Micro emotions/ expressions

What is deception detection?

Deception detection refers to the investigative practices used to determine a person’s

truthfulness and credibility. This is largely determined through the consideration of
certain behavioral and physiological cues as well as larger contextual and situational
information.

What methods are used to detect deception?

While historians are not entirely sure where or when deception detection practices
originated, it is clear that humans have been trying to figure out how to tell if someone
is lying for centuries.

Fortunately, the methodologies have evolved drastically over time, shifting first from
non-scientific testing (i.e., Salem Witch Trials) to more biologically-oriented ones
(i.e., phrenology and graphology). Today’s deception detection generally combines
behavioral psychology (i.e., human observation) and technology (i.e. polygraphs and
artificial intelligence).
Dr. Ekman’s work in the field of deception detection largely focuses on nonverbal
communication of emotion observed in the face and body.
The challenges of deception detection
There is no single, definitive sign of deceit itself; no muscle twitch, facial expression,
or gesture proves that a person is lying with absolute certainty. Therefore, most
modern-day methods of deception detection heavily rely on a variety of methods to
collect, analyze and interpret emotional and physiological data.

However, any data collected merely expose emotional clues that may or may not be
related to deception. For example, sweaty palms during a job interview could indicate
an interviewee’s fear of being caught in a lie about their qualifications. Or, sweaty
palms could be illustrating their fear that the interviewer won’t believe their
qualifications despite being totally honest on their resume. Or, their palms could be
sweaty because they’re worried about something else entirely, like a sick child at
home.

There are still many more possible reasons why a person might experience sweating
palms, especially during high stakes scenarios. To determine the actual cause, further
investigation and analysis is needed. Jumping to conclusions, while easy to do, can be
harmful to everyone involved and must be avoided.
Do lie detectors actually work?
The polygraph lie detector works on the same principles as detecting behavioral
betrayals of deceit, and it is vulnerable to the same problems. The polygraph exam
does not detect lies, just signs of emotion and requires further investigation.

What do lies look like?

Many observable signs have been linked to lying, but they are not always shown by
everyone. The absence of these signals does not mean a person is truthful, but their
presence, especially when there are multiple signs, is very suggestive of potential
deceit.

An invaluable aspect in deception detection is first establishing a “baseline”, or

behavior considered to be “normal” for the individual in question. The basic process
of behavioural deception detection then involves looking for clues that signal some
kind of change or deviation from this baseline. These can be noticed through “hot
spots” across a number of different observable channels such as: facial expressions,
body language, voice, verbal style and verbal content.
What is a "hot spot"?
Dr. Ekman coined the term “hot spot” to refer to signs that something is amiss; either
that the full story is not being told or that details of the story are being falsified. Hot
spots flag some kind of emotional or cognitive stressor though, importantly, do not
reveal why. Further investigation and consideration of context is required to test your
hypothesis.

Typical hot spots are:

 a deviation from baseline (e.g., a talkative child is uncharacteristically quiet

when asked about a broken vase)
 a momentary conflict between what is being communicated verbally and what
is being presented nonverbally (e.g., assuring someone you don’t feel angry
with them while clenching your jaw and raising your voice).

Facial clues to deceit

Micro Expressions
When lying, the face often contains two messages- what the liar wants to show and
what the liar wants to conceal. Often, these hidden emotions leak in the form of
a micro expression, a brief (half a second or less) involuntary facial expression
revealing true emotion.
While Dr. Ekman cautions that a single micro expression or flash of leakage does not
offer conclusive proof of lying, micro expressions are one of the most effective
nonverbal behaviors to monitor to indicate a person is being dishonest.

False Expressions
Any emotional expression can be falsified and/or used to conceal any other emotion.
Across all emotions, studies have shown that often faked emotional facial expressions
are asymmetrical. Some felt expressions are asymmetrical; it is just that most are not.

In fear or sadness, a clue that an emotion is falsified is the absence of reliable forehead
expression.

A key clue that a happiness expression is false is when the eye muscles are not
involved when smiling. The absence of movement in the outer part of the muscle that
orbits the eye (orbicularis oculi pars lateralis, in Latin or AU 6 in FACS terms)
distinguishes a fabricated smile from the genuine thing. This difference is sometimes
difficult to recognize, and most of the time we are easily fooled by broad smiles that
are fabrication, which might also explain why it is such a common emotional mask.

A lie catcher should never rely upon one clue to deceit; there must be many. The
facial clues should be confirmed by clues from voice, words, or body. Even within the
face, any one clue shouldn’t be interpreted unless it is repeated and, even better,
confirmed by another type of facial clue.
Narco Analysis Test

The Narco analysis test is also known as Truth Serum Test. Narco-analysis is a form
of psychotherapy and effective aid to scientific interrogation. In a narco analysis test,
a drug like sodium amytal is used as a truth drug on the suspect for the determination
of facts about the crime. It is called the “Amytal Interview”.

 The term Narco-analysis is derived from the Greek word “narke” which means
anaesthesia and is used to describe a technique of diagnosing and giving
psychotherapy with the help of psychotropic drugs.
 Narco-analysis has become one of the most popular techniques of crime
detection in India.
 It is a kind of psychotherapy that is conducted on a person by inducing by
bringing that individual into semi-sleep with the help of scientific drugs.
 It is believed that if a person is administered a drug that suppresses his
reasoning power without affecting memory and speech, he can be made to tell
the truth. Some drugs have been found to create this ‘twilight state’ in some
persons.
 These drugs are being administered in some countries, including India.
 Under the influence of the drug, the subject talks freely and is purportedly
deprived of his self-control and willpower to manipulate his/her answers.
 The drugs which are used in the narco analysis test are nicknamed ‘truth
drugs’ or ‘truth serum’.
How Narco Analysis Test is done?

 A few of the best-known drugs that are used in the narco-analysis test are as
follows:

 Seconal,

 Hyposcine (scopolamine),

 Sodium Pentothal,

 Sodium Amytal,

 Phenobarbital.

 The most commonly used drug for truth serum tests is an anaesthetic and
sedative drug, Sodium Pentothal, which when administered intravenously can
make a person talkative and confessional.
  When these drugs are injected in continuous small dosages, it might have a
hypnotizing effect on a person, who responds loquaciously when questioned.
 The narcoanalysis test is conducted by mixing 3 grams of Sodium Pentothal or
Sodium Amytal dissolved in 3000 ml of distilled water.
 Depending on the person’s sex, age, health and physical condition, this mixture
is administered intravenously along with 10% of dextrose over a period of 3
hours with the help of an anaesthetist.
 The wrong dose can send the person into a coma or even cause death.
 The effects of the drugs on the persons can be any one of these or all of these.

 After administering a truth drug, a person’s body turns into cozy, his or
her features slacken and full of exhilaration and few grow to be silly and
giggly.

 The drug blocks the impulses that commonly pass through positive
nerves and maximum body parts fall asleep, which emerge later in
disoriented semi-wakefulness.

 Under the effect of drugs, he/she turns incapable of telling a lie, and
he/she will always share any records that are asked of them.

Uses of Narco Analysis Test

 Narco analysis has been used in mental health cases for diagnosing habiliment.
 In the medical field, Narco analysis is used:

 For restoring speech to mute persons

 In the case of amnesia, for reviving memory, and

 For expression of suppressed or repressed thought or conflict.

 Narco analysis is now being used in the forensic field also.

 In the criminal justice system, it is used for investigation purposes.
 Narco analysis test should be used only in cases where a large interest of
society is involved. Narco analysis is usually used in cases of terrorism, crimes
that are well-organised, serial killings, cases where no evidence is available
etc.

Narco Analysis Test Concerns

Narco analysis consists of a statement that is made by a semi-conscious person and
thus unable to determine the effect and extent of the statement that he is making and
as such just like confessions they are not generally admissible in the Courts. Narco-
analysis, just like other scientific techniques such as brain mapping and lie-detector
tests, is a tool to get a person to incriminate himself during the course of a trial. These
techniques thus violate the fundamental right guaranteed under Article 20(3) which
states that no person who is accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness
against himself, also referred to as the right against self-incrimination.

Right against self-incrimination

 The right against self-incrimination is not guaranteed under the Constitution

only but also in the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC).
 In the CrPC, the legislature has protected an individual’s right against self-
incrimination.

 S.161 (2) of the CrPC says that every person “is bound to answer
truthfully all questions, put to him by a police officer, other than
questions the answers to which would have a tendency to expose that
person to a criminal charge, penalty or forfeiture”.
In addition, narco-analysis is also widely believed to be an intrusion of the right to
privacy of an individual, a right that is guaranteed as a part of the right to life &
personal liberty given under Article 21.

Read about the concerns of privacy in India in the linked article.

Criticism against Narco Analysis

Opponents of narco analyses argue that there is little scientific evidence to warrant its
use as a reliable source of interrogation, citing misuses by several Indian police
agencies. India is referred to as the narcoanalysis capital of the world with so-called
biscuit teams (behavioural science consultation teams) using pseudoscience to back
illegal interrogations. Though security agencies worldwide have shown interest,
inconsistent results have proven objective truth elusive, despite increased
suggestibility.

 The accuracy of narco analysis is not 100%.

 It has been found that certain subjects made totally false statements.
 This test is considered an unscientific method used for investigation.
 It is very tough to suggest an actual dosage of the drug for a particular man or
woman because it will vary from person to man or woman depending upon the
intellectual attitude and other factors.

Narco Analysis Judgements

The most significant judgement in this regard came in the case of Selvi v. State of
Karnataka, where the accused challenged the constitutional validity of certain
scientific techniques of interrogation in criminal cases. These techniques included
Narco-Analysis, Polygraphy and Brain Fingerprinting, and the petitioners argued that
using these techniques are softer alternatives to the use of third-degree methods by the
investigators and violates right against self-incrimination in Article 20(3) of the
Constitution. A three-judge bench of the Supreme Court unanimously held that these
tests are testimonial compulsions and are prohibited by Article 20(3) of the
Constitution. In addition, the Court laid down the following guidelines in this respect:

 No Lie Detector Test should be administered except on the basis of the consent
of the accused. An option should be given to the accused whether he wishes to
avail such a test.
 The consent should be recorded by a judicial magistrate if any of these tests are
to be done.
 During the hearing before the magistrate, the person who has given the consent
must be duly represented by a lawyer.
 The person in question should also be informed clearly at the hearing that the
statement that is made will not be a ‘confessional’ statement to the Magistrate
but shall have the status of a statement made to the police.
 The Magistrate shall consider all factors relating to the detention including the
length of detention and the nature of the interrogation.
 A complete factual and medical narration of the way in which the information
was received should be taken on record.
In the 2010 ruling of “Selvi & Ors vs State of Karnataka & Anr,” the Supreme Court
held that no lie detector tests should be administered without the consent of the
accused.

 If an accused volunteers for the narco-analysis test, they must have access to a
lawyer and be fully informed of the physical, emotional, and legal implications
of the test.
 The Supreme Court emphasized that the guidelines for the administration of
polygraph tests, published by the National Human Rights Commission in 2000,
must be strictly followed.
 The guidelines state that narco tests cannot be conducted without the subject’s
consent, which must be obtained before a Magistrate.
 A forcible intrusion into a person’s mental processes is considered an affront to
human dignity and liberty, and the court recognized the right against self-
incrimination.
  The 2010 ruling clarified that any information or material discovered with the
help of voluntarily administered test results can be admitted as per Section 27
of the Evidence Act, of 1872.
 The ruling established that results of narco-analysis tests are not considered
confessions but can lead to the discovery of valid evidence if corroborated
independently.
 Subsequently, in 2013, the Supreme Court turned down a petition to produce
narco-test reports in the Aarushi Talwar case, deeming it an attempt to delay the
trial proceedings.
 It is essential to obtain consent and follow legal guidelines, respecting
constitutional rights and human dignity during narco-analysis tests.

Differences between a Narco Analysis Test and a Polygraph Test

Narco Analysis Test Polygraph Test

Purpose To elicit truthful information from the To detect signs of deception or

accused lying

Method Injecting a sedative drug (sodium Monitoring physiological

pentothal) responses

State of Mind Puts the accused in a hypnotic or The accused remains conscious
sedated state and alert

Ability to Lie The accused is believed to be unable to Relies on detecting physiological

lie responses

Admissibility Results can lead to the discovery of Results not considered evidence or
valid evidence confession

Legal Consent Requires the consent of the Consent may vary based on
accused jurisdiction

Monitoring Can be monitored by the Supreme Court Conducted by trained polygraph

 or authority examiners

The current criminal justice system without the aid of these scientific techniques is
weak and as such many cases result in acquittals. Since the validity of the test and
admissibility of narco-analysis has been quashed by the apex court taking into
consideration the circumstances under which it is obtained, the possibility of justice
has weakened. One way forward in this whole affair is that these techniques can be
allowed selectively in grave offences where the other evidence is not sufficient
enough. This move will bring about a qualitative change in criminal justice. Every
individual is innocent until proven guilty, and the same aspect should be adhered to
while conducting a criminal investigation.

Detecting deception using brain imaging techniques involves analyzing patterns of

brain activity that may be associated with deceptive behavior. Here's how different
brain imaging techniques are used to detect deception:

1. **Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)**:

- In fMRI studies of deception, participants are typically asked to perform tasks that
involve either telling the truth or lying while inside the fMRI scanner.
- Brain activity is recorded as participants engage in these tasks, and researchers
analyze differences in brain activation patterns between truthful and deceptive
responses.
- Areas of the brain associated with executive control, decision-making, and
emotional processing are often of interest because they may show differential
activation during deception.
- By comparing brain activity during truthful and deceptive responses, researchers
can identify neural signatures or patterns that are associated with deception.

2. Electroencephalography (EEG) :
- EEG measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.
- During deception experiments, participants perform tasks that involve lying or
telling the truth while EEG recordings are made.
 - Researchers analyse event-related potentials (ERPs), which are patterns of brain
activity associated with specific cognitive processes.
- ERP components related to response inhibition, conflict monitoring, and cognitive
control are often examined for differences between truthful and deceptive responses.
- EEG allows for real-time monitoring of brain activity, making it suitable for
studying the temporal dynamics of deception.

3. Magnetoencephalography (MEG):
- MEG measures magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain.
- Similar to EEG, participants engage in deception tasks while MEG recordings are
made.
- MEG provides higher spatial resolution compared to EEG, allowing researchers to
localize brain activity with greater precision.
- Researchers use MEG to identify the timing and location of neural processes
associated with deception, such as the engagement of specific brain regions during
lying.

4. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS):

- NIRS measures changes in blood oxygenation levels in the brain using near-
infrared light.
- Participants wear NIRS sensors on their scalp while performing deception tasks.
- NIRS provides real-time measurement of brain activity and can detect changes in
oxygenation levels associated with cognitive processes involved in deception.
- Although NIRS has lower spatial resolution compared to fMRI, it is less intrusive
and more portable, allowing for studies in more naturalistic settings.

5. **Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS):

- TMS is used to stimulate specific brain regions to investigate their role in
deception.
- By temporarily disrupting activity in targeted brain areas, researchers can assess
how changes in neural function affect the ability to deceive.
- TMS studies contribute to understanding the causal relationship between brain
activity and deception.
6. **Positron Emission Tomography (PET)**:
- PET measures brain activity by detecting radioactive tracers injected into the
bloodstream.
- Participants undergo PET scans while engaging in deception tasks.
- PET provides information about changes in brain metabolism associated with
deception.
- Although less commonly used than fMRI or EEG due to its invasiveness and lower
temporal resolution, PET can offer insights into the neurochemical processes
underlying deception.

Overall, these brain imaging techniques provide valuable insights into the neural
mechanisms of deception, allowing researchers to identify brain regions and networks
involved in deceptive behavior. By combining multiple imaging modalities,
researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex cognitive
processes underlying deception.

l
Voice analysis in criminal psychology involves examining various aspects of speech,
including pitch, tone, speech rate, word choice, and other vocal characteristics, to
detect signs of deception. While voice analysis alone may not conclusively determine
deception, it can provide valuable insights when used in conjunction with other
investigative techniques. In this comprehensive discussion, I'll explore the theory,
techniques, challenges, and applications of voice analysis in detecting deception
within the realm of criminal psychology.

Introduction to Voice Analysis in Criminal Psychology

In criminal investigations, the ability to accurately assess truthfulness is crucial for

gathering evidence, establishing facts, and making informed decisions. Traditional
methods of detecting deception, such as behavioral observations and polygraph
testing, have limitations and may not always be reliable. Voice analysis offers a non-
invasive and potentially effective approach to detecting deception by analyzing subtle
vocal cues and patterns associated with deceptive behavior.
Theory and Principles of Voice Analysis

Voice analysis is based on the premise that deceptive speech differs in subtle ways
from truthful speech due to the cognitive and emotional processes involved in
deception. When individuals lie, they may experience increased cognitive load,
emotional arousal, and attempts to control their speech, leading to observable changes
in vocal behavior. These changes may manifest in various aspects of speech
production, including prosody (into nation, pitch, rhythm), articulation, language use,
and vocal quality.

Prosodic Features:
- Pitch Variation: Deceptive individuals may exhibit changes in pitch, such as pitch
fluctuations or pitch breaks, due to increased physiological arousal.
- Speech Rate: Deception may influence speech rate, with deceptive individuals
speaking faster or slower than usual in an attempt to control their speech or manage
cognitive load.
- Pauses and Hesitations: Deceptive speech may contain more pauses, hesitations, or
filled pauses (e.g., "um," "uh") as individuals search for appropriate responses or try to
buy time.
- Stress and Emphasis: Deceptive speech may involve changes in stress or emphasis
on certain words or phrases to emphasize or downplay information.

Linguistic Features:
Word Choice**: Deceptive individuals may use language strategically to manipulate
perceptions, avoid incrimination, or create false narratives. They may use more vague
language, qualifiers, or distancing language to create ambiguity or evade
responsibility.
Content Complexity: Deceptive narratives may be less coherent, consistent, or
detailed compared to truthful narratives, as individuals struggle to maintain
consistency and manage cognitive load.
Speech Content: Deceptive speech may contain fewer self-references, emotional
expressions, or sensory details, as individuals attempt to distance themselves
emotionally from the deceptive act.
Techniques and Methodologies of Voice Analysis

Voice analysis techniques encompass a variety of methods and tools for capturing,
processing, and analyzing vocal data. These techniques range from manual perceptual
analysis to automated computational algorithms, each with its advantages, limitations,
and applications.

Manual Perceptual Analysis:

- Human Listeners: Trained professionals, such as forensic linguists, speech-language
pathologists, or law enforcement officers, listen to audio recordings and assess vocal
characteristics subjectively.
Qualitative Coding: Researchers code and analyze vocal features based on
predetermined categories or criteria, such as pitch, speech rate, pauses, or linguistic
markers of deception.

Automated Computational Analysis:

- **Speech Processing Software**: Computer algorithms analyze acoustic features
extracted from audio recordings, such as pitch, intensity, duration, formants, and
spectral characteristics.
- **Machine Learning Models**: Supervised and unsupervised machine learning
algorithms learn patterns of vocal behavior associated with deception from labeled
training data and classify new samples as truthful or deceptive.

Challenges and Limitations of Voice Analysis

Despite its potential utility, voice analysis faces several challenges and limitations that
impact its reliability, validity, and practical application in criminal investigations.

Contextual Factors:
- Individual Differences: Vocal behavior varies widely across individuals due to
factors such as age, gender, cultural background, personality, and communication
style.
- **Stress and Anxiety**: Innocent suspects or truthful witnesses may exhibit vocal
cues associated with deception due to stress, anxiety, fear of consequences, or other
emotional factors.

Methodological Issues:
- **Validity and Reliability**: The validity and reliability of voice analysis techniques
vary depending on factors such as training protocols, measurement consistency, inter-
rater agreement, and the selection of appropriate control groups.
- Ethical Considerations: Voice analysis raises ethical concerns related to privacy,
consent, data security, potential misuse, and the potential for false positives or false
negatives.

Applications and Future Directions

Voice analysis holds promise for various applications in criminal psychology, law
enforcement, forensic linguistics, and investigative journalism. Beyond deception
detection, voice analysis techniques may be applied to speaker identification, emotion
recognition, forensic phonetics, speech therapy, and natural language processing.

Investigative Interviewing:
- Voice analysis can inform investigative interviewing techniques by providing
insights into deception cues, strategies, and speech patterns that may guide
questioning strategies, probe inconsistencies, and evaluate witness credibility.

Courtroom Evidence:
- Voice analysis evidence may be presented in court to support or challenge witness
testimony, corroborate other forms of evidence, or inform jury deliberations. However,
courts and legal experts must critically evaluate the scientific basis, reliability, and
admissibility of voice analysis findings.

Technology Development:
- Advances in technology, including voice recognition systems, sentiment analysis
algorithms, and deep learning architectures, may improve the accuracy, efficiency, and
scalability of voice analysis tools for detecting deception and other speech-related
phenomena.
Conclusion
Voice analysis represents a valuable tool in the arsenal of investigative techniques
used to detect deception in criminal psychology. By examining subtle vocal cues,
patterns, and linguistic markers of deception, voice analysis techniques offer insights
into the cognitive and emotional processes underlying deceptive behavior. However,
voice analysis is not without its challenges, including methodological limitations,
ethical considerations, and contextual factors that may influence vocal behavior.
Moving forward, interdisciplinary research, collaboration, and innovation are essential
for advancing the science of voice analysis and enhancing its utility in criminal
investigations and legal proceedings.

A lie detector test is a device that measures the involuntary physiological changes of
a subject’s body as the subject responds to a question or statement. Polygraphs are the
most popular lie detector tests used in the United States. Polygraphs measure
physiological arousal factors, including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration,
perspiration, and skin conductivity. The theory of the lie detector test is that these
physiological responses will be different when the subject is truthful versus when the
subject lies. Therefore, the term ‘lie detector test’ is a misnomer of sorts, since the test
does not speak to the truth of the answer or statement, but rather to the fear, stress, and
anxiety of the subject as they answer.
The administrator of the test first differentiates between the subject’s physiological
response to answering a question honestly and answering dishonestly, and then looks
for those responses as a series of questions are asked. Different examiners utilize
different questioning techniques. Usually, the subject of the test will be asked direct
questions and control questions and their response will be observed as they answer.
Alternatively, the subject’s response may be observed as they hear and react to
statements or information that are read out loud to them.
The use of lie detector tests such as polygraphs is controversial as their validity can be
questionable. Notably, the test is incapable of differentiating between the
physiological factors that often accompany dishonesty, and those factors that may
simply be a result of the subject’s anxiety at undergoing questioning. Because there is
no uniform psychological and physiological response to dishonesty, someone lying
could be very calm while they answer, while another person answering truthfully
could be very anxious. Moreover, countermeasures exist that may be employed by
subjects to help them ‘beat’ the test.
Due to the unreliable nature of lie detector tests, the results from these tests and the
inferences of the examiner are generally inadmissible as evidence during a trial. Most
state and federal jurisdictions have per se rules against the admittance of lie detector
evidence. Some states allow admittance of lie detector evidence only if there is
a stipulation between the parties agreeing to the admittance. Although the Federal
Rules of Evidence do not explicitly bar lie detector evidence in federal courts, such
evidence is nonetheless blocked in most circuits by Rule 702, as the science behind lie
detector tests is unreliable and prone to error. The Supreme Court decided in United
States v. Scheffer that the exclusion of lie detector evidence does not violate
a defendant’s right to a fair trial, even if the defendant wishes the evidence to be
admitted.
Although the results are usually inadmissible as evidence, lie detector tests can
nonetheless be useful in interrogations during criminal investigations.
Many confessions have been made after a criminal suspect fails a lie detector test.
However, any results of a lie detector test conducted on a criminal defendant that
become publicized can be very influential on public opinion of the case, especially if
picked up by the news media.
Federal and most state law bans employers in the private sector from requiring
employees and prospective employees to submit to a lie detector test. If an employee
decides to submit to a test, these laws also prohibit an employer from taking adverse
employment action against an employee based upon the results. Some states allow
exceptions for embezzlement concerns, in which case the testing procedure is heavily
regulated and often monitored. The government may use polygraphs as part of
personnel screening for employment, especially for positions dealing with national
security.