KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINERING LABORATORY III

ME 395

GROUP D

MARCH 2024
Contents
1. PORTER GOVERNOR................................................................................................................................5
1.1 AIM OF EXPERIMENT...................................................................................................................5
1.2 THEORY...........................................................................................................................................5
1.3 APPARATUS REQUIRED...............................................................................................................5
1.4 DESCRIPTION OF SETUP..............................................................................................................5
Figure 1 Porter Governor Setup...........................................................................................................6
1.5 PROCEDURE...................................................................................................................................6
1.6 PARAMETERS.................................................................................................................................6
1.7 TABULATION OF RESULTS.........................................................................................................7
1.8 GRAPHS...........................................................................................................................................7
1.8.1 A Graph of Displacement against Speed.....................................................................................7
1.8.2.A Graph of Radius of Rotation against Controlling Force..........................................................8
1.9 OBSERVATION...............................................................................................................................8
1.10 CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................................9
1.11 PRECAUTIONS..............................................................................................................................9
2. BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES...............................................................................................9
2.1 AIM OF EXPERIMENT...................................................................................................................9
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF SETUP..............................................................................................................9
Figure 2 Model engine and Control and Instrumentation unit...........................................................10
2.3 PROCEDURE.................................................................................................................................11
2.4 TABULATION OF RESULTS.......................................................................................................12
2.5 GRAPHS.........................................................................................................................................12
2.5.1 Chart of Force and Moment against Speed...............................................................................12
2.6 OBSERVATION.............................................................................................................................13
2.7 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS..............................................................................................................13
3. TEST ON AIR COMPRESSOR...................................................................................................................14
3.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................14
3.2 AIM OF EXPERIMENT.................................................................................................................15
3.3 APPARATUS..................................................................................................................................15
3.4 FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR PARTS.................................................................................................15
Figure 3 Section of air compressor.....................................................................................................16
Figure 4 Diagram of air compressor...................................................................................................17
3.5 PROCEDURE.................................................................................................................................17
3.5.1 Measurement Of Temperature And Pressure.......................................................................18
3.5.2 Measurement Of The Amount Of Free Gas Delivered.........................................................18
 3.5.3 Measurement Of Cooling Water Consumption....................................................................19
3.6 RESULTS AND CALCULATION.................................................................................................19
Table of Results.................................................................................................................................19
3.6 DIAGRAMS............................................................................................................................20
Figure 5 Indicator diagram................................................................................................................20
Figure 6 Sketch of indicator diagrams...............................................................................................21
3.7 CALCULATIONS...........................................................................................................................21
3.8 SOURCES OF ERROR...................................................................................................................23
3.9 PRECAUTIONS..............................................................................................................................24
3.10 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION............................................................................................24
3.11 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................24
1. PORTER GOVERNOR

1.1 AIM OF EXPERIMENT

To determine the characteristic curves of the Porter Governor.

1.2 THEORY

The role of a governor is to control an engine's mean speed as the load varies, for instance, when
the load on an engine increase, the engine's speed decreases, necessitating an increase in the
supply of working fluid. When the load on an engine is reduced, the engine's speed increases,
and thus less working fluid is required.

The Porter governor is made up of three equal-mass balls that are attached to the sides. Governor
balls or fly balls are the names given to these balls. A spindle spins the balls, which is driven by
the engine via bevel gears. The arms' upper ends are pivoted to the spindle, causing the balls to
rise and fall as they rotate around the vertical axis. The arms are attached to a sleeve that is keyed
to the spindle by the ties. This sleeve rotates with the spindle, but it can also be moved up and
down. As the spindle speed increases, the balls and sleeve rise, and when decreased, the balls and
sleeve fall.

1.3 APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Tachometer
2. Porter Governor Setup

1.4 DESCRIPTION OF SETUP

The drive unit consists of an electric motor connected through chain and gear arrangement which
drives the governor spindle.

Figure 1 Porter Governor Setup

1.5 PROCEDURE

1. The control unit is switched on and the speed control knob is slowly shifted to increase
the governor speed until the center sleeve up lowers and aligns with some divisions on
the graduated scale. The sleeve position and speed are then recorded.
2. The governor speed is then increased in steps to give suitable sleeve movements and
radius and readings are recorded at each stage throughout the range of sleeve movement
possible.
 1.6 PARAMETERS

Initial radius = 94.2mm

Initial Displacement = 5mm
Mass of each ball, m1 = 1.5kg
Total mass, m = 4*1.5 = 6kg
Angular Velocity, w = 2πN/60
Controlling Force, F = mw2r
N = speed, rpm
r = radius of rotation, mm

1.7 TABULATION OF RESULTS

No. Speed, N Sleeve Displacement, Radius of Angular Controlling Force, F

(rpm) X Rotation, r velocity(w) (kN)
(mm) (mm) rps
1 252 5.00 7 28.39 7.311
2 352 6.00 11 36.86 22.42
3 400 7.00 12 41.89 31.59
4 420 8.00 14.5 43.98 42.06
5 460 9.00 16 48.17 55.69

1.8 GRAPHS

1.8.1 A Graph of Displacement against Speed

 Graph of X against N
10
9
sleeve displacement, X (mm)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Speed, N (rpm)

1.8.2.A Graph of Radius of Rotation against Controlling Force

A graph of x against F
18
16
Radius of rotation(r), mm

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Controlling Force, KN

1.9 OBSERVATION
From the first graph, it is observed that as the speed of the governor increases, the displacement
of the sleeve also increases up to a maximum such that no further increase in the speed of the
governor results in an increase in the displacement of the sleeve.

1.10 CONCLUSION

The displacement of the sleeve is directly proportional to the speed of the governor.

1.11 PRECAUTIONS

1. Take the sleeve displacement reading when the pointer remains steady.
2. See that at higher speed the load on the sleeve does not hit the upper sleeve of the
governor.
3. While closing the test bring the pointer to zero position and then switch off the motor.
4. Ensure that the control unit is switched off before increasing the speed of the governor at
each stage.
5. Avoid parallax error in reading the sleeve displacement.

2. BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES

2.1 AIM OF EXPERIMENT

To find the main resonant vibration frequencies for the engine within its normal speed range.

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF SETUP

Figure 2 Model engine and Control and Instrumentation unit

The balancing of reciprocating masses has two main parts: a model engine and cantilever, and a
separate Control and Instrumentation Unit
MAIN UNIT
The main unit has a model in-line four-cylinder combustion engine, driven by an electric
variable speed motor and held on a cantilever. A solid pillar holds the cantilever and the engine.
The cantilever has strain gauges that connect to the separate control and instrumentation unit to
measure the forces and moments of the engine as it vibrates.
The engine has four in-line pistons (A, B, C and D) with connecting rods. A special crankshaft
connects the big ends of the connecting rods. The crankshaft has three adjustable sections, so you
can adjust the crank angle between adjacent pistons. This allows you to create different piston
movement combinations or configurations, to balance and unbalance the engine. For example,
you can set all four pistons to move up and down together or set two pistons to move up while
the other two moves down. The crankshaft is made specially so that its rotating masses balance
and do not affect the experiment results.
Additional masses are attached to be fit to the top of the pistons to increase their mass and create
additional unbalanced loads.
A sensor at the end of the engine crankshaft connects to the separate control and instrumentation
unit to measure the engine’s rotational speed. It also works to set the trigger pulse at the top dead
center of piston A for the oscilloscope.
A counterweight near the end of the of the motor balances the engine about its center, allowing
for imbalances caused by the motor.
CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION UNIT
The Control and Instrumentation Unit connects to the motor that drives the engine and controls
its speed. It connects to the sensor on the engine to measure crankshaft speed. Its display shows
the crankshaft speed in rev/min.
The strain gauges of the cantilever connect to the force and moment sockets at the back of the
Control instrumentation Unit. The display shows the static force and moment (when the engine is
not moving) from the strain gauges, but you must use the oscilloscope to measure the force and
moments when the engine runs. The display shows the force and the moment when the engine
runs. The force and moment sockets at the front connect to the oscilloscope.

2.3 PROCEDURE
The procedure is in two stages which is: the setting up of the crank angles and oiling and using
of the oscilloscope for the measurements.
SETTING CRANK ANGKES AND OILING
1. Switch off the electrical supply and the Control Instrumentation Unit.
2. Undo the four thumbscrews and open the clear safety guard to the front of the engine.
3. Turn the crank so that you can see the thin line (or dot) on the first crank pin and the
datum line of the ‘big end’ of the piston.
4. Assume piston A is always at zero degrees top dead center and use the hexagon tool
(supplied) to undo the three fixings around the first adjustable section and turn it so that
piston B is at the correct angle as shown in your experiment, relative to piston A at the
top dead center.
Retighten its three fixings.
5. Repeat for the second adjustable section to set piston C to the right angle with respect to
piston A at the top dead center.
6. Repeat for the third adjustable section to set piston D to the correct angle with respect to
piston A at the top dead center.
7. Set all the pistons to 0-0-0-0.
8. While the safety guard is off, add some light engine oil to the big ends and turn the
engine slowly while you add some oil to each cylinder. Wipe away any excess oil.
9. Refit the clear safety guard.

USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE

2.4 TABULATION OF RESULTS

SPEED FORCE Vf (V) FVf (N) Moment (M) Vm(V) MVm (Nm)
(rev/min) (N/V) (Nm/V)

300 -8 1 -8 10 0.2 5
350 -14 0.5 -7 10 0.2 5
400 -12 0.5 -6 12 0.2 6
450 -6 1 -6 8 0.5 4
500 -6 0.5 -3 8 0.5 4
550 8 0.5 4 12 0.5 6
600 30 0.5 15 14 0.5 7
650 8 0.5 4 30 0.2 6
700 8 0.5 1.6 18 0.5 9
750 12 0.2 1.4 12 0.5 6
800 8 0.5 4 16 0.5 8
850 10 0.5 5 16 1 16
900 14 0.5 7 32 0.5 16
950 14 1 14 24 0.5 12
1000 24 1 24 24 0.5 12

2.5 GRAPHS

2.5.1 Chart of Force and Moment against Speed

 CHART OF FORCE AND MOMENT
AGAINST SPEED
Series1 Series2
30

25 24
FORCE(N) AND MOMENT (nm)

20

15 15 16 16
14
12 12
10 9
7 8 7
5 5 5 6 6 6 6 5
4 4 4 4 4
1.6 1.4
0
300 350 400 450 500
-3 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
-5 -6 -6
-8 -7
-10
speed (rev/min)

2.6 OBSERVATION

The chart above shows a general increasing trend of force and moments as speed
increases. Also from the chart, there are about five unusual peaks where it reaches a resonant
frequency (speed). From the force trend, you will find that one of the peaks starts near the
engines maximum speed.

2.7 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

 Tighten all fastenings and fixings before each experiment.

 Turn the speed control slowly and carefully.
 Do not run the engine unbalanced at high amplitudes for longs. It creates large vibrations,
high noise levels and may damage your table and the fixings.
 Always wait for the engine to stop before you remove the safety guard.
 Wear eye protection and suitable clothing while the engine runs.
 A suitable table was used to prevents fluctuations in the resonant frequencies
3. TEST ON AIR COMPRESSOR

3.1 INTRODUCTION

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline
engine) into potential energy stored in pressurized (compressed) air. By one of several
methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the
pressure. When tank pressure reaches its upper limit the air compressor shuts off. Air
compressors are used in gas power cycles.

3.2 AIM OF EXPERIMENT

1. To perform a test on a reciprocating air compressor at constant rotational speed and

delivery pressure and hence determine:
I. The indicated horsepower
II. The Brake Horsepower
III. Mechanical efficiency

2. To draw up an energy balance to show the distribution of the energy input or output into:

I. The air delivered

II. The cylinder jacket water
III. The after-cooling circulating water
IV. The losses to the atmosphere from the delivery pipe system and the receiver.

V. The unaccounted-for losses.

3. To determine volumetric efficiency based on free air delivered and compare this value
with that obtained from direct measurements on the indicator diagram.

3.3 APPARATUS

Twin cylinder, single acting, L.P. end of a Broom wade compound air compressor, Air
cleaner, after cooler, Damping tank, Thermometers, Stopwatch.

Broom wade Compound Air compressor with specifications as follows:

Bore of each cylinder (D) = 10.2cm

Stroke of each piston (L) = 10.2cm

Clearance volume of each cylinder = 25.781cm3

Torque arm of electric motor = 53.34cm

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR PARTS

Engine indicator: It gives the diagram of the area covered by the piston in compression

Tachometer: It measures the speed of compressor safety valve.

Damping tank: It receives the final air from the receiver.

Unloaded gear: It reduces pressure built up in the compressor so that a comfortable and safe
pressure is maintained.

Swinging field motor: It provides the power or mechanical work input which is transferred to
the air to increase its pressure.

Air cleaner: It filters the air entering the air compressor.

Figure 3 Section of air compressor

Figure 4 Diagram of air compressor

3.5 PROCEDURE

The air compressor was run at a speed of 300rpm with the air discharged to the atmosphere
through a sharped-edged orifice in the damping tank. The pressure across this orifice was
limited to 127mm of water gauge. The following steps were taken:

1. It was first ensured that the plant was lubricated.

2. The various water valves were opened, and water allowed to circulate through the
intercooler and after cooler to check the water flow.
3. The various valves on the air flow line were opened to ensure that they were working
properly.
4. The drain cork on the receiver was opened to drain any moisture that may have
condensed in the receiver.
5. The valves on the downstream side of the nozzle apparatus were opened and those on
the upstream side were closed to allow the measurement of the pressure head.
6. The unloaded gears on the low-pressure compressor were set in the starting position.
7. The plant was started and after a reasonable time the unloaded gears was set in
running position.
 8. The drain cork on the receiver was closed and the pressure was allowed to rise to
70Ibf/in2.
9. The valve on the upstream side of the nozzle apparatus was gradually opened
ensuring that a pressure differential of 127mm was maintained.
10. The rotational speed of the electric motor was raised to 300rpm, and the above
conditions were maintained through the course of the experiment.
11. At intervals of five minutes the following variables were measured and recorded:
a) Load on the torque arm
b) The rotational speed
c) The pressure difference across the orifice
d) The temperature of air in the damping tank
e) The temperature of water at the inlet of the intercooler
f) The temperature of water at the outlet of the intercooler
g) The mass flow rate of water in the intercooler
h) The temperature of water at the inlet of the after cooler
i) The temperature of water at the outlet of the after cooler
j) The mass flow rate of water in the after cooler
k) The temperature of air at the discharge end of the compressor
l) The temperature of air at the inlet of the compressor
m) The temperature of air at the inlet of the after cooler
n) The temperature of air at the outlet of the after cooler
o) The temperature of the ambient inlet air.

3.5.1 Measurement Of Temperature And Pressure

Pressures up to about 80Ib/in2 (482kN/m2) are mostly conveniently measured with liquid
manometers because of the high accuracy. Deformation pressures gauges using a Bourdon
tube that is most suited for higher pressures must be checked before and after use.

Temperatures are measured with mercury thermometers, thermocouples or resistance

thermometers. Where a thermometer pocket or well have to be used, heat transfer between the
well and its surrounds and between the well and the pipe through which the gas flows must be
avoided.

If high pressures are not involved, we expose the detecting element of the thermometer
(mercury filled bulb, junction of the thermocouple or resistance coil) directly in the gas stream
by inserting the thermometer through a plug in the wall.

3.5.2 Measurement Of The Amount Of Free Gas Delivered

The method must frequently used in measuring the gas quantity in compressor tests is by
means of a standardised orifice plate or nozzle while the application of a venturi tube is
 comparatively rare. The amount of free gas delivered by small compressors can be obtained
by pumping into large receiver.

The instruments mentioned above however gives correct results only if the flow is steady
with no pulsations on either side of the instrument, which should always be in the discharge
line. Hence, large receivers must be placed between the measuring instrument and the
reciprocating compressor.

3.5.3 Measurement Of Cooling Water Consumption

The rate of consumption of cooling water is measured in various was depending upon whether
it is to be measured during operation as well as during a test run or whether is to be measured
during guaranteed tests only. Continuous measurements can be made with water flow meters
or with orifice plates or nozzles.

3.6 RESULTS AND CALCULATION

Table of Results

OBSERVATION 1 2 3 4 5 TOTAL AVERAGE

Load on torque arm (W) N
127 127 129 129 129 641 128.2

Rotational speed (n) rev/sec

300 300 300 300 300 1500 300

Pressure difference across orifice

74.7 74.7 73.6 73.6 68.6 365.2 73.03
(h) mmH2O

Damping tank temperature (t0)⁰C 29 29 29 28 28 143 28.6

Water temperature at inlet from

28 28 28 28 28 140 28
water jacket (tji) ⁰C
Water temperature at outlet from
39 39 38 38 38 192 38.4
water jacket (tjo)⁰C
Rate of flow of jacket circulating
0.024 0.024 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.123 0.0246
water (Wj) kg/s
Temperature of water at inlet of
32 32 32 33 33 194 32.4
after cooler(tci) ⁰C
Temperature of water at outlet of
28 29 28 29 28 142 28.4
after cooler (tco) ⁰C
Rate of flow of after cooler
0.024 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.116 0.0232
circulating water (Wc) kg/s
Air temperature at compressor
136 136 135 136 134 676 135.2
discharge (tdc) ⁰C
Air temperature at entrance of after
cooler 56 56 56 55 55 278 55.6
(taic) ⁰C
Air temperature at outlet of after
29.5 29.5 28.6 28.6 29 145.2 29.04
cooler (taoc) ⁰C
Air inlet temperature ⁰C
33 33 33 33 33 33 33

Atmospheric pressure (BmmHg) = 756mmHg

Atmospheric temperature = 30 ⁰C
Orifice diameter = 5/8 in

Scale of indicator spring = 50Ib/in2/I

3.6 DIAGRAMS

Figure 5 Indicator diagram

Figure 6 Sketch of indicator diagrams

Swept volume = Va -Vs

Volume induced =Va –Vd

From the indicator diagrams obtained in each observations, the average area is given by

Average =

3.7 CALCULATIONS
L = stroke of each of the two pistons = 102 mm = 0.102 m

D = bore of each of the two cylinders = 102 mm = 0.102 m

Clearance volume for each cylinder = 25.781 cm3 = 2.578 × 10-5 m

RT = torque arm = 0.5334 m

Diameter of orifice, Do = 15.785cm = 0.015785 m

Scale of indicator spring = 50 lb/in2 = 1.36 × 104 KN/m2

Brake power

Where,

W= the load on torque arm

in Newton Rt = torque
arm=0.5334m
rotational speed in
rev/s=300rev/min

Indicator power

Where,

Pm = mean effective pressure

Mechanical efficiency

From above,

Brake power = 2.147 kW

Indicated power = 1.570 kW

Efficiency = 0.731 ≈ 73.1%

Flow rate of air through orifice (Ma) =

Where, hw = manometer reading ρw = density of water

ρa = density of air at atmospheric temperature and
pressure g = acceleration due to gravity

Cd = coefficient of discharge of the orifice

Air pressure (Pa) =

Where, Po = atmospheric pressure

To = atmospheric temperature.

From above equations,

Rate of flow of air through orifice = 0.13687 kg/s

Energy to air = 0.0549 kW

Energy to water jacket = 1.075 kW

Energy to after cooler circulating water = 1.013 kW

Energy to atmosphere from piping receiver = 10.9009 kW

Other unaccounted for loses = -8.041237 kW

Free air delivery =MaRa (ta + 273) /Po

= 0.15807 kW

Volumetric efficiency =

Length of clearance volume = 1.24 x 10-3 m3

Effective swept volume on indicator diagram = 0.5406 x10-3 m3 Swept volume

corresponding to the length of the indicator diagram
=0.7854(0.102)3 =0.8335 x10-3

Volume efficiency = 0.649 ≈ 65%

3.8 SOURCES OF ERROR

 Readings of temperature were not accurately taken from the thermometer since every
member of the group had his or her own way of taking readings.

 Due to parallax errors in the thermometer readings due to light entering whiles readings
were taken.

 Approximations in the readings of thermometer values also caused errors during the
experiment.

 Due to some wears in the compressor

3.9 PRECAUTIONS
 It was ensured that the plant was lubricated.
 The water and air circulation systems were checked to ensure that they functioned
properly. 3. It was checked the water flows through the after-cooler then into the
damping tank

3.10 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

From the results of the experiment and the calculations obtained, it can be concluded that the
brake power, the indicator power, and the mechanical efficiency were determined and the
volumetric efficiency due to the free air delivered was also determined and was seen to be far
lower than the measured volumetric efficiency. One of the main applications of the engine is
that instead of having a separate air compressor driven by an IC engine, the compressor and
the engine can be combined with the result that the intermediate rotating shafts are eliminated.
Some classification of IC engine has been given but this is not exhaustive. The application for
such engines are wide both in the type of duty to be performed and in the power required.
Hence the experiment was a success since and all aims were met.

3.11 REFERENCES
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 3 Handout

Applied thermodynamics by: T. D. Eastop

Ayarkwah Douglas 7301921
Baidoo Daniel 7302021
Baidoo Perpetual 7302121
Blankson Stanley Selorm Yaw 7302421
Arhin Stephen 7301021
Attah Nayram Korku 7301421
Ayama Jonathan Kwame 7301021

Barnes Efua Sekyiwa 7302321