Lecture 4

Cell Structure

BIOE112 / BIOL101- General Biology for Engineers / General Biology

Sr. Instr. Mustafa Çavuşoğlu

mcavusoglu@ciu.edu.tr
 Outline

1. Cell Theory

2. Prokaryotic Cells

3. Eukaryotic Cells

4. The Endomembrane System

5. Peroxisome and Vacuole

6. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: Cellular Generators

7. The Cytoskeleton

8. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

9. Cell-to-Cell Interactions
 1. Cell Theory

• Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke

• Cell theory is the unifying foundation of cell biology

• Cell Theory;

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells, and the life processes of
metabolism and heredity occur within these cells.

2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organization of all organisms.

3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.

 1. Cell Theory

• Cell size is limited

• Most cells are relatively small for reasons related to the diffusion of substances into and
out of cells.

• The rate of diffusion is affected by a number of variables;

• Surface area available for diffusion

• Temperature

• Concentration gradient

• Distance
 1. Cell Theory

• Surface area to volume ratio

• Organism made of many small cells has an advantage over an organism composed of fewer,
larger cells

• As a cell’s size increases, its volume increases much more rapidly than its surface area

• Because small cells have more surface area per unit of volume than large ones, control over
cell contents is more effective when cells are relatively small.

• Although most cells are small, some quite large cells do exist. These cells have apparently
overcome the surface area- to-volume problem by one or more adaptive mechanisms.
• Ex / Skeletal muscle cells and Neurons
 1. Cell Theory

• Microscope
• Microscopes allow visualization of cells and components

• Cells are less than 50 μm in diameter, so, to visualize cells we need the aid of technology.

• How do we study cells if they are too small to see?

• The key is to understand why we can’t see them. The reason we can’t see such small objects
is the limited resolution of the human eye.

• Resolution is the minimum distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two
separate points

• Objects must be 100 μm apart for naked eye to resolve them as two objects rather than one
 1. Cell Theory

• Types of microscopes

• Light microscope - operates with visible light, use two magnifying lenses to achieve
very high magnification and clarity.

• They can resolve structures that are separated by at least 200 nanometres (nm)
 1. Cell Theory

• Electron microscope - employing electron beams, has 1000 times the resolving
power of a light microscope. Resolve structures that are 0.2 nm apart

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

 1. Cell Theory

• Basic structural similarities in cell types;

• nucleoid or nucleus - Genetic material is located

• cytoplasm - A semifluid matrix that fills the interior of the cell

• ribosomes – Protein synthesis

• plasma membrane - encloses a cell and separates its contents from its surrounding
 2. Prokaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic Cells
• A prokaryote is a simple, single-celled
organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles.
• Consist of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma
membrane and are encased within a rigid cell
wall
• Example / Bacteria and Archaea
• Prokaryotes are very important in the ecology
of living organisms
• Smaller than Eukaryotes
 2. Prokaryotic Cells

Bacterial Photosynthesis

• The plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell carries

out some of the functions organelles perform in
eukaryotic cells.
• For example, cyanobacterium Prochloron
(photosynthetic bacteria )

• Membrane folds contain the bacterial pigments

connected with photosynthesis. In eukaryotic plant
cells, photosynthetic pigments are found in the inner
membrane of the chloroplast.
 2. Prokaryotic Cells

• Bacterial Cell Wall

• Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan, which consists of a carbohydrate matrix
(polymers of sugars) that is cross-linked by short polypeptide units.
• Protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake or loss of
water.
• The susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics often depends on the structure of their cell
walls.
• Some bacteria also secrete a jelly-like protective capsule of polysaccharide around
the cell.
• Archaea lack peptidoglycan (includes polysaccharides and proteins)
 2. Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryote movement by Flagella

• Some prokaryotes move by means of rotating flagella

• Flagella used in locomotion

• Prokaryotic flagella are protein fibers that extend out from the cell.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell
• far more complex than prokaryotic cells.
• The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell is compartmentalization.
• Achieved through use of membrane-bound organelles and endomembrane system

• The nucleus acts as the information centre

• The largest and most easily seen organelle within a eukaryotic cell is the nucleus

• The nucleus is the repository of the genetic information that enables the synthesis of nearly all
proteins of a living eukaryotic cell.

• Inside the nucleus, the DNA is wound tightly around proteins and packaged into compact units called
chromosomes.
• Many nuclei exhibit a dark-staining zone called the nucleolus, which is a region where intensive
synthesis of ribosomal RNA is taking place.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells
• Nuclear Envelope
• surface of the nucleus is bounded by two phospholipid bilayer membranes called NE.

• The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the cytoplasm’s interior membrane
system, called the endoplasmic reticulum

• Nuclear pores are found on the surface of the NE.

• They have a complex structure with a cytoplasmic face, a nuclear face, and a central ring
embedded in the membrane.

• The complex allows small molecules to diffuse freely between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm while
controlling the passage of proteins and RNA– protein complexes.

1. Proteins moving into the nucleus to be incorporated into nuclear structures or to catalyse
nuclear activities

2. RNA and RNA–protein complexes formed in the nucleus and exported to the cytoplasm.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

• The inner surface of the nuclear envelope is covered with a network of fibers that make
up the nuclear lamina.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

• So, nucleus consist of ;

• Nuclear envelope

• Nucleolus

• Nuclear pore

• Intermediate filament

https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/eukaryotic-cells/v/the-nucleus
 3. Eukaryotic Cells
• Chromatin
• In most prokaryotes, the DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, the DNA is
divided into multiple linear chromosomes.
• The DNA in these chromosomes is organized with proteins into a complex structure called chromatin.
• Extended form of chromosomes and regulates gene expression
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

• Nucleolus

• dark-staining, typically spherical body within the nucleus of a cell.

• responsible for the synthesize both small and large subunits of ribosomes. These
ribosomal subunits are ultimately transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm,
where they are assembled into ribosomes.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

• Ribosome

• Ribosomes are the cell’s protein synthesis

machinery

• Ribosomes are among the most complex

molecular assemblies found in cells.

• Consist of two subunits; Large and Small

which both contains rRNA and protein

• messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries

coding information from DNA, and transfer
RNA (tRNA), which carries amino acids.
 3. Eukaryotic Cells

• Ribosomes are found either free in the cytoplasm

or associated with internal membrane

• Free ribosomes synthesize proteins that are

found in the cytoplasm, nuclear proteins,
mitochondrial proteins, and proteins found in
other organelles.

• Membrane-associated ribosomes synthesize

membrane proteins, proteins found in the
endomembrane system, and proteins destined for
export from the cell.
 Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
• Nucleus: stores the genetic information. • Nucleoid: A central region of the cell that contains
• Nucleolus: Found inside of the nucleus, the nucleolus is its DNA.
the part of eukaryotic cells where ribosomal RNA is
produced. • Ribosome: protein synthesis.
• Plasma membrane: is a phospholipid bilayer that • Cell wall: provides structure and protection
surrounds the entire cell and encompasses the
organelles within. • Cell membrane: also known as the plasma
membrane, that separates the cell from the outside
• Cytoskeleton or cell wall: The cytoskeleton or cell wall environment.
provides structure, allows for cell movement, and plays a
role in cell division. • Capsule: helps the bacterium attach to surfaces.
• Ribosomes: protein synthesis. • Fimbriae: Fimbriae are thin, hair-like structures that
• Mitochondria: powerhouses of the cell, are responsible help with cellular attachment.
for energy production. • Pili: Pili are rod-shaped structures involved in
• Cytoplasm: region of the cell between the nuclear multiple roles, including attachment and DNA
envelope and plasma membrane. transfer.
• Cytosol: gel-like substance within the cell that contains • Flagella: Flagella are thin, tail-like structures that
the organelles. assist in movement.
• Endoplasmic reticulum: protein maturation and
transportation.
• Vesicles and vacuoles: involved in transportation and Ex/ Bacteria and archaea
storage.
Ex/ Animals, plants, fungi, algae and protozoans
 4. The Endomembrane System

• The endomembrane system (endo- = “within”) is a group of

membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together
to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins.

• Endomembrane system fills the cell, dividing it into

compartments, channelling the passage of molecules through the
interior of the cell, and providing surfaces for the synthesis of
lipids and some proteins

• The presence of these membranes in eukaryotic cells marks one

of the fundamental distinctions between eukaryotes and
prokaryotes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fcxc8Gv7NiU
 4. The Endomembrane System

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm,” and reticulum is Latin for “a little net.”
• The largest of the internal membranes
• ER is composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins

• Inner region of the ER called cisternal space or lumen

• Exterior region is the cytosol

• Two types of ER;

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

 4. The Endomembrane System

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – site of protein synthesis

• Gets its name from the bumpy ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface.

• The proteins synthesized on the surface of the RER are destined to be exported
from the cell

• The sequence of the protein being synthesized determines whether the ribosome
will become associated with the ER or remain a cytoplasmic ribosome.

• Newly synthesized proteins can be modified by the addition of short-chain

carbohydrates to form glycoproteins.

• If the modified proteins are not destined to stay in the ER, they will be packaged
into vesicles.

• ER also manufactures membranes by producing membrane proteins and

phospholipid molecules.
 4. The Endomembrane System

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

• The membranes of the SER contain many embedded enzymes

• Has no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface

• It has multiple functions;

• Synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones

• Detoxification of medications and poisons

• Storage of calcium ions

• The majority of membrane lipids are assembled in the SER and then sent to whatever
parts of the cell need membrane components.
 4. The Endomembrane System

• The ratio of SER to RER depends on a cell’s function.

• Cells that carry out extensive lipid synthesis, such as those in

the testes, intestine, and brain, have abundant SER.

• Cells that synthesize proteins that are secreted, such as anti-

bodies, have much more extensive RER.

• Liver cells have extensive SER as well as enzymes that can

process a variety of substances by chemically modifying
them.
 4. The Endomembrane System

• Golgi Apparatus – post office

• Sorts and packages proteins

• Flattened stacks of membranes, often interconnected with one

another, form a complex

• Named after discovery by physician Camillo Golgi in 19th-

century.

• Functions in the;
• Collection
• Packaging
• Distribution
• Golgi body has a front and a back;
• Front or receiving end is called the cis face
• Back or discharging end, called the trans face
 4. The Endomembrane System

• The newly formed glycoproteins and glycolipids collect at the ends of the Golgi bodies in flattened,
stacked membrane folds called cisternae

• Vesicles containing the glycoprotein and glycolipid molecules then diffuse to other locations in the
cell, distributing the newly synthesized molecules to their destinations.
 4. The Endomembrane System

• Lysosome
• The lysosome is an organelle that contains digestive enzymes and acts as the organelle
recycling facility.

• It breaks down old and unnecessary structures so their molecules can be reused.

• It arise from the Golgi apparatus.

• Hydrolytic enzyme catalyse the rapid breakdown;

• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
 4. The Endomembrane System

• Digestive enzymes in the lysosome are optimally active at acid pH.

• Lysosomes are activated by fusing with a food vesicle produced by phagocytosis or by fusing with
an old or worn-out organelle

• The fusion event activates proton pumps in the lysosomal membrane, resulting in a lower internal
pH.

• As the interior pH falls, digestive enzymes contained in the lysosome is activated.

• This leads to the degradation of macromolecules in the food vesicle or the destruction of the old
organelle.
 4. The Endomembrane System

• A number of human genetic disorders, affect lysosomes.

• For example - the genetic abnormality called Tay–Sachs disease is caused by the
loss of function of a single lysosomal enzyme. This enzyme is necessary to break
down a membrane glycolipid found in nerve cells.

• Causses - seizures and muscle rigidity

 5. Peroxisome and Vacuole

• Peroxisome
• An important type of microbody which contains enzymes
involved in the oxidation of fatty acids.
• Peroxisomal proteins are synthesized by cytoplasmic
ribosomes
• Peroxisomes get their name from the hydrogen peroxide
produced as a by-product of the activities of oxidative
enzymes.
• Hydrogen peroxide is dangerous to cells because of its
violent chemical reactivity
• However, peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase,
which breaks down hydrogen peroxide into its harmless
constituents—water and oxygen
 5. Peroxisome and Vacuole

• Vacuole

• Plant cells have specialized membrane-bounded structures

called vacuoles.

• Plants use vacuoles for storage and water balance

• The large central vacuole stores water and wastes, isolates

hazardous materials, and has enzymes that can break down
macromolecules and cellular components, like those of a
lysosome.

• The membrane surrounding the vacuole is called the

tonoplast
 6. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
Cellular Generators
• Mitochondria
• Tubular shaped organelle in eukaryotic cells.
• Generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's
biochemical reaction from sugar.
• Energy produced is stored in a small molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
• Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes: a smooth outer
mem- brane, and an inner folded membrane with numerous
contiguous layers called cristae

• The cristae partition the mitochondrion into two compartments:

• a matrix, lying inside the inner membrane

• an outer compartment, or intermembrane space, lying between the two

mitochondrial membranes.
 6. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
Cellular Generators
• Mitochondria have their own DNA that are inherited from the mother and produce proteins essential to the
mitochondrion’s role in oxidative metabolism.

• How mitochondria produce energy?

• Mitochondria contain two major membranes. The outer mitochondrial membrane fully surrounds the inner
membrane, with a small intermembrane space in between.

• The outer membrane has many protein-based pores.

• In contrast, the inner membrane has much more restricted permeability and loaded with proteins involved in
electron transport and ATP synthesis

• Inner membrane surrounds the mitochondrial matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces the electrons that
travel from one protein complex to the next in the inner membrane.

• During electron transport, the participating protein complexes push protons from the matrix out to the
intermembrane space. This creates a concentration gradient of protons that another protein complex, called ATP
synthase, uses to power synthesis of the energy carrier molecule ATP
 6. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
Cellular Generators
• Chloroplast

• Chloroplasts use light to generate ATP and sugars

• Advantages of having chloroplast;

• They can manufacture their own food.

• Contains the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that gives most

plants their green colour.

• chloroplast, like the mitochondrion, is surrounded by two membranes

• Chloroplasts have closed compartments of stacked membranes

called grana, which lie inside the inner membrane.

• Each granum may contain from a few to several dozen disk- shaped
structures called thylakoids

• Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain DNA

 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Cytoskeleton is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein

filaments present in the cytoplasm

• It is crisscross the cell by a network of protein fibers.

• And supports the shape of the cell and anchors organelles to fixed
locations.

• Individual fibers consist of polymers of identical protein subunits that

attract one another and spontaneously assemble into long chains.

• Functions;
• Structural support
• Movement

• Transport
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Three types of fibers compose the cytoskeleton

• Actin filaments (microfilaments)

• Microtubules

• Intermediate filaments
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Actin filaments

• long fibers about 7 nm in diameter

• Actin filaments, also called microfilament

• They made of two strands of the globular protein actin twisted together.

• Actin filaments exhibit polarity, they have plus (+) and minus (–) ends

• Actin filaments in many cells are concentrated below the plasma membrane in bundles known
as stress fibers, which may have a contractile function.
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Microtubules

• Microtubules, the largest of the cytoskeletal elements

• They are hollow tubes about 25 nm in diameter

• Each composed of a ring of 13 protein protofilaments

• The protofilaments are arrayed side by side around a central core, giving the microtubule its
characteristic tube shape

• Facilitates cellular movement, organize the cytoplasm and are responsible for moving
materials within the cell itself
 7. The Cytoskeleton
• Intermediate filaments

• The most durable element of the cytoskeleton

• Characteristically 8 to 10 nm in diameter

• Once formed, intermediate filaments are stable and usually do not

break down.

• Constitute of mixed group of cytoskeletal fibers;

• Vimentin - provides structural stability for many kinds of cell

• Keratin - found in epithelial cells and associated structures such as hair

and fingernails.

• Neurofilaments - intermediate filaments of nerve cells

• Desmin filaments - found specifically in muscle cells

• Lamins - found in all cell types, form a meshwork that reinforces the
inside of the nuclear membrane
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Centriole

• Centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells.

• The region surrounding the pair known as a centrosome

• Centrosomes are microtubule organizing centres

• Regulates cell motility, adhesion and polarity in interphase, and facilitates the organization of
the spindle poles during mitosis
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Cell movement with Cytoskeleton

• Cytoskeleton helps move materials within cells

• Actin filaments and microtubules often orchestrate their activities to affect cellular processes

• Muscle cells also use actin filaments, which slide along filaments of the motor protein myosin
when a muscle contracts.

• Not only is the cytoskeleton responsible for the cell’s shape and movement, but it also provides
a scaffold that holds certain enzymes and other macromolecules in defined areas of the cyto-
plasm
 7. The Cytoskeleton

• Molecular motors

• All eukaryotic cells must move materials from one place to another in
the cytoplasm.
• Cells use channels of the endoplasmic reticulum as an intracellular
highway.
• Material can also be moved using vesicles loaded with cargo that can
move along the cytoskeleton like a railroad track.

• Four components are required to move material along microtubules:

• a vesicle or organelle that is to be transported
• a motor protein that provides the energy-driven motion
• a connector molecule that connects the vesicle to the motor molecule

• microtubules on which the vesicle will ride like a train on a rail

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7AQVbrmzFw
 8. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

• Essentially all cell motion is tied to the movement of actin filaments, microtubules, or both

• Intermediate filaments act as intracellular tendons, preventing excessive stretching of cells

• Actin filaments play a major role in determining the shape of cells and allow cells to crawl

• Crawling is a significant cellular phenomenon, essential to such diverse processes as inflammation,

clotting, wound healing, and the spread of cancer.
• Example - White blood cells in particular exhibit this ability. Produced in the bone marrow, these cells are released into the
circulatory system and then eventually crawl out of venules and into the tissues to destroy potential pathogens
 8. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

• Cell Crawl
• At the leading edge of a crawling cell, actin filaments rapidly polymerize, and their extension
forces the edge of the cell forward
• Overall forward movement of the cell is then achieved through the action of the protein myosin

• Myosin motors along the actin filaments contract, pulling the contents of the cell toward the
newly extended front edge.
• Cells crawl when these steps occur continuously, with a leading edge extending and stabilizing,
and then motors contracting to pull the remaining cell contents along

• Receptors on the cell surface can detect molecules outside the cell and stimulate extension in
specific directions, allowing cells to move toward particular targets.
8. Extracellular Structures and Cell
Movement
• Plant cell walls

• Provides protection and support

• In plants, the cell walls are composed of fibers of the

polysaccharide cellulose, whereas in fungi, the cell walls
are composed of chitin.

• Between the walls of adjacent cells a sticky substance,

called the middle lamella, glues the cells together
 8. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

• Extracellular Matrix

• Animal cells lack of the cell walls, instead, they secrete an

elaborate mixture of glycoproteins into the space around
them, forming ECM.

• ECM is a three-dimensional network consisting

of extracellular macromolecules and minerals

• Consist of;

• Collagen

• Elastin

• Proteoglycan
 8. Extracellular Structures and Cell Movement

• Supports animal cells strength and resilience.

• The ECM of some cells is attached to the plasma membrane by a third kind of glycoprotein,
fibronectin

• Fibronectin molecules bind not only to ECM glycoproteins but also to proteins called integrins.

• Linking ECM and cytoskeleton, integrins allow the ECM to influence cell behaviour in important
ways.

• They can alter gene expression and cell migration patterns by a combination of mechanical and
chemical signalling pathways.

• ECM can help coordinate the behaviour of all the cells in a particular tissue
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• In multicellular organisms, not only must cells be able to communicate with one another, they must
also be organized in specific ways.

• These interactions allow cells to communicate with each other in response to changes in their
microenvironment

• How do cells sense where they are? How do they “know” which type of tissue they belong
to?
• Tissue organization requires that cells have both identity and specific kinds of cell-to-cell connections
• As an organism develops, the cells acquire their identities by carefully controlling the expression of those
genes turning on the specific set of genes that encode the functions of each cell type.
• Surface proteins give cells identity.
• When cells make contact, they “read” each other’s cell surface markers and react accordingly.

• Most tissue-specific cell surface markers are glycolipids

 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Cell Junctions

• Cells in a multicellular organism are in physical contact with other cells

• These cells and the mass of other cells clustered around them form long-lasting or permanent
connections called cell junctions

• These junctions are involved in the communication and organization of cells within a particular tissue

• Tissue’s proper functioning often depends critically on how the individual cells are arranged within it

• Cell junctions are divided into three categories, based on their functions:

• Tight Junctions

• Anchoring Junctions

• Communicating Junctions (GAP)

 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Tight Junctions

• Multi-protein complexes that hold cells of a same tissue

together and prevent movement of water and water-soluble
molecules between cells

• Basically connects the cells like a glue.

• Connects the plasma membranes of adjacent cells in a sheet

• This sheet of cells acts as a wall within the organ, keeping

molecules on one side or the other

• Diffusion Barrier

• The junctions between neighbouring cells are so securely

attached that there is no space between them for leakage
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Tight junctions are made up of many different proteins, main transmembrane proteins
are occluding and claudin

• Creating sheet of cells;

• Sheet of cells acts as a wall within the organ, keeping molecules on one side or the other

• One surface of the sheet faces the inside of the tract, and the other faces the extracellular
space, where blood vessels are located
• The tight junctions between the cells lining the digestive tract also partition the plasma mem-
branes of these cells into separate compartment

• Transport proteins in the membrane facing the inside of the tract carry nutrients from that side
to the cytoplasm of the cells
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Example of T. Junctions;

• Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

• GI Tract
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Anchoring Junctions

• Mechanically attach the cytoskeleton of a cell to the cytoskeletons of

other cells or to the extracellular matrix

• These junctions are most common in tissues subject to mechanical

stress, such as muscle and skin epithelium.

• Their function is to give shape and tension to cells and tissues and
they are also the site of cell-cell signalling.

• Two types ;
i. Adherence Junctions

ii. Desmosomes
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

i. Adherens Junctions

• Anchoring junctions called adherens junctions connect the actin filaments of one cell with
those of neighbouring cells or with the extracellular matrix

• Adjacent epithelial cells are connected by adherens junctions on their lateral membranes.

• They are located just below tight junctions.

• Adherens junctions are made of cell adhesion molecules from the cadherin family

• More specific for shearing forces and stretch

• Example/ GI Tract, Respiratory Tract, Skin, Bladder and Blood Vessels

 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

ii. Desmosomes

• Desmosomes also provide strength and durability to cells and tissues and are located just
below adherens junctions

• They are made of two specialized cadherins, desmoglein and desmocollin

• Strongest interaction between cells.

• Can survive against the high tensile stretch and high shearing forces.

• Example/ Cardiac tissue and Skin

 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Gap Junctions

• Many cells communicate with adjacent cells through direct

connections called communicating junctions.

• In these junctions, a chemical or electrical signal passes directly

from one cell to an adjacent one

• Communication junctions are called Gap Junctions (in animals)

and Plasmodesmata (in plants)

• G. Junctions composed of structures called connexons,

complexes of six identical transmembrane proteins

• Connexon are arranged in a circle to create a channel through the

plasma membrane
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Gap junctions provide passageways large enough to per- mit small substances, such as simple sugars
and amino acids

• Gap junction channels are dynamic structures that can open or close in response to a variety of factors,
including Ca2+ and H+ ions

• When a cell is damaged, its plasma membrane often becomes leaky. Ions in high concentrations outside
the cell, such as Ca2+, flow into the damaged cell and close its gap junction channels

• So, Gap junctions are the main site of cell-cell signalling or communication that allow small molecules to
diffuse between adjacent cells.

• Example/ Cardiac tissue – Intercalated Discs, Smooth muscles – GI Tract/Urinal Tract, Neurons- to
communicate
 9. Cell to Cell Interactions

• Plasmodesmata (in plants)

• So its communication junctions in plants.

• In plants, cell walls separate every cell from all others, cell–cell junctions occur
only at holes or gaps in the wall

• Plasmodesmata are lined with plasma membrane and contain a central tubule
that connects the endoplasmic reticulum of the two cells

• Allows the trafficking of molecules between cells

• Plays important roles during plant development and in the orchestration of

cellular and systemic signalling responses during interactions