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Optical Sensor

The document discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and various properties of electromagnetic radiation. It describes how EMR interacts with matter through emission, absorption, reflection, refraction, scattering and diffraction. It also discusses different analytical techniques that utilize the electromagnetic spectrum like atomic absorption spectrometry, mass spectrometry, Raman scattering and chromatography.

Uploaded by

Adesh Jagtap
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
26 views

Optical Sensor

The document discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and various properties of electromagnetic radiation. It describes how EMR interacts with matter through emission, absorption, reflection, refraction, scattering and diffraction. It also discusses different analytical techniques that utilize the electromagnetic spectrum like atomic absorption spectrometry, mass spectrometry, Raman scattering and chromatography.

Uploaded by

Adesh Jagtap
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

All the waves travel in the


same direction & with the
velocity of light.
The spectrum can be defined
with cosmic ray & microwave
boundary
Dual nature of light

Propagates through a medium


with the velocity of light.

Photons are generated.


Interaction of light with matter

The light energy generated


from the source interacts
with the matter in six ways:

Emission ,
Absorption Refraction
,
Scattering, Diffraction , Reflection.
Properties of EMR
Described by means of sine wave
◦ Wavelength, frequency, velocity, amplitude
◦ Particle model of radiation is necessary
◦ Represented as electric and magnetic fields that undergo
sinusoidal oscillations at right angles to each other and the
direction of propogation
Diffraction of Radiation

All types of EMR exhibit diffraction


Is a consequence of interference
A parallel beam of radiation is bent as it passes a
barrier or slit
nλ = BC sin θ (Bragg Equation)
Emission of Radiation

EMR is produced when excited particles (atoms, ions,


or molecules) relax to lower energy levels by giving up
their excess energy as photons
Excitation can be brought about by
◦ Bombardment with electrons
◦ Irradiation with a beam of EMR
Absorption of Radiation

EM energy is transferred to atoms, molecules


comprising the sample
Absorption promotes these particles from RT state to
a higher-energy excited state
For absorption to occur, the energy of the exciting
photon must exactly match the energy difference
between the ground state and one of the excited states
of the absorbing species
Molecular Absorption
More complex because the number of energy states is
large compared to isolated atoms
The energy, E, associated with the molecular bands:
E = Eelectronic + Evibrational + Erotational
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Most widely used method for determination of single
elements in analytical chemistry
Quantification of energy absorbed from an incident
radiation source from the promotion of elemental
electrons from the ground state
Technique relies on a source of free elemental atoms
electronically excited by monochromatic light
Mass Spectrometry

Relies on separating gaseous charged ions according to


their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z)
Widely used in conjunction with other analytical
techniques
Raman Scattering
In addition to fluorescent and phosphorescent
emission, scattering of photons off analyte molecule
occurs
Raman scattering
◦ Inelastic
◦ Scattered photons have a frequency that differs from
incident photons
Rayleigh scattering
◦ Elastic
◦ Scattered photons have the same frequency as incident
photons
Dipole Changes During Molecular Vibrations

IR radiation is not energetic enough to cause


electronic transitions
To absorb IR radiation, a molecule must undergo a
net change in dipole moment due to its vibrational (or
rotational) motion
If ν of EMR matches a vibrational frequency of the
molecule, a net transfer of energy occurs
◦ Results in change in amplitude of vibration
◦ Absorption of radiation occurs
Chromatographic Separations,

General Description
Migration Rates
Zone Broadening and Column Efficiency
Optimization of Column Performance
Lambert –Beer Law
A=abc
Transmittance
T = P / P0
%T = 100 T

Absorbance
A = log10 P0 / P
A = log10 1 / T
A = log10 100 / %T
A = 2 - log10 %T
copper sulphate absorption:
maximum at 600 nm

Path
length / 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
cm

%T 100 50 25 12.5 6.25 3.125

Absorban
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
ce
Deviations of Beer-Lambert law
linearity of the Beer-Lambert law is limited by chemical and
instrumental factors. Causes of nonlinearity include:

· deviations in absorptivity coefficients at high


concentrations (>0.01M) due to electrostatic interactions
between molecules in close proximity
· scattering of light due to particulates in the sample
· fluoresecence or phosphorescence of the sample
· changes in refractive index at high analyte concentration
· shifts in chemical equilibria as a function of concentration
· non-monochromatic radiation, deviations can be
minimized by using a relatively flat part of the absorption
spectrum such as the maximum of an absorption band
· stray light
Block Diagram of
Spectrophotometer

Courtesy: CHP
Components of Optical Instruments

Stable source of radiant energy


Transparent sample container
Device that isolates a restricted region of the spectrum
Radiation detector
Signal processor and readout
Sources of Radiation
Source must generate a beam of radiation with
sufficient power
Output must be stable for reasonable periods
Radiant power of a source varies exponentially with the
voltage of its power supply
◦ Continuum (tungsten)
◦ Line (lasers)
Laser Sources
High intensity
Narrow bandwidth
Coherent nature of output
Components
◦ Lasing medium
◦ External source
◦ Mirrors
Wavelength Selectors
Narrow bandwidth is required
Filters
Monochromators, consisting of
◦ Entrance slit
◦ Collimating lens (or mirror)
◦ Grating (or prism, historical)
◦ Focusing element
◦ Exit slit
Radiation Transducers
Convert radiant energy into an electrical signal
Photon transducers
◦ Photomultiplier tube (PMT)
● Contain a photoemissive surface
● Emit a cascade of electrons when struck by electrons
● Useful for measurement of low radiant power
Mirrors
Prism
Lens
Component Configuration for Optical
Absorption Spectroscopy

Wavelength
Source Lamp Sample Holder
Selector

Photoelectric Signal Processor


Transducer and Readout
Monochromator
Infrared Sources
Inert solid electrically heated to 1500-2200K
Nernst Glower
◦ Rare earth oxides formed into a cylinder
◦ Formed into a resistive heating element, 1200-2200K
Globar Source
◦ Silicon carbide rod, also electrically heated, 1300-1500K
◦ Greater output than Nernst Glower below 5 μm
Tungsten Filament Lamp
◦ Used in near-IR region of 4,000-12,800 cm-1
Source
To stimulate measurable
response from sample.
Monochromator
Monochromator
Monochromator
Transducer
Converts information from one form of energy to
another form of energy.
Signal Processor
•Signal Amplification.
•Filtering

Choppers, shields, modulators,


low pass analog filter, frequency
filters, lock-in amplifiers
Signal Processor
Signal Processor
Readouts

Common Readouts
◦Analog
◦Digital
LCD display
Interpretation of information

❑ Non electrical
❑ Electrical
Non Electrical

Example:
Determination of mass of an object using
mechanical equal arm balance .
Electrical
Analog: Magnitude of electrical
quantity.
Examples: voltage, current
Time : Time relationship of signal
fluctuations.
Examples: Frequency, phase
Digital: State of device.
Steps involved in design of
analytical instrument

1. Problem identification
2. Sampling
3. Sample preparation
4. Measurement
5. Data analysis
Steps involved in design of
analytical instrument

6. Sample quantity
7. Concentration range of the
sample
8. Interference from components
of the sample
9. Number samples to be
analyzed
Examples of Processes
and Analytical
Instruments
1. Human vision

Energy Source: Sunlight and an


object
Transducer: Eye
Signal processor: Brain
Signal output: Visual colour
observed
2. pH Meter
1. Energy Source: Sample/Glass Electrode
2. Analytical signal: Hydrogen ion activity
3. Transducer: Glass-calomel electrode
4. Electrical signal: Electrical potential
5. Signal output: Amplifier, digitizer
6. Recording device: digital unit
Design of
Polarimeter
Objective

To design a Polarimeter to
measure the optical rotation of
Optically active samples with
resolution of 0.10.
Introduction

Optical Activity i.e. Optical


Rotation of samples.
A compound is said to be optically
active if linearly polarized light is
rotated when passing through it.
Unpolarized light
Part I: Polarization states, unpolarized light

(natural light)
Unploarized Light Wave vibrates
in multiple directions
Plane Polarized Light

Unpolarized Light Polarizer Polarized Light


Principle of Measurement
Major Manufacturers
Rudolph ( USA)
Bellingham & Stanley (England)
Eastern Instruments (Kolkata)
RAC Exports (Haryana)
Applications

• Flavor, Fragrance & Essential oil


Industry: inspection of incoming raw
material.

• Food Industry: to ensure product


Quality by measuring
Concentration & Purity.
Design Specifications
Resolution :0.1°
Measuring Range : +90 to -90
Degree.
Cell Length : 200 mm
Light Source : LED (589 nm)
Detector : PIN Diode
Display : LCD ( 16 X 2)
Block Diagram

Source Photo-d
etector

Analyzer Signal
Polarizer Sample Lens Conditioning
Rotating Circuit
assembly

ADC
Micro
Key -controller

Display
ADC Interface
2K Ώ
Detector I/p P1.0
Ch1 P1.1

1 2 ADC 0809
Clk
IC 7414 2 SC EOC OE
P1.7
C 470 nF
Microcontroller
89c51
P3.4
P3.3
P3.2
LCD Interface
5V
10 K

Vcc Contrast
R/S Gnd
P35 16 X 2 LCD
Microcontrollerp3.6 R/W
89c51 p3.7 En
D0 D7
P2.0
P2.1

P2.7
o
Assembly to achieve 0.1 step
Minute Hand

Polarizer From
Micro-controlle
r to Second
Hand

Gear Ratio 1:1

Second Hand takes 60 steps in 1 minute

Minute moves 6o in for one minute

i.e. For one step by Second hand Minute Hand moves by 6 o / 60 = 0.1o
Implementation
Polarizer 1
Source
Sample (589
nm)
L
C
Driving D
Polarizer2 Ckt Microcontrol
ler
ADC 89c51
Detector 0809
Amplifier

Power
Supply
Algorithm

Insert Blank Solution.

Give one pulse to Polarizer

Note Intensity reading


Experimentation & Result

Sucrose solution with concentration


of 20 % and 40 % were tested.
References
Skoog, Holler, Nieman, Principles of Instrumental
Analysis
Dr.G.N. Acharya, Some current and Emerging trends
in electronic systems for Agricultural applications,
VSI publications, Pune
Peatman, Design with PIC microcontrollers, Pearson
Education

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