Module 6: Spectroscopic, Diffraction and Microscopic Techniques [2 h]

(i). Fundamental concepts in spectroscopic and instrumental

techniques
(ii). Principle (Beer-Lambert’s Law) and applications of UV-Visible
Spectroscopy technique
(iii). Principle and applications of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) technique
(i). Fundamental concepts in spectroscopic and microscopic techniques
Spectroscopy Basics:
• Spectroscopy is a branch of science that studies the interaction between
electromagnetic (EM) radiation and matter.
• Spectroscopy is used as a tool for studying the structures of atoms and molecules.
• The basic principle shared by all spectroscopic techniques is to shine a beam of EM
radiation onto a sample, and observe how it responds to such a stimulus. The
response is recorded as a function of radiation wavelength.
Types of EM radiation interaction with matter:
• If matter is exposed to EM radiation e.g. IR light (Fig. shown below), the radiation can be
either absorbed, transmitted, reflected, scattered or undergo photoluminescence.
• Photoluminescence is a term used to designate a number of effects including fluorescence,
phosphorescence and Raman scattering.
• Complement of the absorbed light gets transmitted.
• Color of an object that we see is due to the wavelengths transmitted or reflected. Other
wavelengths are absorbed. The more absorbed, the darker the color (more concentrated
solution).

Fig. Schematic
representation of interaction
of radiation and matter

• Interaction of EM radiation with matter is a quantum phenomenon and is dependent on both

the properties of radiation and appropriate structural parts of the samples involved.
• Origin of EM radiation is due to energy changes within matter itself.
• In spectrochemical methods, we measure the absorbed radiation.
(ii). Principle and applications of UV-Visible spectroscopy technique
• Principle: Different molecules absorb radiation of different wavelengths depending
on their structure. An absorption spectrum will show a number of absorption bands
corresponding to structural (functional) groups within the molecule. For ex. absorption
by carbonyl group in acetone is of the same wavelength as the absorption by
carbonyl group in diethyl ketone.
• In UV-Vis spectroscopy, energy is absorbed by a molecule in UV region (1-400 nm)
or visible region (400-750 nm) resulting in electronic transition of valence electrons.
Components of a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer

Source Lamp Sample Holder Photometer/Detector

Monochromator Signal Processor and Readout

Source lamp
▪ Tungsten filament incandescent lamp used in Visible and adjacent parts of UV and
IR regions.
▪ Hydrogen or deuterium discharge lamps are used in 160~360 nm (UV region).
▪ Deuterium lamps provide maximum intensity.
▪ Source used in UV- Vis spectroscopy should meet the following criteria: (i). Beam
produced should be in the detectable and measurable range, (ii). Should serve as a
continuous source of energy and (iii). Should be stable.
Monochromator
o Filter the energy source so that a limited portion is allowed to be incident on the
sample.
o Gratings are normally used as monochromators.
o A particular wavelength can be selected using monochromator.
Sample holder
• The selection of material used for constructing the cuvette is based on the selected
range of measurement.
• Cuvette thickness depends on the absorption intensity. Cuvettes with varied shapes
are used (rectangular, cylindrical or cylindrical with flat ends).
• Cell thickness: 1, 2 and 5 cm.
• Main factor is that the cuvette window should be normal to the beam direction.
• Requirement of cuvettes in terms of its make and thickness: UV region – quartz and
Visible region – glass or quartz cells.
Photometer/Detector
Mechanism behind the photoelectric devices is the conversion of radiant energy to
electrical signal. Basically, 3 types of photometers are used: (a). Photovoltaic cells, (b).
Phototubes and (c). Photoconductive cells.
Signal processing
Electrical signal generated by the transducer is sent to the signal processor, where it is
displayed in a more convenient form for the analyst.
Beer-Lambert Law
• When light passes through a molecular material, absorption can occur. The absorption of
light, as it passes through a medium, varies linearly with the distance the light travels and
with concentration of the absorbing medium.
• The extent of absorption is given by Beer-Lambert Law, as expressed by A = εcl, where A is
the absorption, ε is the absorptivity coefficient, l is the path length, and c is the
concentration of the specific analyte. Absorptivity characterizes the amount of light
absorbed by a specific molecule at a specific wavelength.

Beer-Lambert Law

Io IT

Path length (l)

Chromophore: any isolated covalently bonded group that shows a characteristic
absorption in the UV-Vis. region. The only molecular moieties likely to absorb light in
the 200 to 800 nm region are -electron functions and hetero atoms having non-
bonding electron pairs.
~ lmax: 280 nm
NH2

Auxochrome
~ lmax: 255 nm
Auxochrome: group of atoms
attached to a chromophore N N
which modifies the ability of N N

that chromophore to absorb

light. Ex. COOH, -OH, -SO3H, -
NH2, -NH-R, -N-R2 ~ lmax: 385 nm
~ lmax: 320 nm
C2H5 O

Example Solution #2: Here we are trying to determine the value of C in the Beer-Lambert Law.
So we start by rearranging the equation to solve for the variable we are looking for
A = ϵLc, or, c = A / ϵL where ϵ = 116000 cm-1 M-1 and l = 1 cm
Then we can start plugging in values. Make sure to pay attention to units so that our
concentration comes out with units of molarity.
c = 9048 / (1 cm * 116000 cm-1 M-1 )
c = 9048 / 116000 M-1 = 0.078 M
The concentration of the unknown solution is 0.078 M.
Electronic excitations in UV- Visible spectroscopy

Empty
orbitals

 to * is forbidden transition
 to * transitions: Electron in a bonding  orbital is excited to the corresponding antibonding *
orbital. Energy required is large.
n to  * transitions: Saturated compounds containing atoms with lone pairs exhibit n to
* transitions. These transitions need lesser energy than  to * transitions. They can be initiated
by light whose wavelength is in the range 150 - 250 nm.
n to * and  to  * transitions: need an unsaturated group in the molecule to provide
the  electrons. Most absorption spectroscopy of organic compounds is based on these
transitions and fall in the spectral region between 200 - 700 nm.
Based on the functional group present and attached to
chromophores…

Absorbance
Bathochromic shift: absorption maximum shifted to longer
wavelength (Blue to Red [Red shift]).
Hypsochromic shift: absorption maximum shifted to shorter
wavelength (Red to Blue [Blue shift]).
Hyperchromism: increase in molar absorptivity
Hypochromism: decrease in molar absorptivity.
(iii). Principle and applications of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) technique
• Principle: XRD is a technique used to determine the crystallographic structure of a material. XRD
works by irradiating a material with incident X-rays and then measuring the intensities and
scattering angles of the X-rays that leave the material.
• XRD is a versatile, non-destructive characterization technique widely used in materials science and
engineering for identifying unknown crystalline materials.
• XRD is used to study the structure and function of many biological molecules, including vitamins,
drugs, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA.
• XRD is also used to determine structural properties (lattice parameters, strain, grain size, epitaxy,
phase composition, orientation, atomic arrangement) and to measure film thickness.
• XRD also yields information on how the actual structure deviates from the ideal one, owing to
internal stresses and defects.

How XRD pattern is produced? Bragg model of diffraction

• Crystals are regular arrays of atoms, whilst X-rays are waves of EM radiation. Crystal atoms scatter
incident X-rays, primarily through interaction with the atom’s electrons. This phenomenon is
known as elastic scattering; the electron is known as the scatterer.
• A regular array of scatterers produces a regular array of spherical waves. In the majority of
directions, these waves cancel each other out through destructive interference, however, they add
constructively in a few specific directions, as determined by Bragg’s law:
• nλ = 2dsinθ, where “n” is an integer, and “λ” is the beam wavelength, “d” is the spacing between
diffracting planes and “θ” is the incident angle.
• X-rays scattered from adjacent crystalline planes will combine constructively (constructive
interference) when angle θ between plane and X-ray results in path-length difference that is
integer multiple “n” of X-ray wavelength “λ”.
What is diffraction?
• Diffraction refers to a phenomena when a wave encounters an
obstacle.
• In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as
the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the
spreading out of waves past small openings.
Interference of diffracted waves
• Interaction between diffracted waves is called interference.
• Constructive Interference: Waves are in-phase when each of their crests and troughs
occur exactly at the same time. Those type of waves stack together to produce a resultant
wave that has a higher amplitude. For constructive interference, path difference should
be multiples of n*λ.
• Destructive Interference: If the waves are out of phase by multiples of (n/2)*λ, then
destructive interference occurs and the amplitude of the resultant wave will be reduced.

path difference = multiple of n*λ path difference = multiple of (n/2)*λ

Components of a XRD instrument
Incident-beam optics • X-ray tube: source of X-rays
Receiving-side optics
• Incident-beam optics:
condition the X-ray beam before
it hits the sample.
• Goniometer: platform that
holds and moves the sample,
optics, detector, and/or tube.
• Sample holder
• Receiving-side optics: condition the X-ray
beam after it has encountered the sample.
• Detector: count the number of X-rays
scattered by the sample.

• Incident angle (w) is defined between

the X-ray source and sample.
• Diffracted angle (2q) is defined

(Interference
between the incident beam and the

pattern)
detector angle.
• Incident angle (w) is always ½ of the
detector angle 2q i.e. q.
• In a typical XRD instrument, the X-ray
tube is fixed, the sample rotates at
q°/min and detector rotates at 2q°/min.
 1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1

a
a

a
a
a
v
v

c
11
11
1111 11
11 11
11

X-ray
tube
Detector
w q 2q
1
11
111 11
XRD patterns for 3 different forms of SiO2

 These three phases of SiO2 are

chemically identical.
 The amorphous glass does not
have long-range atomic order and
therefore produces only broad
pattern.
 Cristobalite form polycrystalline
structure.
 Quartz form single crystal structure.