USTSHAPE REVIEWER

Science:
 Chemistry (Periodic table, ions, etc.) page 1
 Physics page 6
 Gen. Science 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Earth Science/Geology Properties of matter that do not change as it is being
 Biology observed.
_______________________________________
Intrinsic:
 Properties that distinguish a substance from
CHEMISTRY another substances
 Ex: boiling point, acidity, etc.
Deals with properties, composition and structures of Extrinsic
matter, the changes it undergoes, and the laws and
 Properties that depend on the amount of matter
principles which govern these changes.
observed.
 Ex: Height, weight, etc.
5 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
1. Organic Chem – Study of chemicals containing
the element carbon
2. Inorganic Chem – Study of all elements and 3. MASS AND ENERGY RELATION
compounds other than organic compounds. Albert Einstein proved that increase in mass
3. Analytical Chem – Study of qualitative and generates increase in energy and vice versa.
quantitative analysis of elements and Equation: e = mc2
compounds.
4. Physical Chem – Study of reaction rates, 4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
mechanisms, bonding and structure, and
thermodynamics. Physical Change – Physical properties of a substance
5. BioChem – Study of chemical reactions that changes.
happen within the biological process
Chemical Change
1. MATTER  Identity of a substance changes.
Anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass  Produces new kinds of matter
Substances:
 Elements: Law of Conservation of Mass:
 Metals Chemical react the mass of the reactants is always the
same as the mass of the products.
 Nonmetals
 Metalloids
Chemical change:
 Compounds: o Evolution of heat and light
 Acids o Evolution of a gas
 Bases o Formation of a precipitate
 Salts o Production of mechanical energy
o Production of electrical energy
Mixtures:
Homogenous:
 Solutions
Heterogenous:
 Colloids
 Suspensions
 5. LAW OF DEFINITE
COMPOSITION/PROPORTION 9. ELEMENT
Simplest form of substance that cannot be decomposed.
Composition:
Elements combined in ratios of simple whole numbers to  Metals – Hard and shiny elements that are good
form a compound conductors of heat and electricity; tends to lose
electrons
 Nonmetals – Brittle elements that do not
Proportion: conduct heat or electricity well
Every sample of a given substance always contains the  Metalloids – Borderline elements between
same proportion by mass of its constituent elements. metals and nonmetals.

10. COMPOUND
6. LAW OF MULITPLE PROPORTIONS Substance formed when two or more elements are
When two elements combine to for two or more different combined chemically. Can be classified based on how
compounds, if the amount of one element is constant, the they change the color of a certain substance.
masses of the other element in the different compounds
are in ratios of small whole numbers. Indicators
 Substances that show different color changes to
different substances.
7. ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS  Litmus is a colored substance often used to
During chemical reactions, energy is either released or determine the level of acidity or base of the
absorbed. substance.
Endothermic – Energy is absorbed Acid:
Exothermic – Energy is released  Compound with sour taste, corrosive and reacts
Reaction mechanism – Series of chemical steps with a base to form salt and water
involved in a chemical reaction  Blue to red
Activation energy – Minimum amount of energy
Base:
needed to initiate a chemical reaction
 Chemical opposite of an acid
 Red to blue
Heat of reaction
 Total amount of heat released or absorbed
Salt:
 Measured in KJ/mol
 Produced through the reaction of base and salt
 Symbol:
 Dissolves in water and conducts electricity
 (-) H = exothermic
 (+) H = endothermic Amphiprotic – Can either be proton donors or acceptors
(water)
Chemical reaction is based on temperature,
concentration of reactants, pressure, and presence of Neutralization – Reaction by which equivalent
catalysts and/or inhibitors. quantities of an acid and a base react to form a salt and
water.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the Titration – Procedure used to quantitively mix acids and
conditions, the position of equilibrium, shifts to bases.
counteract the change to reestablish an equilibrium.
pH
Chemical equilibrium represents a state of balance
 Measure of the concentration of an acid or base
between reactants and products.
 Negative of the common logarithm of the
hydrogen ion.
8. PURE SUBSTANCE
Either an element or compound. Identified by physical  Scales from 0-14. 7 is neutral, while >7 are
properties. Elements are always present in the same ratio bases and <7 are acids.
in a given compound which are separated using chemical
methods. pOH scale – Measures the concentration of OH ions in a
solution.
 Solute – Substance being dissolved in a solution.
11. MIXTURES Solvent – Substance in which the solute is dissolved.
Materials made up of two or more substances which
when mixed together, still retains its own qualities. A solute dissolved in the solvent to form a solution.

 Homogenous mixture – Cannot be separated by Types of solutions:

ordinary chemical means.
 Heterogenous mixtures – Parts with dissimilar Nature Solute Solvent Solution
Solid-solid Copper Tin Bronze
properties. alloy
Solid-liquid Salt Water Salt
solution
12. OXIDATION NUMBER Solid-gas Dust Air Dust in air
Charge whether positive or negative which each atom in Gas-in- Hydrogen Platinum Hydrogen
a compound appears to have, as a result of the transfer of solid on
platinum
electrons from one atom to a more electronegative atom. Gas-in- CO2 Water Carbonated
liquid water
Oxidation of an element in a compound is determined by Gas-in-gas Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen
the number of electrons that was lost, gained, or shared chloride
with another atom during the chemical reaction. Liquid- Mercury Copper Mercury in
solid copper
Liquid- Alcohol Gasoline Alcogas
liquid
13. POLARITY Liquid-gas Water Air Water
Property of molecules having separate charges, or dipole vapor in air
with positive and negative poles. Polar molecules have
dipole moment while non-polar have none. Solubility – Amount of solute that dissolved in a given
amount of solvent to produce saturated solution at a
given temperature
14. MISCIBILITY
Tendency of liquids to dissolve in other liquids. Solubility of solids and liquids in a solvent are affected
by:
 Nature of the solute and solvent
15. MASS AND WEIGHT  Temperature
Mass – Quantity of matter
Weight – Measure of the pull of gravity on an object of Solubility of gases in liquid solvent are affected by:
given mass.  Nature of the solute and solvent
 Temperature
 Pressure
16. SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS
Rate of dissolution:
o Every nonzero digit in a recorded measurement  Size of solute particles
is significant  Diffusion rate of solute particles throughout the
o Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are solvent
significant  Kinetic energy of solute and solvent molecules
o Zeros appearing in front of all nonzero digits are
not significant. Semi-permeable – allowing certain substances to pass
o Zeros at the end of a number and to the left of a through but not others
decimal point are not significant if they serve as
place markers to show the magnitude of the Osmosis – Solution with greater solvent concentration
number. diffuses through the membrane to the side with lower
o Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a solvent concentration until the concentrations on both
decimal point are always significant. sides of the membranes are equal

Properties of a solution:
17. SOLUTION  Vapor pressure
Homogenous mixture between two or more substances.  Boiling point
  Freezing point  Does not appear on the periodic table since there
 Osmotic pressure is no such thing

Each element represents the average mass numbers of all

isotopes as they occur on Earth. The average number is
the atomic weight.
18. ELECTROLYTES
Acids, bases, and salts whose solutions conduct Isotopes:
electricity.  Atoms with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
Ionization (covalent)/Dissociation (ionic) - Polar
molecules of water attract the atoms of the solute. The Electron Configuration:
bonds between the atoms of the solute weaken, and the Distribution of electrons in the various energy levels.
atoms separate into ions Explains their chemical behavior.

Locations of electrons: Main energy levels, sublevels,

19. TEMPERATURE and orbitals.
 Direction of heat flow between two bodies  From innermost, the electrons are on their lowest
 Uses Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin state energy. While from the outermost,
 Kelvin and Celsius scales have identical degree electrons are on their highest state energy.
increments but different zeros;  Electrons can jump from one energy level to
K = oCelsius + 273 or 0Kelvin – 273 another but cannot exist between levels.
 They absorb energy in order to move to higher
levels and emit energy upon moving lower
20. SPECIFIC HEAT  Quanta: Energy that is lost or gained is done in
discrete quantities.
Calorie (cal) – Unit of measurement for heat energy.
Orbital:
Joule (J) – Unit of energy preferred in the SI system.  Average path that an electron takes while
travelling around the nucleus.
Specific heat – Number of calories required to raise the  Vary in size, shape, and special orientation
temperature of 1 g of a substance at 1 0C.  Electrons occupy orbitals and orbitals can hold
up to two electrons and have an opposite spin
(Pauli’s Exclusion Principle)

21. ATOMS Valence electrons:

Basic building blocks of matter. Besides negatively  Electrons in the outermost principal energy
charged electrons, atoms also contain positively charged level of an atom
protons and electrically neutral neutrons.

Nucleus of an atom:
o Composed of protons and neutrons 22. ATTRACTIVE FORCES
o Contains most of the mass of the atom in a very Forces of attraction between molecules. Strongest in
small volume solid where particles move the least and are close to each
o Electrons orbit around the nucleus at various other. Weakest in has where molecules move faster and
energy levels and occupy most of the volume of are farthest apart.
the atom

Atomic number: 23. BOYLE’S LAW

 Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom “At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas
 An atom has an equal number of protons and is inversely proportional to the pressure on it.”:
electrons since atoms are electrically neutral
V x 1/P
Mass number:
 Sum of protons and neutrons
24. CHARLES LAW
“At constant pressure, the volume of a confined gas Kinds of chemical bonds:
varies directly with the absolute temperature.”: o Ionic bond
Where atoms are held together by an electrostatic force
VxT due to transfer of electrons from one atom to another
o Covalent bond
Where atoms are held together by sharing electrons.
25. LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES OF  Polar covalent bond
GASES Atoms are held together by unequal sharing of electrons
Under the same conditions, the volumes of reacting  Non-polar covalent bond
gases and their gaseous products in ratios of small whole Atoms are held together by equal or almost equal sharing
numbers. of electrons
o Metallic bond
26. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS Where delocalized electrons of a metal atom move
freely in their valence sell while being attracted
Began by German chemist, Lothar Meyer (1830-1895) strongly to the positive kernel of the same or
and Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1906). neighboring atoms.
o The table is arranged in an order of the
increasing atomic number Molecules:
o Groups/Families: Vertical columns in the  Formed by sharing 1-2 pairs of electrons. Since
Periodic Table with elements who have similar electrons are negatively charged, they repel each
electron arrangements and similar chemical other; the repulsion results in geometries of
properties covalent bond.
o Elements range from active metallic element to
an active nonmetallic element:
Active metal => less active metal => metalloid => less
active nonmetal => active nonmetal => inert 28. STOICHIOMETRY CALCULATIONS:

o Metals lose electrons and form positive ions  Mole

while nonmetals gain electrons and form Basic unit for all chemical calculations
negative ions, or they often share electrons with The balancing numbers (coefficient) in an equation are
other nonmetals moles. Gram-to-mole conversion:
o Homonuclear diatomic molecules:
Hydrogen + the magic 7
Hydrogen – Nitrogen – Oxygen – Fluorine – Chlorine –
Bromine – Iodine – Astatine
 Avogadro’s number of particles
What a mole of anything contains
o Alkali metals 6.02 x 1023
 Elements in the vertical column headed by
lithium o Atomic and molecular masses in grams are
 Column II headed by beryllium are alkali determined by the mass at one more of atoms or
earth metals molecules
 Column headed by oxygen are chalcogen o For gases, one mole of an ideal gas occupies a
 Column headed by fluorine are halogens volume of 22.4L at STP (Standard Temperature
All are unreactive elements known as inert gases or and Pressure: 0 Celsius and 1 atm pressure)
noble gases o All stoichiometry problems assume a correctly
balanced equation

 Molarity of a solution
27. CHEMICAL BONDS Number of moles of solute contained in 1L of solution.
Attractive force which holds together the atoms of a
molecule
 When energy is absorbed, chemical bonds are
broken. While when chemical bonds are formed, 29. CHEMICAL REACTION
energy is released Represented by a chemical equation
  Reactants Lyophobic
Substances that undergo a chemical reaction  Solvent-hating

 Products Two phases of colloids:

New substances formed after chemical reactions 1. Dispersed phase
Made up of colloidal particles that are finely scattered
A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of 2. Dispersing medium
each element on both sides of the equation. Chemical Medium of continuous matter in which the colloidal
equations: particles are scattered or suspended

Properties of colloids:
1. Tyndall effect
A. Composition reactions: Disperse or scatter a beam of light passing through it
Where a single compound is formed as a result of the 2. Brownian movement
chemical combination of two elements or compounds: The constant random motion of tiny particles suspended
in a fluid caused by molecular collisions within the fluid.
Ex: 3. Adsorption
Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide Process by which solid attracts molecules of gas and
C + O2 = CO2 liquid to the surface
4. Rate of Settling
B. Decomposition reactions Colloidal particles are very dense that they do not sink
Where a compound is broken down by heat, light, or and may remain suspended for long period of time
electricity into simpler substances: 5. Electrophoresis
Movement of charged particles through a fluid due to the
Ex: passage of electric current through the medium
Potassium chlorate => potassium chloride + carbon
dioxide

C. Replacement reactions: 31. MELTING/BOILING POINT

Where a more active element displaces another from its
chemical combinations o Temperature at which a slid begins to melt
Ex: o Liquids start changing into gaseous phase
Bromine + potassium iodide => potassium bromine + o Vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external
iodine pressure surrounding the liquid
o Depends on the atmospheric pressure
D. Double replacement reactions o Becomes lower as the external pressure is
Where reactants exchange ions, forming two different reduced
compounds o Different for every substance

Ex:
Ferric chloride + sodium hydroxide => ferric hydroxide
+ sodium hydroxide PHYSICS

Deals with the properties and interrelationships of matter

30. COLLOIDS and energy, excluding chemical and biological changes.
Heterogenous mixtures whose properties are largely Includes the study of force, motion, heat, light, sound,
dependent on the size of dispersed particles. These electricity, magnetism, radiation, and atomic energy.
particles are the right size to scatter light and remain
suspended indefinitely in its dispersing medium. Due to 1. COORDINATE SYSTEM
its large exposed surface area, its many application are
based on the adsorption of other particles in its surface.

Lyophilic
 Solvent-loving
Mathematical method m1 = mass of object 1
used to represent the m2 = mass of object 2
position of points. r = distance between the center of object 1 and center of
object 2
Cartesian Coordinate
System:
Up and right are
positive, down and left
are negative
2. KINEMATICS 4. PROJECTILE MOTION

A. Distance (d) A. Projectile

Scalar quantity that measures the interval between two An object/body thrown with an initial velocity and
locations measured along the actual path connecting whose motion is influenced by the pull of gravity.
them. Has a magnitude and is one-dimensional. B. Trajectory
The path of a projectile that follows through space
B. Displacement (d with a line on top) C. Gravitational free-fall
Vector quantity that measures the interval between two Motion of an object vertically downward with initial
locations measured along the shortest path connecting velocity as zero.
them. Has both magnitude and direction and is two- Displacement formula:
dimensional.

C. Speed (v)
The rate of motion/change of position of an object over Velocity formula:
time. A scalar quantity (how fast an object is moving)
Average speed equation:

y = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration due to gravity
D. Velocity (v with a line on top) t = time elapsed
The rate of linear motion of an object in a particular
direction over time. A vector quantity (how fast and in D. Projectile Motion
which direction the object is moving) o Motion of a body projected into the air with a
Average velocity equation: constant acceleration
o Consists of two independent parts: the horizontal
and vertical motions
o Gravity only affects the object’s vertical motion
E. Acceleration (a with a line on top) that’s why it cannot change the object’s
The rate of change of velocity over time. Vector horizontal speed and the component of the
quantity. object’s horizontal velocity remains constant.
Average acceleration equation: Equations:

3. NEWTON’S LAW OF UNVIERSAL

GRAVITATION

Any two bodies of the universe attract each other with a

force that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses of the two bodies and inversely proportional to (x0y0) = initial position
the square of the distance between them: (v0xv0y) = initial velocity
a = acceleration due to gravity
t = time elapsed

G = gravitational constant
  The acceleration caused by the centripetal force
5. THREE LAWS OF MOTION
Created by Isaac Newton, the three laws of motion
describe the behavior of a moving object:
8. FRICTION
A. Law of Inertia: Force which acts between surfaces of objects in contact
A body will remain in its state of rest unless acted upon where one or both objects move or are about to move
by an outside force. If you are moving, inertia works to relative to each other.
keep you in motion.
B. Law of Acceleration Types of friction:
The acceleration of an object is directly related to the net A. Static/Starting friction:
force and is inversely related to its mass. Acceleration Force generated when one surface start to slide across
depends on force and mass. another surface
B. Kinetic/Sliding friction:
Weight (W) is the measure of the gravitational force of Force acting when the body is in motion. Less than static
an object. The metric unit for weight is Newton (N). friction
Mass (m) is the measure of the resistance of an object to C. Rolling friction:
change its state of motion-a measure of inertia. The Friction between two surfaces when one surface is
metric unit of mass is kilograms (kg). rolling over another.
W = mg

C. Law of Interaction
Equal and opposite force are equal and oppositely 9. WORK
directed, but do not balance each other since both are not Equal to the product of the magnitude of the force
exerted on the same body. exerted on the object and the displacement that the
object moves while the force is being exerted:

6. MOMENTUM
Product of the mass of an object and its velocity. Because of work, energy is transferred from the object
when force acts. No work is done if there is no force
Impulse: applied.
 Product of the force and the time during which
the force acts on the body.
 Impulse acting on the object of the mass causes
the velocity of the object to change. 10. ENERY
The capacity to do work.

Kinetic energy
7. TORQUE  Energy of motion
Force that tends to produce rotation about an axis (twist).  The magnitude of the kinetic energy depends on
both the mass and the velocity of the object
Rotational push according to the equation:
 The motion in which an object rotates about an
axis
 Occurs when some force is applied at any point
other than its center of gravity. m = mass of the object
Translational motion v2 = square of its velocity
 The motion in which a body or object moves
along a linear axis rather than a rotational axis. Potential energy
 Occurs when the force is directly applied at its  Energy of position/stored energy
center of gravity.
Centripetal force Gravitational energy
 Causes the object to be accelerated towards the  Potential energy associated with gravitational
circle’s center force:
Centripetal acceleration:
 Specific heat
m = mass of the object  The addition/removal of heat increases/decreases
g = acceleration due to gravity the temperature of a particular substance.
h = altitude of the object

11. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 13. WAVE

o Applied to an isolated system that cannot absorb A disturbance that travels through a medium. A
nor release energy or mass from or its to transmission of a disturbance that repeats its form across
surroundings. space and time
o States that the sum of all forms of energy within
the system is constant. Two types of waves:
o Energy is conserved. It cannot be created nor  Electromagnetic waves
destroyed, only transformed. Does not require a medium for propagation
 Mechanical waves
Requires a medium for propagation

12. HEAT Parts of a wave:

A thermal energy which may be absorbed or given off 1. Wavelength
by an object, causing a change in its volume. The distance from any point in its movement to the next
point.
Can be transferred in three ways: 2. Amplitude
A. Conduction The maximum distance the molecules of a wave are
o Heat transfer in solids displaced from their normal rest position.
o The molecules of the object in the heat transfer Crest – high point in a wave
energy from molecule to molecule. The Trough – low point in a wave
molecules conduct heat but do not move Both are equal
B. Convection 3. Period
o Heat transfer in fluids The time it takes for the wave to move from one crest to
o When a warmer thing comes along and displaces the next
a colder thing 4. Frequency
C. Radiation The number of cycles the wave completes in one second
o Heat transfer that occurs in the absence of
any medium
o Uses electromagnetic waves
o Radiant energy can travel without the help Frequency is the reciprocal of a period f = 1/T
of molecules of matter

The quantity of heat in any system is measured by the

effect that this amount of heat produces on the system.

Fusion
 Process of changing the substance from its solid
phase to its liquid phase
Melting point
 Temperature at which fusion takes place
Vaporization
 Process of changing liquid to its vapor state
Boiling point
 Temperature at which vaporization takes place

Temperature is not a measure of heat, but an expression The medium (which could be anything) moves up and
of heat content. down, or oscillates. It oscillates, but the wave itself
moves in a direction that is perpendicular to the boundary between the two materials
oscillation.
B. How light travels
o The velocity of the wave is the product of the 1. Interference
wavelength and frequency o Occurs when to waves overlap
o The speed of a sound wave through a medium o If a peak of one wave is aligned with another
depends on the temperature and the density of wave, then both waves will produce a larger
the medium. wave that is the sum of both two overlapping
o Sound waves travel faster at a higher peaks.
temperature and through elastic materials

Transverse waves – Waves that move perpendicular to

the direction of the wave’s advances
Longitudinal waves – Waves that move in the same
direction in which it causes its medium to move

2. Diffraction
14. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION o Spreading of light
The swinging motion of a pendulum. A pendulum has waves as they pass
maximum potential energy when it is up, but when it through a small
swings going down, it has its maximum kinetic energy. opening or around a
battery.
15. LIGHT

Sunlight
o Polychromatic light that breaks up when 16. SOUND
refracted by a prism Longitudinal compression wave that can move through
Visible light all kinds of media (air, water, steel, etc.). It’s speed
o Electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived depends on the on the two properties of the medium:
by the eye: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and density and resistance to compression
violet
Reflection
A. Interaction with material o An echo is the result of reflection of sound
1. Reflection o Sonar depends on the reflection of sounds
o Bouncing back of a wave when it hits a barrier propagated in water
that does not absorb the wave’s energy
o You see transmitted and reflect light Refraction
o Bends the sound waves from their original path
o Sound downwind and upwind are caused by this
due to the velocity of the wind that is generally
greater at an altitude of many meters near the
ground.

Diffraction and Interference

o Interference paths are different for sounds of
2. Refraction different frequencies, so that the interference
o Bending of light produces distortion in complex sounds.
when it passes from o Two sounds of different frequencies may
one material to combine to produce a third sound which is equal
another. Because light to the sum/difference of the original two
travels at different frequencies.
speed in different
materials; so, it must Doppler effect
change speeds at the o Change in frequency of a sound due to the
motion of either the source or the observer.
 o If the source is moving closer to you, the higher Electric current
the frequency. But if the source is moving - Flow of electrons
farther from you, the lower the frequency.
Good conductors
Resonance - Materials that allow electrons to move freely
- Tendency of a system to oscillate at a larger - Wires made up of copper, silver, and aluminum
amplitude at some frequencies than others (the
system’s resonant frequencies/resonance Good insulators
frequencies) - Materials that slow down the flow of electrons
within conductors
- Rubber, plastic, wood, glass, and air
- They keep electricity from escaping and giving
17. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM people electric shocks.

Light Static electricity

- Made up of stream of photons and tiny packets - Most common type of electricity found in nature
of energy - Buildup of positive/negative charges on objects
- Light waves are electromagnetic waves by the accumulation or loss of electorns

Electromagnetic spectrum Current electricity

- Arrangement of waves on a scale of decreasing - Controlled flow of electrons
wavelengths and increasing frequencies and - The charges are continuously on the move
energy.
Circuit
The invisible spectrum: o Formed by connecting both ends of a conductor
1. Radio waves – Longest wavelength and lowest o A complete, closed circular path for an electric
frequency. Used for communication and cooking current.
2. Microwaves – Used in radar to locate objects o Provides the force needed to drive the electrons
and determine their distance and speed around the circuit
3. Visible light (visible spectrum) o Resists the flow of electricity so it is converted
4. Infrared rays – Heat to heat, light, or mechanical energy.
5. Ultraviolet rays – Cause suntan and are food-
processing plants to destroy germs
6. X-rays – Shortest wavelength and highest
frequency. Used to penetrate skin and tissue 20. OHM’S LAW
States that the amount of current passing through a
Visible Light/Visible Spectrum conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across
o Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet the conductor and inversely proportional to the
o The frequency determines the color resistance of the conductor:
o Amplitude determines the brightness V = IR
o When the colors are mixed together, we see V = Difference in voltage between two locations
them as white light (potential difference)
I = Amount of current that is flowing between the two
points (Amperes)
R = Resistance of the conductor between the two
18. HALF-LIFE locations of interest (Ohms)
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time required
for one-half of the nuclei in a microscopic sample to
disintegrate. The given is always the same.
21. RESISTANCE

Quantity of resistance in an electric circuit determines

19. ELECTRICITY the amount of current flowing in the circuit for any given
The basic property of all matter. Caused by the flow of voltage applied to the circuit.
electrons between atoms.
Ohm
 - Unit of resistance. Magnetic field:
- The amount of resistance that limits the passage  The magnetic force extends outward from the
of current to one ampere when a voltage of one poles to create an area around the magnet where
is applied to it its magnetism can be felt.
 It is believed to be caused by the rotation of
- Symbol = Ω electrons within a substance.
 Every electron in every substance act like a
A. Series Circuit magnet.
o A circuit where resistors  Opposite poles attract and like poles repel.
are arranged in a chain, so
that the current only has
one path to take GEN. SCIENCE
o The current is the same
through each resistor
1. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
o Total resistance of the
circuit:
Science
- Systematic study concerned with facts,
principles, and methods (experiments) that could
be observed in our natural or physical and social
environment.
B. Parallel Circuit
o A circuit where
Scientific Study
resistors are arranged - Well-planned and reasoned study which can be
with their heads
repeated many times over and yield almost the
connected together,
same result
and their tails
connected together.
Technology
o The current breaks up
- Application of scientific knowledge to improve
with some flowing
life or satisfy needs
along each parallel
branch and re-combining when the branches
Applied Science:
meet again.
1. Machines:
o The voltage across each resistor is the same
- Tools, gadgets, or devices.
o Total resistance of the circuit: - Helps us do our activities faster and better
- Makes it possible for us to do certain things we
normally can’t
- Ex: Airplanes, Internet, CT-scan, etc.

2. Products:
22. ELECTRICAL POWER - Materials produced
Power – Rate at which work is done. It has unit of Watts
- Make life more pleasant, convenient, and
1 W = 1(J/S)
comfortable.
Electric power: - Ex: Toothpaste, Chemical Fertilizers, etc.

3. Processes:
- Way of doing things
- Ex: Food preservation, prawn culture, etc.

23. MAGNETISM
A force of push and pull and is a close relative of
2. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
electricity.
- Logical method to acquire knowledge that is
 Poles used to explain different phenomena in nature.
The two ends of every magnet which the magnetic force
extends. One is the south pole the other the north pole. Phenomena
- A thing observed in nature
 Fact
- A scientifically tested observation o Intellectual honesty – Acknowledging
contribution of others to one’s success
Scientific Method: o Hard work and perseverance – Continued
1. State the problem effort to do or achieve something despite
Problem is specific, measurable, and attainable difficulties, failures, or opposition.
2. Gather information pertinent to the problem o Objectivity – Goal of eliminating personal
Recall past experiences, interview the knowledgeable, biases in the practice of science
and research o Creativity and critical thinking – Ability to
3. Formulate hypothesis think clearly and rationally about what to do and
Educated guess what to believe, thereby creating new things and
4. Test the hypothesis (Experiment) solving problems in novel ways.
 Controlled experiment:
Manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may
affect the result of the experiment
 Trials: 4. MEASUREMENT
Number of times the experiment is repeated Comparing a quantity with a chose standard.
 Controls:
Factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment Basic Quantities SI Unit
 Variables: Factors that change Length Meters
- Independent: Factors changes Mass Kilograms
- Dependent: Result of the factors changed of the Time Seconds
independent variable Electric current Amperes
5. Presentation of Data Temperature Kelvin
 Tables: Organized Amount of substance Moles
 Graph: Easy to read Luminous intensity Candelas
- Line: Comparing two continuously changing
variables What affects the degree of accuracy of
- Bar: Comparing a changing value to an measurements:
unchanging value o Accuracy – Closeness of measurements of a
6. Conclusion: Result of the experiment quantity to its actual (true) value
 Law: Describes what happened but does not o Precision – Repeated measurements under
explain the cause unchanged conditions show the same results.
 Theory: Hypothesis explained from
observations
7. Apply the principal to other
situations/Recommendation: 5. MATTER
Create a scientific report about your experiment and Anything that occupies space and possesses the
publish it in a scientific journal where other scientists attributes of gravity and inertia. Occurs in 4 states:
may repeat the same experiment. o Solid
- Resists any change in shape
- Caused by a strong attraction between the
molecules of which it is composed
3. SCIENTIFIC ATTRIBUTES o Liquid
Obtained through the use of models and ideas, or - Does not resist forces that act to change its shape
through serendipity or accidental discovery. - Molecules are free to move with respect to each
other
Scientific Attributes: o Gas
o Curiosity – Keen observation of things and - Molecules are widely dispersed and freely move.
events in the surroundings - No resistance to shape and little resistance to
o Logic and System – Use of step-by-step change in volume.
experimental methods and keeping of accurate o Plasma
records - Overall charge-neutral mix of electrons, ions,
o Open-Mindedness – Readiness or willingness and neutral atoms.
to change or modify ideas or principles when
necessary
 Compound/Complex machines – 2 or more simple
machines

Most substances are solid at low temperatures, liquid at 8. DENSITY

medium, and gaseous at high. Substance equal to the mass of the material divided by
its volume. A solid has a higher density than a liquid or
1. Melting/Freezing Point gas because its particles are very close to one another.
- Temperature at which any given substance
changes from solid to liquid and vice versa p = mass/volume
2. Boiling Point
- Temperature which changes from liquid to gas How to measure density:
and vice versa/ Solids:
- Vapor pressure is equal to external pressure - Weighed to determine their mass then immersed
surrounding the liquid in a liquid to determine their volume.
- Depends on atmospheric pressure - V of the liquid displaced by object = object’s v

Liquid:
1. First weigh an empty container
6. CHANGES IN MATTER 2. Then weigh the container with the liquid in it
3. Subtract the empty weight from the full weight
Physical change
- Change in matter that has no chemical reaction Gas:
- Composition of its molecules remains - Weighed in an airtight container of known
unchanged volume and weight.
- Substance does not lose chemical identity
- Melting, evaporating, and freezing
- Alteration in size and shape of a substance 9. CLIMATE AND WEATHER
- Cutting, grinding, crushing, etc.
Atmosphere
Chemical change - Constant state of change
- Chemical composition of each molecule changes - Changing conditions in the atmosphere are the
- Properties of the original substance are now lost main causes of weather and climate
and new substances with new properties are
produced Climate
- Burning, rusting, etc. - Long-term effect of the sun’s radiation on the
rotating earth’s varied surface and atmosphere

Weather
7. MACHINES - State of the atmosphere at a particular time and
Devices that can: place
1. Multiply force - Effort it takes to do certain Elements of Weather:
amount of work  Temperature
2. Multiply speed or distance - Measure of the degree of hotness of the air
3. Change the direction of the force - 3 scales: Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, and
4. Transfer energy from one place to another Fahrenheit scale.
5. Transform energy from one form to another - Thermometer is a common instrument used to
measure temperature
Simple machine – 1-2 parts only:
 Inclined plane  Humidity
 Lever - Measure of the amount of water vapor in the air
 Screw - Common measure is relative humidity
 Wheel and axle - If the amount of water vapor in the air remains
 Pulley the same, the relative humidity decreases as the
 Wedge air is heated and increases as the air cools.
 - Relative humidity is often highest around dawn - Can absorb great quantities and capacities
where the temperature is the lowest, and lowest
in mid-afternoon, where the temperature is the
highest.
- Hygrometer and psychometer are used to Ocean water
measure atmospheric humidity - The ocean is blue due to the molecular scattering
of the sunlight
Humidity = vapor in the air/air’s vapor holding capacity - Variations in color may be caused by particles
suspended in the water, water depth, cloud
 Precipitation cover, temperature, etc.
- Produced when droplets and crystals in clouds - Hydrologic Cycle/Water Cycle: Series of
grow large enough (1km) to fall to the ground movements of water above, on, and below the
- Raindrop, rain, drizzle, freezing rain, snow, hail, surface of the earth.
and sleet - 4 stages: Storage – Stored temporarily in the
- Measured using rain gauge ground, Evaporation – Evaporates from the
Earth’s surface, Precipitation – Condenses into
 Wind clouds and falls back to the earth as
- Horizontal movement of air precipitation, and Run-off – Runs into the seas
- Wind vanes are used to determine wind direction or re-evaporates into the atmosphere.
- Anemometers are used to measure wind speed

 Cloud EARTH SCIENCE

- Excess water vapor in the air that condenses into
liquid droplets or iced crystals - Science that collectively seek to understand
- Produced by the cooling of air as it rises Earth and its neighbors in space.
- Takes many different forms based on the pattern - Geology, Oceanography, Meteorology, and
of air motions: Astronomy
Fluffy cumulus clouds:
- Forms by rising masses of air called thermals 1. HOW OLD IS THE EARTH?
- Has a flat base Earth is between 4 to 5 billion years old. This
- Transforms into a cumulonimbus information came from the study of rocks because
cloud/thunderstorm changes in them occur very slowly.
Fibrous cirrus clouds
- Consist of trails of falling ice crystals twisted by Law of Superposition:
the winds In undisturbed sedimentary rocks, each layer is younger
- Form high in the troposphere and crystals never than the layer below it and older than the layer above it.
hit the ground Layered rocks are older than the igneous rocks.
Stratus clouds
- Form when an entire layer of air cools or Radioactive dating:
ascends.  Reliable way to tell the Earth’s age
 Uranium 238 is a metal that slowly changes into
 Pressure lead (Uranium-Lead method)
- Force of the air on a given surface divided by the
 Half-life is 4.5 billion years – half of the
area of that surface
uranium would’ve decayed into lead
- Barometer measure the air pressure
 This is how scientists are able to determine the
age of rocks by measuring the amount of
uranium and lead present in the rock sample.
10. WATER
- Odorless, tasteless and colorless
- Universal solvent
- Chemically indestructible 2. FOSSILS
- Expands and floats on water when frozen or in Hardened remains or imprints of organisms that lived a
the solid state very long time ago.
- Freezing point of 0 degrees Celsius and boiling
Paleontologists – Scientists who study plant and animal
point of 100 degrees Celsius
fossils.
 - Dinosaurs existed during this era which many
- Fossils include records of the past believed were the descendants of the primitive
- Fossils can also be petrified or changed into reptiles that survived the Paleozoic. Another
rock. When sediment seeps inside a dead plant theory counter clocks this theory, believing they
or animal, the material fills any open space. descended from birds.
After some time, the dead plant/animal breaks - Some dinosaurs were carnivores adapted to eat
apart and the material hardens. What remains is other dinosaurs, while others were herbivores
a cast fossil. with digestive organs to eat vegetarian diet.
- Another fossil is the remains or skeleton of - Towards the end of the Mesozoic, the continents
primitive animals. had separated into their present positions, the
- Reveals the size, shapes, and appearances of dinosaurs died, leaving the only surviving
living things from long ago. Fossils also tell us reptiles today: turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles,
about their habits and habitats. and alligators,
- Ice and amber prevent decay. When
plants/animals get trapped in this resin, they are D. Cenozoic Era
retained. - Volcanic activity was widespread, forming
- Amber is a hardened resin formed by coniferous immense flow of lava and basalt.
trees. - Warm-blooded animals such has marsupials and
primitive mammals roamed the land.
- Mammals had developed tooth structures for
specific diets, limb structures for various
3. GEOLOGIC TIME positions, and increasing brain size.
- Towards the end, the Northern Hemisphere was
A. Precambrian Era covered by glaciers which was the start of the
- Lasted from the beginning of the earth to about Pleistocene Ice Age which lasted 2 million
600 million years ago. years.
- Algae, sponges, and worms are some of the
primitive organisms that existed. However, life
was too primitive to be able to leave many
fossils. 4. PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH
- Early mountains were worn down only to be
uplifted again. 1. Pythagoras (c. 580-c. 500 B.C.)
- Most of the rocks are igneous or metamorphic. - Greek philosopher and mathematician
- Thought that the earth had a spherical shape
B. Paleozoic Era which was proven by Eratosthenes
- Many fossils were found in layers of
sedimentary rocks. 2. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.)
- Marine invertebrates lived near the shores of - Greek astronomer
shallow waters. - Measured the earth’s circumference
- Marine life has developed shells which formed
beds of limestone and coral reefs. Circumference of Earth: 40, 000 km
- Amphibians had adapted to breathing air out of
the sea during the Devonian Period. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
- Land plants such as ferns and marsh plants had - English Mathematician and physicist
developed which gave the land animals more - Predicted that the Earth was not a perfect sphere.
food to eat to multiply. His reason: the equatorial portion swings
- Marine life had multiplied such as clams, snails, outward due to the rapid spinning of Earth
and fish. (equatorial bulge).
- The late Paleozoic era appeared the reptiles. - The earth is also irregular due to the mounts and
- Towards the end, the land climate changed, and valleys above and below sea level.
many kinds of plants grew during this era.
J.P. Hayford
C. Mesozoic Era - Computed the standard earth in terms of an
- Formation of several continents oblate spheroid.
- New bodies of water were formed. - The dimensions are a regular geometric form
that is close to the contour of Earth.
 7. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)
- English scientist Topography
- Determined the mass of the Earth - Describes the surface features of an area or the
- Experimented with the gravitational constant in “lay of land.”
Newton’s universal law of gravitation. The
constant was determined by measuring the force Topographic maps
of attraction between suspended lead balls. - Scale models of some part of the earth’s surface
Then, computed the mass of the Earth from - Uses contour lines to show relief
Newton’s equation. - Contour line: Line that passes through all points
on a map that has the same elevation.

5. LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

8. LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Equator
- Line drawn in the middle of the globe/map. 0 1. Crust
degrees latitude. - Thin outermost layer of the Earth
- Layer where all life on Earth exists.
Line of Latitude - 1, 800 km thick
- North and south of the equator are many other - Materials: Silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium,
lines. Drawn east to west around the Earth. sodium, and potassium.
- Three types of solid rocks: Igneous,
Latitude sedimentary, and metamorphic
- Measured from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 - Crust varies in thickness with the thickest being
degrees at the North Pole. found in the continents where mountain peaks
are located and the thinnest in ocean depths.
Meridian/Longitude - Crust does not have the same thickness
- North-south line drawn from the North Pole to everywhere on Earth
South Pole
- Meridian represents 0 degrees longitude 2. Mantle
- Not parallel, farthest apart at the equator - Mohorovicic Discontinuity/Moho: Boundary
- Get closest together as they reach the poles between the crust and mantle
where they meet - 2, 900 km thick
- Makes up 80% of the Earth’s volume
International Date Line - Denser than the outermost layer of the Earth.
- East and west longitudinal lines meet at 180 - 870 degrees Celsius
degrees meridian
3. Inner core
- Earth’s solid, innermost layer
- 5, 100 km thick
6. MAPPING THE EARTH - Contains iron and nickel
- 5000 degrees Celsius
Map - Very dense due to the intense pressure at this
- Drawing of earth, or part of earth on a flat depth that pushes the particles of iron and nickel
surface. together.
- Creates the presence of a magnetic field
Globe
- Spherical model of earth 4. Outer core
- Shows the sizes, shapes, and locations of all the - Layer surrounding the inner core
continents on Earth and all bodies of water. - 2, 900 km thick
- 2, 200 degrees Celsius
Symbols - Made up of liquid iron and nickel
- Drawings that stand for real places or things - Heat makes the iron and nickel molten
- A legend explains each symbol used on the map. Temperature increases as you go down into the earth you
go.
 9. TERRESTRIAL MAGNET C. Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

William Gilbert (1540-16003) Lithosphere

- English physician of Elizabeth I - Upper part of the mantle and crust
- Concluded that the Earth behaves like a giant - Has no sharp boundary
magnet due to the comparison of the direction of - Gradually turns into the soft asthenosphere
the magnetic force with similar measurements
made over the earth’s surface. Asthenosphere
- Irregularities in the Earth’s magnetic field are - Soft due to its material being close to the
caused by the needle of a compass to point to melting point due to the high temperature and
slightly different magnetic poles in different pressure found at such depths.
regions around the world.
- Dip pole: a point that has been located in each D. Isostasy
hemisphere - The floating crust caused by the mantle (which
- Magnetic poles: Dip poles also floats) exerts downward force on the mantle
which is balanced by an upward force by the
mantle on the crust.
- When a material is added to an area of crust, it
10. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY will sink. When it is removed, it will float.

A. Continental Drift Theory Two major sections of the crust:

 Continental Crust
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) - Makes up landforms such as mountains and
- German geologist and meteorologist plains
- Created the first theory of continental drift  Oceanic Crust
which was based on biologic and geologic - Found under the ocean
evidence.
- He observed that until 200 million years ago, E. Ocean Floors
whenever a new species appeared, it did in so - Ocean floors are very young
many regions where suitable habitat existed. But - There is a system of trenches that are parallel to
now, those regions are now widely separated. the belts where earthquakes and volcanoes
- He suggested that the continents were all part of occur.
a huge landmass called Pangea surrounded by a
single ocean Panthalassa. Narrow ridges/Mid-ocean ridges:
- Pangea was supposed to have begun to break up - Can be found in all oceans
which caused the continents to slowly drift to
their present locations. Harvy H. Hess and Robert S. Dietz
- He stated that all continents are moving apart. - Proposed that ocean floors are widening.
- To prove his theory, they examined what was Ocean Floor Spreading
known about the climates of the past and tried to - Ocean floor bulges until it opens and allows soft,
arrange the continents in each geologic period. basaltic material to move out through the crack.
Each new addition of lava hardens to form a new
Additional evidence of continental drift came from a floor and to expand the width of the ocean basin.
study of magnetism in ancient rocks.
- When the iron-bearing minerals harden, their Echo sounding
molecules line up pointing toward the magnetic - Method to investigate ocean floors.
pole. - An instrument on board a ship sends out a pulse
- The pole is separated by the ocean, so if the of high-frequency sound waves
continents were put back together, the pole
positions would fit. Convection currents and seafloor spreading
- Parts of the Plate Tectonics theory
B. Seafloor Spreading (Tectonic plates splitting apart - The Pacific floor contains many submerged
from each other) ancient volcanoes (guyots) that were once above
- It was believed that the continents are on top of the ocean surface but later sank below it.
rigid rock plates that are continually moving
across the face of Earth
Oceanic Trench
- At one boundary of each plate, molten rock rises
to form a new ocean floor
- At the opposite boundary, the plate usually
slides underneath the adjacent one and melts
when it reaches the asthenosphere.

Two kind of plate boundaries

 Convergent boundaries
- If the boundaries of two plates pushes against
each other
- May be found between two continental plates:
an ocean and a continental plate, and between 12. FOSSIL FUESLS
two ocean plates - Petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
Subduction zone - Formed millions of years as a result of
- When ocean plates push against each other, the incomplete decomposition of organic, matter
plate edges are bent downward into a deep under extreme conditions of temperature and
trench pressure.

 Divergent boundaries
- If the plate pulls away from each other
13. MINERALS
- Crystalline solid with definite composition and
structure
11. TYPES OF ROCKS - Common minerals found on earth are calcite,
mica, quartz, gypsum, and rock salt.
Magma
- Heat from the Earth’s interior that causes Rock
materials under the crust to melt within Earth - Aggregate of minerals

Lava Characteristics of Minerals:

- Heat from the Earth’s interior that causes - Inorganic
materials under the crust to melt on the surface. - Produced in nature
- Solids
Igneous - Atoms have the same internal/crystalline pattern
- Cooled and hardened lava - Chemical composition is definite
- Can be seen on the side of a volcano
- May be basalt and felsite and have many small Silicates
mineral crystals - Most abundant mineral
- Ex: Mica, feldspar, and topaz
Obsidian Carbonates
- When magma cools quickly, crystals do not - Calcites
form, and the minerals stay mixed in a glass-like Oxides and hydrated oxides
solid. - Hematite, bauxite, iron, and aluminum

Sedimentary rocks Two properties of rock-forming minerals:

- Materials cemented together by minerals in the  Crystal form
water - Most minerals are crystalline solids
- Their tiny particles are arranged in lattice
Metamorphic rocks structures with definite geometric patterns
- High pressure and temperature deep beneath the - Have a distinctive shape
Earth’s surface causes changes in sedimentary - Good crystals are rare due to the mineral grains
and igneous rocks that are deeply buried interfering with another’s growth

Rock Cycle
- Continuous change from magma to rock
  Cleavage Tides
- Tendency of a substance to split along certain - Periodic rise and fall of the sea level
planes which are determined by the arrangement - Caused by the Moon’s gravitational pull on
of particles in its lattice. Earth
- Flat, parallel face and minute, parallel cracks.
Eclipse
5 most common crystals and minerals: - Blocking of light by a heavenly body so that the
o Quartz Crystals source of light seems to disappear.
- Well-formed with 6 sided prisms and pyramids
- No cleavage Lunar Eclipse
- Colorless or milky - When Earth passes between the Sun and Moon
- Glassy luster so that Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon.
- Gray/pink/violet due to impurities
- Hard enough to scratch glass and feldspar Solar Eclipse
- Used in jewelry and optical instruments - When the Moon passes directly between the Sun
o Feldspar Crystals and Earth
- Rectangular with blunt-pointed ends
- White/light shades of pink and gray
- Soft mineral used as insulation 16. LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
o Ferromagnetic minerals
- Silicates of iron and magnesium Life on Earth is
- Dark green to black dependent on the
o Clay minerals atmosphere
- Aggregates of microscopic crystals
- White/light colored when pure and often Composition of
discolored with iron compounds the atmosphere:
- Dull luster Nitrogen – 78%
- Very soft, forming a smooth powder when Oxygen – 21%
rubbed Argon – 0.93%
- Lack of effervescence in acids Carbon Dioxide –
o Calcite Crystals 0.035%
- Hexagonal
- Perfect cleavage in three directions so that 5 layers of the Atmosphere:
fragments of calcite have a characteristic 1. Troposphere
rhombic shape - Touches the Earth and where we live in
- Chief constituent of limestone and marble - Almost all weather takes place here
- Source of lime for glass, mortar, and cement - Most of the air it contains is within 3mi of the
planet’s surface
2. Stratosphere
- Layer above the troposphere
14. SOIL - High concentration of ozone (special form of
- Mixture of weathering residue, decaying organic oxygen that filters out harmful UV rays/radiation
matter, living creatures, air, and moisture from the sun)
- Almost all life on land is dependent on this - Warmed by chemical reaction occurring when
 Factors that affect the type of soil: ozone breaks down into oxygen
- Rock material, climate, and terrain 3. Mesosphere
Desertification – Productive soil in a semiarid area - Layer above the stratosphere
becomes unproductive and desert conditional prevail. - Air cools as a result of lack of ozone
4. Ionosphere
- Layer above the mesosphere
- Where air is thin and cold
15. SEASONS - Reflects radio waves back to Earth and makes
- Occur due to the tilt in Earth’s rotational axis long-distance broadcasts possible
and its revolution around the Sun. 5. Thermosphere
- Outer edge of the atmosphere
 - Where the sun’s rays first hit and air temperature o Cytoplasm
rises again - Semi fluid liquid that fills the cell and hold
components of a cell
Greenhouse effect - Holds dissolved nutrients (amino acids and
- Absorbs infrared radiation going from Earth’s sugars)
surface out into space resulting in the trapping of - Colloidal suspension that contains the highly
heat in the atmosphere organized structure “Organelles”
- Contains chemicals for that cell to carry out its
Global warming living activities.
- Increase in carbon dioxide caused by excessive
burning of petroleum and coal causes the General parts of the cell:
atmosphere to become warmer. o Mitochondria
- Powerhouse of the cell
- Where energy (ATP) is obtained from food
BIOLOGY consumed and made available for the use of the
cell.
- Study of living organisms o Chloroplast
- Biological concepts and process skills, - Site of photosynthesis
technology and attitudes and values for o Plastids
addressing the needs and problems of society. - Store chlorophyll for the use of chloroplasts
o Lysosomes
Biotechnology - Membrane-bound vacuoles in the cytoplasm
- Development of techniques in genetic which contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest
engineering and increased understanding of the materials entering the cell.
molecular basis of cellular processes have led to o Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
the emergence of a new and exciting field of - Does not have ribosomes attached
scientific research - Transportation system of the cell
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. CELL - Has ribosomes attached
- Basic structure of all living things - Carries out cell transportation but mainly of the
- Foundation of cell theory necessary protein materials needed by the cell
- Can reproduce to form new cells which are o Golgi Apparatus
almost identical to the original cells. - Manufactures, synthesizes, stores, and
- Sex cells reproduce by meiosis while somatic distributes hormones, enzymes, and other
(autosomes/body cells) reproduce by mitosis protein materials needed by the cell
o Peroxisomes
Two types of cells: - Manufactures, stores, and secretes oxidation
enzymes needed by the cell
 Prokaryotic
- Cells that do not have a nuclear membrane or o Vacuoles
- Fluid-filled sacs which usually contain water,
membrane-bound organelles
proteins, pigments, organic acids, or metabolic
- Bacteria
wastes.
 Eukaryotes
o Basal bodies
- Most cells making up all other living organisms
- Short, cylindrical, microtubules which help in
cell movement by directing the formation of
Parts of a cell:
cilia and flagella
Important parts:
o Cell wall
o Cell membrane
- Nonliving, inflexible, outer component of plant
- Double layer of lipids that surrounds the cell
cells which supports and protects the cell.
- Gatekeeper
- Main component is often cellulose
- Controlling what move into and out of the cell
o Centrioles
o Nucleus
- Small cylindrical bodies which lie outside the
- Separated from the cytoplasm by a thickened
nucleus in animal cells in specialized area of
membrane that is more selective than others.
cytoplasm
- Control center of the cell
- Play a role in cell division and in cell motility
- Contains genetic information
 o Nucleolus
- Dark-straining organelle within the nucleus  Turgor pressure
which contains RNA, proteins, and some DNA - Helps the cell to adjust to its needs and
- Helps with the synthesis of ribosomal RNA environment since cells are constantly changing
o Chromosomes environments and needs which must be met to
- Thread-like structures composed mainly of DNA stay alive.
which is arranged in genes - The pressure determines the amount of water
- Hereditary information of the cell maintained inside the cell to counterbalance the
o Ribosomes environment outside of the cell.
- Tiny, grainy structure attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum Proteins provides the cell energy, general maintenance,
- Serves as the protein factory of the cell growth, and reproductive functions.
- Contains enzymes to carry out protein synthesis
All living things need carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
oxygen to survive.

Protein Degradation:
- Process by which proteins are broken down into
the smallest units “amino acids”
- Then the amino acids are reconstructed into
peptide chains (process of protein synthesis)
that can be used by materials needed by the cell

Animal Cells vs. Plant Cells

- Plant cells have centrioles, chloroplasts – 2. CELL DIVISION
captures light energy and uses it to make the Process of cell reproduction following several stages to
cell’s food, and a cell wall produce two daughter cells

Multicellular organisms: Two types of cell division:

- Not all cells express all the information A. Mitosis
- Cells develop in different ways as the embryos - Where two daughter nuclei receive the same
develop. chromosome complement as the parent nucleus.
- This allows for cellular differentiation - All kinds of asexual reproduction are caried out
development of specialized cellular organelles, in mitosis as eukaryotic cells.
cells, tissues, organs, and systems that make - Responsible for growth, regeneration, and cell
each member of a species unique. replacement in multi-cellular organisms
Stages:
Homeostasis: 1. Interphase
- An internal control that obtains the maintenance - In the cytoplasm, oxidation and synthesis
of balance or working equilibrium that is reactions take place. In the nucleus, DNA
optimum for their needs replicates
- This accounts for all movement into and out of itself and
the cell forms
- Though the cell can adjust to environmental messenger
needs and amounts, there is a limit to how much RNA,
and how often it can adjust. transfer
 State of equilibrium RNA and
- Molecular movement when it meets the needed ribosomal RNA.
concentration of materials on either side of the 2. Prophase
cell membrane - Chromatids shorten and thicken. The nucleoli
- Where the cell operates most efficiently disappear, and the nuclear membrane breaks
 Transportation of cells down and disappears as well. Spindle fibers
- Active transport, passive transport, endocytosis, begin to form.
phagocytosis, or exocytosis.
- Kind of transportation depends on the type,
function, and environment of the cell.
 2. Assimilation – Absorption of nutrients.
3. Regulation – Maintaining stability of
organism’s chemical makeup under constantly
changing internal and external environment
(homeostasis)
4. Synthesis – Building up of complex molecules
3. Metaphase from simple compounds.
- Each chromosome moves to the equator, or 5. Irritability – Response to stimuli.
middle of the spindle. The paired chromosomes 6. Movement – Ability to change position
attach to the spindle at the centromere. 7. Bioluminescence – Production of internal light
within some organisms.
8. Transportation – Movement of nutrient, water,
ions, and other materials into and out of various
cells and tissues of organisms. The process
includes absorption of small molecules across
cell membranes and secretion of biochemical
substances.
4. Anaphase 9. Metabolism – Nutrients and simple molecules
- Separation of sister chromatids into a single- are used to form more complex molecules for
stranded chromosome. The chromosomes growth, repair, and reproductions (anabolism).
migrate to opposite poles of the cells. Releases energy from chemical bonds
(catabolism) and to provide small molecules
such as simple sugar and amino acids
(anabolism).
10. Ingestion – Taking in food.
11. Digestion – Special for of catabolism that breaks
down food into smaller molecules and releases
5. Telophase energy.
- Chromosomes begin to uncoil and the nucleoli 12. Secretion – Formation of useful substances.
as well as the nuclear membrane reappear. 13. Absorption – Allows small molecules to pass
- In plant cells, a cell plate appears at the equator through cell membranes throughout the body
which divides the parent cell into to daughter tissues.
- In animal cells, an invagination of the plasma 14. Excretion – Getting rid of wastes of the cell.
membrane divides the parent cell. 15. Reproduction – Organism produces offspring
either sexually or asexually. Main purpose is for
the perpetuation of species.
Two types:
A. Asexual – Reproduction without the use of
gametes or sex cells. One parent can reproduce
by itself.
 Fission – Splitting of the body of an organism
B. Meiosis into two identical parts
- Two successive cell divisions where  Budding – Growing of bud out of the parent
chromosomes duplicate only once. Which results cells or bodies which when detached can grow
in daughter cells with a haploid number of into another organism that resembles the
chromosomes or one-half of the chromosome appearance of the parent
number in the original cell. Occurs during the  Sporulation – Spore formation as in fern plant
formation of gametes and in spore formation in and mushrooms
plants. B. Sexual – Requires the union of male and female
gametes “fertilization”. Male gametes “sperm cells”
and female gametes “egg cells”. Two types of
3. LIFE FUNCTIONS fertilization:
Basic functions of life compromising total cell  External fertilization – Union of sperm cells
metabolism: outside of the body of female organisms.
1. Respiration – Release of energy by oxidation of  Internal fertilization – Union of sperm cells
food. inside the body of female organisms
 When the second or third phosphate splits off from
4. PHOTOSYNTHESIS the ATP molecule, energy is released which is used
Process that occurs within all plant cells which supply all by the cell for its various functions.
the carbohydrates used by both plants and animals.
Respiration
Chloroplasts - Animals and plants must respire to remain alive
- Absorb light energy from the sun. - When land animal respires, they give off carbon
- Carbon dioxide and water are present as raw dioxide to the atmosphere 24 hours. However, in
materials. green plants, leaf cells in photosynthesis used
the carbon dioxide during the day. But at night
Chemical equation of photosynthesis: plants release it. While plant roots continuously
give off carbon dioxide into the soil since its
cells do not photosynthesize.

Aerobic Respiration:
- Release of energy from organic compounds
Two-step process of Photosynthesis: occurs in the presence of oxygen.
1. Light reactions - The oxidation, or process of breaking down and
- Involves trapping light energy by the chlorophyll releasing energy is stimulated by enzymes and
molecules and its conversion to chemical energy acids present in and around the mitochondria.
in the form of ATP and NADPH.
- When light strikes the leaf, the chlorophyll is Anaerobic Respiration:
excited, and its energized electrons leave the - No oxygen present and occurs by a fermentation
pigment. process.
2. Dark reactions - Lactic-acid is produced as a by-product which
- The ATP and NADPH move to the stroma and results in muscle fatigue and soreness.
participate in the formation of sugar. - There is a step-by-step breakdown of food. The
- Energy gets stored in the sugar molecules final products are carbon dioxide, water, and
through a series of chemical controlled by ATP.
different enzymes.

Glucose is the starting material for the production of

other food molecules such as complex carbs, proteins,
and fats. Food of land organisms come from green plants
while aquatic organisms feed on chlorophyll-bearing Photosynthesis and respiration are considered as
algae and plankton. opposite processes only in terms of starting materials
and end products.

5. CELLULAR RESPIRATION 6. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Catabolic activity that breaks down carbs, fats, Characterized by the presence of carbon:
and proteins to produce energy in the form of o Carbohydrates
ATP. - Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide atoms.
and water as by-products. - CnH2nOn
- In eukaryotic cells, the process takes place in the - Can range from simple sugars to large and
mitochondria. complex forms like starch and glycogen
- In prokaryotic cells, the process takes place in - Serves as energy molecules or energy reserves in
the cell membrane. living organisms.
- Cellulose gives strength and protection to plant
ATP cells.
- Energy currency of the cell. o Lipids
 Consists of a molecule of adenosine which three - Macromolecules (fats, oils, & waxes)
phosphates are attached to: - Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Made of fatty acids and glycerol.
- Some excess food in the body is stored as fat.
 - Waxes give a protective body covering to Food chain:
organisms while making plant and animal tissues 1. Producers
water-resistant. - Green plants
o Proteins - Forms the first link of the food chain
- Made up of amino acids. 2. First order consumers
- Component of muscle and all other tissues. - Herbivorous insects and animals
- They control the rate of chemical reaction inside 3. Top consumers
the cell as enzymes. - Carnivorous animals
o Enzymes
- Proteins that act as catalysts (can increase Trophic level
chemical reaction). - Feeding level in the food chain
o Nucleic Acids - Only an average of 10% of the energy stored in
- Carriers of hereditary information in living the body of an organism can be transferred to the
organisms. next higher trophic level. This makes the energy
- The physical information and traits of the transfer in living systems highly inefficient.
organisms are controlled by this. - The total mass of any trophic level at any one
o Vitamins time must be much greater than the total biomass
- Substances necessary in very small amounts for of the total trophic level which it supports.
the body growth and activity.
- Needed to prevent diseases.
- Organic substances essential to life but not as 10. FOOD WEB
energy sources. Complex food relationship whereby a certain kind of
food maybe eaten by more than one consumer.

7. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Characterized by the absence of carbon: 11. OXYGEN CYCLE
o Water
- Most abundant inorganic compound Two processes involved in the oxygen cycle:
- 65% to 95% of the substance of all living things  Photosynthesis
are water - Production of carbs and oxygen from carbon
- Medium transport for food, minerals, and other dioxide and water.
substances in a living system.  Oxidation of organic compounds (cell
o Minerals respiration)
- Chemical elements or compounds occurring
naturally. The chemical changes that make the oxygen cycle
- Absorbed by plant roots in the form of ions possible are also the same chemical changes involved in
the carbon and hydrogen cycles.

8. POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower 12. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
to the stigma of another flower. Two types: Occurs only in the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
o Self-pollination biosphere, but not the atmosphere because phosphorus
- Transfer of pollen grains of one flower to the does not form a gaseous compound.
stigma of the same flower.
o Cross-pollination
- Transfer of pollen grains of one flower to the 13. SULFUR
stigma of another flower. The burning of coal and petroleum, volcanic eruptions,
and decay of organic matter are processes that release
sulfur into the atmosphere.
9. FOOD CHAIN
 Depicts the transfer of Sun’s energy through
many organisms
 Dependence of animals on plants and the
interdependence of animals upon each other for
food energy needs.
 14. THE LIVING PLANT: PARTS AND THEIR usually darker, heavier, or larger of the two
FUNCTIONS traits.

Parts of a flower: B. Law of Segregation

 Roots - The genes carried in the same place on
- Helps the growth of the plant. homologous chromosomes will separate when
- Roots hold the plant to the ground and absorbs gametes form. Then the egg and sperm cell unite
the water and mineral nutrients from the soil. to form a new offspring.
- They conduct water to the stem through the
xylem tubes. C. Law of Independent Assortment.
 Root hairs - The genes for one characteristic (alleles) are
- Absorbs most of the water that enters the plant. inherited independently of the genes form
- Not covered with cuticle and therefore, not another characteristic (second pair of alleles)
waterproof. except when gene linkage occurs (two genes
- Water can easily pass through their walls. located on the same chromosome). Genes on
 Stem separate chromosomes are inherited
- Holds the leaves up to the sunlight and supports independently.
the upper parts of the plant.
- Transports materials between roots and leaves. Basic Language of Genetics
 Xylem and Phloem o Humans have 23 chromosomes in each cell.
- Xylem is where water and dissolved mineral - Each person has one pair of sex chromosomes
nutrients move upward from the roots to the which determines the sex: XX for female and
leaves. XY for male.
- Phloem is where food materials move downward - The remaining 22 chromosomes are autosomes.
from the leaves to the roots. o Each pair of chromosomes is a homologous
- Both contain conducting tubes extending from pair.
the roots to the stems to the leaves. - For each 23 pairs in humans, one chromosome
- Water and dissolved substances reach the leaves from each pair is from the other and one from
due to a push from below or root pressure, and a the father.
pull from above related to the loss of water from o Chromosomes are made up of sub-units
the leaves. “Genes”.
- Phloem tubes extends from the roots to the - Individual genes code for various traits or
leaves. characteristics of all living things.
- Sugar produced from the leaves move downward o Alleles
to other parts of the plant through the phloem. - Pairs of genes that have the same position on
 Leaves each member of a pair of chromosomes, and
- Sites of food making in the plant. which can take an alternate form.
- Different structures in the leaf help carry out this - Allele codes for dominant traits are assigned
function. upper case letters, and recessive traits are
 Stomata assigned the same letter, but in lowercase form.
- Tiny openings on the surface of the leaf. o Phenotype (appearance)
- They allow entry and exit of gases such as - Dominant gene controls
carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor. o Homologous chromosomes
- Bearing genes for the same characters
 Xylem tubes
- Continues to the leaves for the transport of o Homozygous trait
water. - Identical pair of alleles, pure blood
o Heterozygous trait
- Mixed pair of alleles
o Hybrid
15. GENETICS AND HEREDITARY
- Organism carrying unlike genes for certain traits
o Mutation
Mendel’s law of genetics:
- Sudden appearance of a new trait or variation
A. Law of Dominance
which is inherited.
- Every organism receives a trait from both of
their parents. One trait may have dominance o Lethal
over the other and mask the recessive trait to - Deadly, can cause the death of an organism.
keep it from showing in the offspring. They are
 16. BEHAVIOUR OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Stimulus
- Anything in the environment which causes
living things to act.
- Both plants and animals respond to this.
- Plant responses are tropisms.
18. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Behaviors Organizing information based on similarities.
- Actions that animals take in response to their
environment. Binomial Nomenclature – Carl Linnaeus
Instinct - Aristotle used genus and species names with the
- Reflexes that are linked together in a more intention of creating a consistent international
complicated type of inborn behavior. language.

Habit
- Learned behavior

Insight learning
- Most complex form of learning

17. EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS

Jean Lamarck Theory:

- Organisms evolve in response to its environment
by acquiring a trait which would adapt them to 19. ECOLOGY
live in its changing environment. Study of interactions of organisms with their
environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
Charles Darwin Discovery:
- All living things have a common ancestry. Ecosystem – Environment and all organisms and all
- Species adapt to changes in their environment, things within it.
which results in biological diversity.
Biotic potential of a population
Alfred Russel Wallace Theory: - Maximum rate of growth that will occur under
“The theory of natural selection proposed that ideal conditions.
adaptations occur due to constantly changing
environment.” Carrying capacity of the environment
- Members of species have different traits which - Limits the size of a given population.
can be inherited. - Variables such as the change of seasons may
- All species produce more offspring that can cause fluctuations in population size due to
reproduce or survive. different capacities over time.
- Some individuals adapt to change, and they
survive and reproduce more successfully than Interactions
those who cannot adapt. - Competition for food, space, and other things
- The offspring of subsequent generations inherit limits population size.
adaptive characteristics. - Symbiosis is the close association of two
- Natural selection produces populations adapted species: Commensalism, mutualism, and
to their particular environment. parasitism.

Stanley Miller: Balanced ecosystem

- Proposed that each era is briefly marked by rapid - Recycles dead and used materials.
adaptive radiation normally followed by mass - Has an energy source
extinction that ended each era. - Producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic
- Life-supporting molecules arose under abiotic components
conditions
Succession
- Sequence of communities in an environment
evolving from simple to complex

Population
- Group of individuals belonging to the same
species which can interbreed and produce
offspring and occupying a defined area.

Population growth
- Rate of change in total population.
- Population change can be due to births, deaths,
immigration, and emigration.