Bx)i + (Ay + By)j + (Az + Bz)k

If this is generalized and applied to a system of several concurrent forces, then the force
resultant is the vector sum of all the forces in the system and can be written as

Here ∑ Fx , ∑ Fy , and ∑ Fz represent the algebraic sums of the respective

x, y, z or i, j, k components of each force in the system.

Important Points
• A Cartesian vector A has i, j, k components along the x, y, z axes. If A is
known, its magnitude is defined by A = √ Ax ²+ Ay ²+ Az ² .

• The direction of a Cartesian vector can be defined by the three angles a, b, g,

measured from the positive x, y, z axes to the tail of the vector. To find these
angles formulate a unit vector in the direction of A, i.e., uA = A/A, and
determine the inverse cosines of its components. Only two of these angles
are independent of one another; the third angle is found from
cos² α + cos² β + cos² Ɣ = 1.

• The direction of a Cartesian vector can also be specified using a transverse

angle u and azimuth angle Φ.

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2.7 Position Vectors.
x, y, z Coordinates. Throughout the book we will use a righthanded coordinate system
to reference the location of points in space. We will also use the convention followed in
many technical books, which requires the positive z axis to be directed upward (the
zenith direction) so that it measures the height of an object or the altitude of a point. The
x, y axes then lie in the horizontal plane. Points in space are located relative to the
origin of coordinates, O, by successive measurements along the x, y, z axes. For
example, the coordinates of point A are obtained by starting at O and measuring xA =
+4m along the x axis, then yA = +2m along the y axis, and finally zA = - 6m along the z
axis, so that A(4m, 2m, -6m). In a similar manner, measurements along the x, y, z axes
from O to B yield the coordinates of B, that is, B(6m, -1m, 4m).

Position Vector. A position vector r is defined as a fixed vector which locates a point in
space relative to another point. For example, if r extends from the origin of coordinates,
O, to point P(x, y, z), then r can be expressed in Cartesian vector form as

r = xi + yj + zk
Note how the head-to-tail vector addition of the three components yields vector r.
Starting at the origin O, one “travels” x in the +i direction, then y in the +j direction, and
finally z in the +k direction to arrive at point P(x, y, z).

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In the more general case, the position vector may be directed from point A to point B in
space. This vector is also designated by the symbol r. As a matter of convention, we will
sometimes refer to this vector with two subscripts to indicate from and to the point
where it is directed. Thus, r can also be designated as rAB. Also, note that rA and rB
in the figure are referenced with only one subscript since they extend from the origin of
coordinates. From the figure, by the head-to-tail vector addition, using the triangle rule,
we require

rA + r = rB

Solving for r and expressing rA and rB in Cartesian vector form yields

or

Thus, the i, j, k components of the position vector r may be formed by taking the
coordinates of the tail of the vector A(xA, yA, zA) and subtracting them from the
corresponding coordinates of the head B(xB, yB, zB). We can also form these
components directly, by starting at A and moving through a distance of (xB - xA) along
the positive x axis (+i), then (yB - yA) along the positive y axis (+j), and finally (zB - zA)
along the positive z axis (+k) to get to B.

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2.8 Force Vector Directed Along a Line
Quite often in three-dimensional statics problems, the direction
of a force is specified by two points through which its line of
action passes. Such a situation is shown in the figure, where
the force F is directed along the cord AB. We can formulate F
as a Cartesian vector by realizing that it has the same direction
and sense as the position vector r directed from point A to point
B on the cord. This common direction is specified by the unit
vector u = r/r. Hence,

*Although we have represented F symbolically, note that it has units of force, unlike r, which
has units of length.

Important Points
• A position vector locates one point in space relative to
another point.
• The easiest way to formulate the components of a position vector
is to determine the distance and direction that must be traveled
along the x, y, z directions—going from the tail to the head of the
vector.
• A force F acting in the direction of a position vector r can be
represented in Cartesian form if the unit vector u of the position
vector is determined and it is multiplied by the magnitude of the
force, i.e., F = Fu = F(r/r).

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2.9 Dot Product
Occasionally in statics one has to find the angle between two
lines or the components of a force parallel and perpendicular to
a line. In two dimensions, these problems can readily be solved
by trigonometry since the geometry is easy to visualize. In three

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dimensions, however, this is often difficult, and consequently vector methods should be
employed for the solution. The dot product, which defines a particular method for
“multiplying” two vectors, can be used to solve the above-mentioned problems.

The dot product of vectors A and B, written A • B and read “A dot B,” is
defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the
angle Θ between their tails. Expressed in equation form,

Laws of Operation.
1. Commutative law: A • B = B • A
2. Multiplication by a scalar: a (A • B) = (aA) • B = A • (aB)
3. Distributive law: A • (B + D) = (A •B) + (A • D)

Cartesian Vector Formulation.

The Equation above must be used to find the dot product for any two
Cartesian unit vectors. For example, i • j = (1)(1) cos 0° = 1 and i • j = (1)(1)
cos 90° = 0. If we want to find the dot product of two general vectors A and
B that are expressed in Cartesian vector form, then we have

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Carrying out the dot-product operations, the final result becomes

Thus, to determine the dot product of two Cartesian vectors, multiply their
corresponding x, y, z components and sum these products algebraically. Note that the
result will be either a positive or negative scalar, or it could be zero.

Applications. The dot product has two important applications in mechanics.

 The angle formed between two vectors or intersecting lines. The angle u
between the tails of vectors A and B in Fig. can be determined from the equation
and written as

Here A • B is found from the equation. In particular, notice that if A • B = 0, Θ= cos−1 0 = 90° so
that A will be perpendicular to B.

 The components of a vector parallel and perpendicular to a line. The

component of vector A parallel to or collinear with the line aa in the figure above
is defined by Aa where Aa = A cos Θ. This component is sometimes referred to
as the projection of A onto the line, since a right angle is formed in the
construction. If the direction of the line is specified by the unit vector ua, then
since ua = 1, we can determine the magnitude of Aa directly from the dot product
i.e.,

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Hence, the scalar projection of A along a line is determined from the dot product of A
and the unit vector ua which defines the direction of the line. Notice that if this result is
positive, then Aa has a directional sense which is the same as ua, whereas if Aa is a
negative scalar, then Aa has the opposite sense of direction to ua.
The component Aa represented as a vector is therefore

The component of A that is perpendicular to line aa can also be obtained. Since A = Aa

+ A⊥ , then A⊥ = A - Aa. There are two possible ways of obtaining A ⊥. One way
would be to determine Θ from the dot product, Θ= cos−1 ( A •uA / A ), then A ⊥= A sin Θ.
Alternatively, if Aa is known, then by Pythagorean’s theorem we can also write

A⊥= √ A 2 + Aa2 .

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