Digital Control (Unit-1)

DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
University of Tikrit – College of Petroleum and Minerals Engineering

Department of Petroleum Systems Control Engineering
3th class Sem.1 2018/2019
Introduction to control system
A Control system is a system that may include electronic and mechanical components,
where some type of machine intelligence controls a physical process. The mechanical
parts of the system include the engine, transmission, wheels, and so on.
Examples include automatic pilot and automatic washer, copying machines, soft-drink
machines, robots, and industrial process controllers.
A general block diagram that describe control system shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: A block diagram of a control system.

The set point is the input to the controller, which is a signal representing the desired
system output. The controller represents the electronic intelligence of the control
system. The actuator generates physical movement, typically a motor. The actuator
gets its instructions directly from the controller, it is also called the final control
element. The process is the physical process that is being controlled. The controlled
variable is the ultimate output of the process; the actual parameter of the process that
is being controlled.
For example, if the actuator is electrical heating element then the process is heating and
the control variable is the temperature.
Control systems can be classified in several ways:

A regulator system automatically maintains a parameter at (or near) a specified
value. An example of this is a home heating system.
A follow-up system causes an output to follow a set path that has been specified in
advance. An example is an industrial robot moving parts from place to place.
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An event control system controls a sequential series of events. An example is a

washing machine cycling through a series of programmed steps.
The natural control systems have existed since the beginning of life, regulates the
human body temperature.
Categories of control systems

There are two general categories of control systems: open loop and closed loop. In
open-loop control, the controller sends a measured signal, specifying the desired action,
to the actuator, which specific the desired action. Open loop control is not self-
correcting since it does not use feedback. Figure 2, shows the Open-loop control
system. Open-loop control systems are appropriate in applications where the actions of
the actuator on the process are very repeatable and reliable.
Figure 2: Open-loop control system (no feedback)
An example of open-loop CS is the motor that rotates the arm at 5 degrees/second

(deg/s) at the rated voltage and the controller need to move the arm from 0° to 30°.
Depending on the characteristics of the process, the controller sends a 6-second power
pulse to the motor. If the motor is acting properly, it will rotate exactly 30° in the 6
seconds and stop. On particularly cold days, there may be more internal friction, and
the motor rotates only 25° in the 6 seconds. So, the error is a 5°. The controller has no
way of knowing of the error and does nothing to correct it.
(a) Block diagram
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(b) A simple open-loop position system

Figure 3: open-loop CS example
Closed-loop control: A control system that uses feedback by using a sensor. A

sensor continually monitors the output of the system and sends a signal to the
controller, which makes adjustments to keep the output within specification, figure 4.
Figure 4: Closed-loop control diagram

The sensor samples the system output that convert measurements into electric signal
that passes to the controller. Then the controller adjusts to keep output.
The signal from the controller to the actuator is the forward path, and the signal from
the sensor to the controller is the feedback. The feedback signal is subtracted from
the set point at the comparator to get the system error. The controller is working to
minimize this error signal. A zero error means that the output is exactly what the set
point says it should be.
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The self-correcting features of closed-loop CS makes it preferable over the open-loop
control in many applications, despite the additional hardware required, since it
provides reliable.
Comparison between open-loop and closed-loop control system

Open-loop Closed-loop
1 Simplest and economical Somewhat complicated and therefore
costly
2 Less stability problem May become unstable and generate
oscillations
3 Less accurate control More accurate control
4 Affected by disturbances Almost independent of disturbances
5 Convenient when the output is Cannot be installed if the output is
difficult not amenable to measurement
to measure
Advantages of digital control in comparing with analog control

1) Accuracy: Digital signals are represented in terms of zeros and ones. This
involves a very small error as compared to analog signals.
2) Implementation errors. Digital processing of control signals involves
addition and multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that
result from digital representation and arithmetic are negligible.
3) Flexibility. An analog controller is difficult to modify or redesign once
implemented in hardware. A digital controller is implemented in firmware
or software and its modification is possible without a complete
replacement of the original controller. Furthermore, the structure of the
digital controller need not follow one of the simple forms that are typically
used in analog control.
4) Speed. Increasing in computer processing speed has made it possible to
sample and process control signals at very high speeds. Because the
interval between samples, the sampling period, can be made very small,
digital controllers achieve performance that is essentially the same as that
based on continuous monitoring of the controlled variable.
5) Cost. Advances in very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology have
made it possible to manufacture better, faster, and more reliable integrated
circuits and to offer them to the consumer at a lower price. This has made
the use of digital controllers more economical even for small, low-cost
applications
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Transfer Functions
The control system is a collection of components and circuits connected together to
perform a useful function. Each component in the system converts energy from one
form to another; for example, we might think of a temperature sensor as converting
degrees to volts or a motor as converting volts to revolutions per minute.
A transfer function (TF) is a mathematical relationship between the input and output
of a control system component. It is expressed as
Technically, the transfer function must describe both the time-dependent and the
steady-state characteristics of a component. For example, a motor may have an initial
surge of current that levels off at a lower steady-state value. Currently, we will
consider only steady-state values for the transfer function, which is sometimes called
simply the gain, expressed as
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑇𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Example:
Find the TF of a potentiometer, where 0° of rotation yields 0 V and 300° yields 10 V?
SOLUTION
The transfer function is output divided by input.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 10
𝑇𝐹 = = = 0.33 𝑉/𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 300
Example:
For a temperature-measuring sensor, the input is temperature, and the output is
voltage. The sensor transfer function is given as 0.01 V/deg. Find the sensor output
voltage if the temperature is 600°F?
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝐹 = => 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 𝑇𝐹 = 600 𝑋 0.01 = 0.6 𝑉
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
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The transfer function of a component is an extremely useful number. It allows you to

calculate the output of a component if you know the input.
When we have series of components and the output of one component becomes the
input to the next and each component has its own transfer function, as shown in figure
2,
We can calculate the total transfer function (TFtot), as follow:

𝑇𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = system gain = TF1 x TF2 x TF3
TF1, TF2 . . . = individual transfer functions
TF can be used to analyze an entire system components.
Example
Consider the system consists of an electric motor driving a gear train, which is driving
a winch. The motor turns at 100 rpmm for each volt (Vm) supplied; the output shaft of
the gear train rotates at one-half of the motor speed; the winch (with a 3-inch shaft
circumference) converts the rotary motion (rpmw) to linear speed.
Solution
The individual transfer functions are given as follows:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟: 𝑇𝐹𝑚 = = = 100 𝑟𝑝𝑚/𝑉
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 1 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟: 𝑇𝐹𝑔 = = = 0.5 rpm/rpm
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 2 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 3 𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ: 𝑇𝐹𝑤 = = = 3 𝑖𝑛/𝑚𝑖𝑛/𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Control systems are classified as analog or digital. In an analog control system, the
controller uses traditional analog electronic circuits such as linear amplifiers. In a
digital control system, the controller uses a digital circuit, usually a computer.
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Control systems are classified by application. Process control usually refers to an

industrial process being electronically controlled for the purpose of maintaining a
uniform correct output. Motion control refers to a system wherein things move. A
servomechanism is a feedback control system that provides remote control motion of
some object, such as a robot arm or a radar antenna. A numerical control (NC)
control system directs a machine tool, such as a lathe, to machine a part automatically.
General requirements of control system
1. A control system must be stable.
2. A control system must have a reasonable relative stability that is, the speed of
response must be reasonably fast and this response must show reasonable damping.
3. A control system must be capable of reducing errors to zero or to some small tolerable
value
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Sampling Theory
A signal is a set of data or information, e.g telephone or TV signal. The signals are
divided into analog and digital, each of them is represented as continues-time and
discrete-time signals. .
Continuous-time signal: A signal defined over a continuous range of time (a
continuous range of values, at every instant of time t.)
Discrete-time signal: A signal can be defined only at discrete instants of time (a
finite number of distinct values). , it can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time
signal.
Continuous-time signal Discrete-

time signal
The signals in the real world are "analog" signals. An analog signal is a continuous
signal that contains time-varying quantities. An analog signal can be used to measure
changes in some physical phenomena such as light, sound, pressure, or temperature.
The transmission process of digital signal is easy in digital communication systems.
While analogue signals (like Audio and video signals) cannot process or transmit
directly unless making prior treatment to convert continues-time signals to discrete-
time signals. To process these signals using digital electronics such as computers, it
must convert them to "digital" form. To convert a signal from continuous time to
discrete time, the sampling process is used.
The Sampling is the process by which continuous time signals are converted to discrete
time signals. Each measurement is referred to as a sample. The value of the signal is
measured at certain uniform intervals in time called sampling periodic time (TS) in
second, the following figure.
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Figure: Continues signal with its discrete signal
The sample rate is the number of times per second a controller reads in sensor data and
produces a new output value
The Nyquist Sampling Theorem explains the relationship between the sample rate and
the frequency of the measured signal. The sample rate fs must be at least twice the
bandwidth of the signal 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum frequency component if the
analog signal to be sampled. Half of the sampling frequency (𝑓𝑠 /2) is called Nyquist
frequency or folding frequency. fS = (1/TS), in
• Nyquist rate = 2 fmax
• Nyquist frequency = fs/2.
Figure: Sampling with different sample rates
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The value of the signal is measured at certain uniform intervals in time called periodic
time (TS).
The sampling frequency (fS) = (1/TS).

Relationship between 𝑋[𝑛]and 𝑋(𝑡) is:
𝑿[𝒏] = 𝑿(𝒏𝑻𝑺 ), 𝑛 = . . . −1, 0, 1, 2
TS is the sampling period in second
FS = 1/T is the sampling frequency in Hz
We use [.] for discrete-time and (.) for continuous time signals.
Advantages of sampling
1) Multiple use of expensive equipment (multiplexing)
a) Digital computers.
b) Data transfer channel.
2) Data are available for a particular time instants only.
- Silicon controlled rectifier.
3) Data can be modified at a particular time.
- Stepping motor.
- Optical position sensor.
4) Data are materially discrete.
- Better sensivity behavior.
- Better reliability.
- No drift )‫(انحراف‬.
- Noise reduction.
- Less hardware cost.
- Less software maintenance cost
5) Samplers is introduced to improve the dynamic behavior of the control loop.
6) Signal can be stored over longer time span.
Drawback of sampling:
1) After sampling, there is no signal between samples—all the information that
existed between the samples in the original signal is irretrievably lost in the
sampling process.
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2) Lose some information during sampling that cannot recover it.
3) May getting wrong information about the signal. The person receiving these
samples, without any previous knowledge of the original signal, may get a signal
has quite a different form
Converting between analog signals and discrete signals
Sampling is done by using an analog to digital (A/D) converter (also called an

encoder), which is a device that converts an analog signal into a digital signal. A digital-
to-analog (D/A) converter, called a decoder, is a device that converts a digital signal
into an analog signal.
For example, a sampled signal one could fit infinite continuous signals through the
samples as shown in the following figure 8.
Figure 8: Different analog signals map to same sequence

What sample rate should we use? How many samples are necessary to ensure
preserving the information contained in the signal?
If the signal contains high frequency components, we will need to sample at a higher
rate to avoid losing information that is in the signal.
The Nyquist sampling theorem provides a prescription for the nominal sampling
interval required to avoid aliasing. It may be stated simply as follows:
Aliasing
When the signal is converted back into a continuous time signal, it will exhibit a
phenomenon called aliasing. Aliasing is an effect that causes different signals to
become indistinguishable when sampled. Frequencies that are too high to be sampled
are folded onto lower frequencies. We cannot distinguish them based on their samples
alone.
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Aliasing occurs when a signal is not sampled at a high enough frequency to create an
accurate representation. In addition, some of the frequencies in the original signal may
be lost in the reconstructed signal because signal frequencies can overlap if the
sampling frequency is too low. Frequencies "fold" around half the sampling
frequency - which is why this frequency is often referred to as the folding frequency
Sometimes the highest frequency components of a signal are simply noise, or do not
contain useful information. To prevent aliasing of these frequencies, we can filter out
these components before sampling the signal. Because we are filtering out high
frequency components and letting lower frequency components through, this is known
as low-pass filtering.
Improperly sampled signals will have other sine wave components. Correcting for
aliasing is called anti-aliasing
Figure: Example of different sampled periodic

The errors caused by aliasing can be very severe if a substantial quantity of high-
frequency components is contained in the signal to be sampled. To minimize this error,
the sampling operation is preceded by a low-pass anti-aliasing filter that will remove
all spectral content above the half-sampling frequency (𝜋=Ts ).
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Samples Reconstruction
The reconstruction process begins by taking a sampled signal, which will be in
discrete time, and performing a few operations in order to convert them into
continuous-time and into an exact copy of the original signal.
The sequence of digital values is converted into a series of impulses at discrete time
intervals before being reconstructed into a continuous-time signal.
The signal can be fully reconstructed if there are no overlaps in the frequency domain.
If the sampling frequency is at least twice the bandwidth B, then the signal can be
reconstructed without a problem
(no overlap). If the sampling frequency is too low then information will be lost
(overlap).
Figure 7: Sampling with wrong sampling rates
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Z - Transform
Introduction
The z-transform is a very important tool in describing and analyzing digital systems. Z-
transform is a transform technique used for discrete time signals and systems. It is a
powerful method for solving difference equations.
The Z-transform is simply a power series representation of a discrete-time sequence.
For example, if we have the sequence X[0]; X[1]; X[2]; X[3] the Z-transform simply
multiplies each coefficient in the sequence by a power of z corresponding to its index.
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑋[0] + 𝑋[1]𝑍 −1 + 𝑋[2]𝑍 −2 + 𝑋[3]𝑍 −3
The development and extensive applications of the Z-transform are much enhanced as
a result of the use of digital computers.
The differences between Laplace transform and z-transform are following:
Laplace transform z-transform

1 The Laplace transform definition The z-transform definition involves
involves an integral a summation
2 Applying the Laplace transform to The z-transform converts certain
certain ordinary differential difference equations to algebraic
equations turns them into simpler equations
(algebraic) equations
3 Use of the Laplace transform gives Use of the z-transform gives rise to
rise to the basic concept of the the concept of the transfer function
transfer function of a continuous (or of discrete (or digital) systems.
analog) system.
Difference Equations
Difference equations arise in problems where the independent variable, usually time, is
assumed to have a discrete set of possible values.
The nonlinear difference equation.
with
forcing function u(k) is said to be of order n because the difference between the highest
and lowest time arguments of y(.) and u(.) is n. we will deal with in this text are almost
exclusively linear equations and are of the form. If the forcing function u(k) is equal to
zero, the equation is said to be homogeneous.
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Example
Z - Transform Definitions
Given a finite length signal X[n], the z-transform of a sequence is defined as:
∞
𝑋(𝑍) = ∑ 𝑋[𝑛] 𝑍 −𝑛 . .. (1)

𝑛=−∞
Where z is a complex variable, 𝑧 −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Sometimes this equations is one-sided z-transform of a function x[n] as:

X ( z )   x ( n) z  n
n 0
Which is known as the unilateral z-transform.
X(z) is simply a polynomial of degree n in the variable z-1.
Note: The Laplace transform of a function f(t):


F ( s)   f (t )e  st dt
0
Definition:
Causal Signals: A sequence x[n] is a causal sequence if x[n] = 0 for n < 0.
Note: The notation Z{X[n]} =X(z) to mean that the z-transform of the sequence {X[n]}
is X(z).
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The mapping between a sequence and its z-transform is denoted by:
Example 1: find the z-transform for the sequence

∞
{{𝑋[𝑛]} 𝑛=0 ={1, 1, 3, 0, 4, 2}?
Solution: X(z) = 1 + 𝑋(𝑧) = 1 + 𝑧 −1 + 3𝑧 −2 + 4𝑧 −4 + 2𝑧 −5
Example 2: Find the z-transform of the sequence {x(n) = {5, 0, 2,0, 1, 4, 0, 3, 0,0, …}?
Solution:
X(z) = 𝑋(𝑧) = 5 + 2𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −4 + 4𝑧 −5 + 3𝑧 −7
Example 3: From X[n] = 2δ[n] + 3δ[n – 1] + 5δ[n – 2] + 2δ[n – 3] ,find the z-transform?
Solution 𝑋(𝑧) = 2 + 3𝑧 −1 + 5𝑧 −2 + 2𝑧 −3
Example 4: From 𝑋(𝑧) = 4 − 5𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3 − 2𝑧 4 ,find the X[n] sequence?

Solution: X[n] = 4δ[n] – 5δ [n – 2] + δ[n – 3] – 2δ[n – 4]
The z-transform is equivalent to the DTFT, the substituting z=ej will reduce the
z-transform to DTFT. In other words, to convert from the Z-transform to the DTFT,
we need to evaluate the Z-transform around the unit circle.
Z-Plane:
The Z-plane is a complex plane with an imaginary and real axis referring to the complex
valued variable z. The position on the complex plane is given by rejw, and the angle
from the positive, real axis around the plane is denoted by 𝜔 .
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Figure: z-plane
As with the Laplace transform, the z-transform of a signal has associated with it both
an algebraic expression and a range of values of z, referred to as the region of
convergence (ROC), for which this expression is valid.
Z-Transform of Common Sequences
A discrete time signal consists of a sequence of numbers denoted by Xn, X(n), or X(nT).
The frequently use signal are:
1. The unit impulse, also called Dirac delta function, sequence is denoted by δ(n),
figure 1, and defined by:
1 𝑛=0
𝛿(𝑛) = {
0 𝑛≠0
Then only the n = 0 term in the sum is non
zero. Figure
1
The z-transform of the unit pulse, 𝛿(𝑛) = 1.
∞
𝑍 { 𝛿(𝑛𝑇)} = ∑ 𝛿(𝑛𝑇) 𝑍 −1 = 𝑍 0 = 1
𝑁=0
For 𝛿𝑛−𝑚 where m positive integer, the z- transform

1 𝑛=𝑚
𝛿𝑛−𝑚 = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Z{𝛿𝑛−𝑚 } = 𝑧 −𝑚 m = 0,1,2,3 . ..
1 𝑛=3
Example 5: if we have 𝛿𝑛−3 that means 𝛿𝑛−3 = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
So, we obtain 𝛿𝑛−3 = 0 + 0𝑧 −1 + 0𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3 + 0𝑧 −4 + . .. = 𝑧 −3
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2. The unit step sequence
The unit step is defined by
1 𝑛≥0
𝑢(𝑛) = {
0 𝑛<0
The z-transform
∞
𝑍{𝑢(𝑛)} = 𝑢(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑢(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛

𝑛=0
= 1 + 1𝑧 −1 + 1𝑧 −2 + 1𝑧 −3 + 1𝑧 −4 + . . . + 1𝑧 −𝑛 + ⋯
Multiplying both sides of this last equation by z results in
1 𝑧
𝑍{𝑢𝑛 } = =  |𝑧 −1 | < 1
1−𝑧 −1 𝑧−1
3. Sampled exponential
𝑎𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0
It is defined by 𝑋(𝑛) = {
0 , 𝑘<0
Sampled exponential
The z-transform of the sampled exponential signal is

1 𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑎 = 𝑧−𝑎
1 − (𝑧)
Where a=1, it is equal to unit step.
Discrete ramp sequence:

The discrete ramp sequence is defined as
𝑛𝑇 𝑛≥0
𝑋(𝑛𝑇) = {
0 𝑛<0
Then 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑛= 0 𝑛𝑇 𝑧
−𝑛
= 𝑇 ∑ 𝑛 𝑧 −1
𝑛=0
𝑑 𝑑
Since 𝑛𝑧 −𝑛 = −𝑧 (𝑧 −𝑛 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋(𝑧) = −𝑇𝑧 (∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
−𝑛
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
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𝑧
Since ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧
−𝑛
= (𝑧−1)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
4. Discrete cosine sequence

It is defined as
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛𝑇 + ∅) 𝑛≥0
𝑋(𝑛𝑇) = {
0 𝑛<0
The first step is the choice of the alternative

representation of cosine function using Euler
identity:
Then
It is defined by
𝑎𝑛 𝑛≥0
𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) = {
0 𝑛≠0
Plugging into the definition of the z-transform
𝑋(𝑧) = 1 + 𝑎 𝑧 −1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 −2 + 𝑎3 𝑧 −3 + 𝑎4 𝑧 −4 + . . . + 𝑎2 𝑧 −𝑛 + ⋯
This sum can be written as,
1
𝑋(𝑧) =
1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1
Example 6: Find the z-transform of the following causal sequences
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Example7: Find the z-transform of the sequence – 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1]?
Solution:
This geometric series converges when |z| < a:
The Z-Transforms of common sequences are shown in table 1.
Table 1:
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Poles and zeros representation.
Properties of Z - transform
1. Linearity [17]
For two sequences and their associated z-transforms and ROC’s, the linearity property
states:
𝑍(𝑎𝑋1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝑛)) = 𝑎𝑍(𝑋1 (𝑛) + 𝑋2 (𝑛))

Where a and b are constants.
The ROC contains 𝑅𝑥1 ∩ 𝑅𝑥2
Example 10: Find the Z-transform of 𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] − (0.5)𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)?
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4.2 Time Shifting

𝑍(𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑚]) = 𝑧 −𝑚 𝑋(𝑧)
ROC = Rx (except for the possible addition or deletion of z = 0 or z = 1)
(The ROC may change by the possible addition or deletion of z = 0 or z = 1).
Example: shifted exponential sequence

Consider the z-transform
From the ROC, this is a right-sided sequence. Rewriting,
The term in brackets corresponds to an exponential sequence (1/4)nu[n]. The factor z−1
shifts this sequence one sample to the right. The inverse z-transform is therefore
Note that this result could also have been easily obtained using a partial fraction
expansion.
Example 11: Find the Z-transform y(n) = (0.5)(n-5).u(n-5) where u(n-5)=1 for n ≥ 5 and
u(n-5) =0 for n<5?
22
Solution
𝑧
Using the property 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] = 𝑧−𝑎
4.3 Multiplication by an exponential sequence

The exponential multiplication property is
4.4 Convolution
This property states that
𝑋1 [𝑛] ∗ 𝑥2 [𝑛] = 𝑋1 (𝑧)𝑋2 (𝑧) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅𝑋1 ∩ 𝑅𝑋2
Example 12: Find the Z-transform of the convolution for the following sequences?
Solution
Applying z-transform on the two sequences,
Therefore the result is
23
4.5 Differentiation of the Z-transform

𝑑𝑋(𝑧)
𝑛𝑋[𝑛] = −𝑍
𝑑𝑧
This is easily proved by differentiating the z-transform equation with respect to z. It
plays an important role in dealing with systems where multiple poles occur in the same
location n the z-plane.
4.6 Initial value theorem

Any Z-transform must satisfy this theorem:
𝑋(0) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑧→∞ 𝑋)𝑧_
4.7 Final value theorem
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑘→∞ 𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑍 − 1)𝑋(𝑧)
The final value theorem allows us to calculate the limit of a sequence as k tends to
infinity, if one exists, from the z-transform of the sequence. If one is only interested in
the final value of the sequence, this constitutes a significant shortcut.
The main pitfall of the theorem is that there are important cases where the limit does
not exist. The two main cases are as follows:
1. An unbounded sequence
2. An oscillatory sequence
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑘→∞ 𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑧→1 (𝑍 − 1)𝑋(𝑧)
24
25
Convergence of the z-transform
The region of convergence (ROC) is the set of z values in the complex plane for which
the Z-transform of a signal X[n] converges, the region where z-transform exists. The
ROC for a given x [n] must satisfy
∞
∑ |x[n]z −n | < ∞
n=−∞
Which means that z-transform therefore exists (or converges). The ROC therefore
consists of a ring in the z-plane, figure 3.
Figure 3: The ROC

In specific cases the inner radius of this ring may include the origin, and the outer radius
may extend to infinity. If the ROC includes the unit circle |z| = 1, then the Fourier
transform will converge.
Two very different sequences (different time functions) can have the same z-
transforms, but their z-transforms differ only in the ROC. For example the z-transform
𝑍
of 𝑋[𝑛] = 𝛼 𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋[𝑛] = −𝛼 𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] are identical, X(𝑧) = . So, the
𝑍−𝑎
ROC is an important part of the specification of the z-transform
26
Clarification
The sum of 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧| > |𝑎|
The sum of 𝑋(𝑧) = ∑−1 𝑛 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑎 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑎| > |𝑧|
They have the same X(z) but they differ in ROC.
Example 8 (no ROC)

Let 𝑋[𝑛] = (0.5)𝑛 . Expanding x[n] on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes
X[n] = {. . . , 0.5-3, 0.5-2, 0.5-1, 1, 0.5, 0.52, 0.53 . . .}
There are no values of z that satisfy this condition.
Example 9 (causal ROC)
For 𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] find the ROC?
Solution
∞
𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ (𝑋[𝑛] 𝑍 −𝑛 )
𝑛=−∞
∞
= ∑ (𝛼 𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] 𝑍 −𝑛 )
𝑛=−∞
∞
= ∑(𝛼 𝑛 𝑍 −𝑛 )
𝑛=0
∞
= ∑ ((𝛼𝑍 −1 )𝑛 )
𝑛=0
Figure:
This sequence is an example of a right-sided exponential sequence because it is nonzero
for n ≥ 0. It only converges when |αz−1| < 1. When it converges,
1 𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) = −1
=
1 − 𝛼𝑧 𝑧−𝛼
27
If |𝛼𝑧 −1 | ≥ 1 then the series ∑∞ −1 𝑛
𝑛=0((𝛼𝑧 ) ) does not converge. Thus the ROC is the
range of values where |𝛼𝑧 −1 | < 1 𝑜𝑟 |𝑧| > |𝛼|
Properties of the region of convergence

The ROC has a number of properties that depend on the nature of the signal. These
properties are:
1) The ROC is a ring or disk in the z-plane, centered about the origin.
2) The Fourier transform of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if the ROC of the
z-transform includes the unit circle.
3) The ROC cannot contain any poles. By definition a pole is a where X(z) is infinite.
Since X(z) must be finite for all z for convergence, there cannot be a pole in the
ROC.
4) The ROC for finite-length sequence is the entire z-plane except perhaps at z = 0 or
z = ∞.
5) The ROC for a right-handed sequence, X[n], extends outward from the outermost
pole possibly including z= 
6) The ROC for a left-handed sequence extends inward from the innermost pole
possibly including z=0
Figure: An example of a finite duration sequence.

7) The ROC of a two-sided sequence is a ring bounded by poles
8) The ROC is a connected region.
9) A z-transform does not uniquely determine a sequence without specifying the ROC
Example: Compute the Z-transform and find the ROC for:
1) 𝑋1 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑎 𝑢[𝑛]𝑧
−𝑛
28
∞
2) 𝑋2 (𝑧) = ∑ −𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1]𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 𝑛 −1 𝑛
Example: Find the ROC for 𝑋1 [𝑛] = (2) 𝑢[𝑛] + ( 4 ) 𝑢[𝑛]
1 𝑛
The Z-transform of (2) 𝑢[𝑛]𝑖𝑠
𝑧 1
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑂𝐶 𝑎𝑡 |𝑧| >
1 2
𝑧−2
29
−1 𝑛
The Z-transform of ( 4 ) 𝑢[𝑛]𝑖𝑠
𝑧 −1
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑂𝐶 𝑎𝑡 |𝑧| >
1 4
𝑧+4
30
31
32
Z-Transform solution of difference equations
Difference equation is an equation that defines s sequence recursively, each term in
the sequence is defined as function of the previous terms in the sequence. The linear
form of it is:
𝑦(𝑘 + 𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑘 + 𝑛 − 1) + ⋯ , 𝑎1 𝑦(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑎0 𝑦(𝑘)
= 𝑏𝑛 𝑢(𝑘 + 𝑛) + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑢(𝑘 + 𝑛 − 1) + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑢(𝑘 + 1), 𝑏0 𝑢(𝑘)]
We further assume that the coefficients ai, bi, i=0, 1, 2, … , are constant. The
difference equation is then referred to as linear time invariant, or LTI. If the forcing
function u(k) is equal to zero, the equation is said to be homogeneous.
Example : For each of the following difference equations, determine the order of the
equation.
Is the equation (a) linear, (b) time invariant, or (c) homogeneous?
1. 𝑦(𝑘 + 2) + 0.8𝑦(𝑘 + 1) + 0.07𝑦(𝑘)𝑢(𝑘)
2. 𝑦(𝑘 + 4) + sin(0.4𝑘) 𝑦(𝑘 + 1) + 0.3𝑦(𝑘) = 0
3. 𝑦(𝑘 + 1) = −0.1𝑦 2 𝑦(𝑘)
Ans:
1. The equation is second order. All terms enter the equation linearly and have
constant coefficients. The equation is therefore LTI. A forcing function
appears in the equation, so it is nonhomogeneous.
2. The equation is fourth order. The second coefficient is time dependent, but all
the terms are linear and there is no forcing function. The equation is therefore
linear time varying and homogeneous.
3. The equation is first order. The right-hand side (RHS) is a nonlinear function
of y(k), but does not include a forcing function or terms that depend on time
explicitly. The equation is therefore nonlinear, time invariant, and
homogeneous
To solve the linear difference equations, the equations are first transformed to the z-
domain (i.e., both the right- and left-hand sides of the equation are z-transformed).
Then the variable of interest is solved for and inverse z-transformed. To transform the
difference equation, we typically use the time delay or the time advance property.
Inverse z-transformation is performed using the methods of discrete time signal.
‫ مع التطرق‬time delay and time advance ‫ البد من ان نستذكر قوانين‬، ‫قبل البدء بشرح الموضوع‬
‫لمثال على كل منهم‬
33
Time delay
The equation of the time delay property is
𝑍{𝑋[𝑘 − 𝑛]} = 𝑍 −𝑛 𝑋(𝑧)
Example 5-1: Find the z-transform of the causal sequence
4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 2,3,4 …
𝑋[𝑘] = {
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution
The given sequence is a sampled step starting at k52 rather than k50 (i.e., it is delayed
by two sampling periods). Using the delay property, we have
4𝑧 4
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑍{4 ∗ 1(𝑘 − 2)} = 4𝑍 −2 𝑍{1(𝑘)} = 𝑍 −2 =
𝑧−1 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)
‫ بدال‬2 ‫ تبدأ من القيمة‬sampled step sequence ‫ فان المتسلسلة تعود الى‬4 ‫ الن القيمة ثابتة وهي‬:‫مالحظة‬
.‫من الصفر‬
Time advance
𝑍{𝑋[𝑘 + 1]} = 𝑧𝑋(𝑧) − 𝑧𝑋[0]
𝑍{𝑋[𝑘 + 𝑛]} = 𝑧 𝑛 𝑋(𝑧) − 𝑧 𝑛 𝑋[0] − 𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑋[1] − ⋯ − 𝑧𝑋[𝑛]
Example 5-2
Using the time advance property, find the z-transform of the causal sequence {X[k]}
= { 4, 8, 16, …}?
Solution
The sequence can be written as
𝑋[𝑘] = 2𝑘+2 = 𝑦[𝑘 + 2] 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
Where y[k] is the exponential time function
𝑦[𝑘] = 2𝑘 , 𝑘 = 0,1,2,…
Using the time advance property, the transform is
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 𝑦(𝑧) − 𝑧 2 𝑦[0] − 𝑧𝑦[1]
𝑧 4
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 𝑧−2 − 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 = 𝑧−2
. Z ‫ ثم استخدام تحويل‬، {X[k] = 4{1,2,4,…} ‫يمكن كتابة المتسلسلة بالشكل التالي‬: ‫مالحظة‬
Example: (about Z-Transform solution of difference equations)
Solve the linear difference equation
34
3 1
𝑋[𝑘 + 2] − 𝑋[𝑘 + 1] + 𝑋[𝑘] = 1[𝑘]
2 2
With initial conditions X[0] =1 and X[1] = 5/2?

Solution
1. z-transform
We begin by z-transforming the difference equation using time advance equation to
obtain.
3 1
[𝑧 2 𝑋(𝑧) − 𝑧 2 𝑋[0] − 𝑧𝑋[1]] − 𝑧𝑋[𝑧] − 𝑧𝑋[0] + 𝑋[𝑧] = 1[𝑘]
2 2
2. Solve for X(z)

Then we substitute the initial conditions and rearrange terms to obtain
3 1 𝑧 5 3
[𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + ] 𝑋[𝑧] = + 𝑧2 + ( − ) 𝑧
2 2 𝑧−1 2 2
Which we solve for
𝑧[1 + (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 − 1)] 𝑧3
𝑋(𝑧) = =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 0.5) (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 − 0.5)
3. Find the Partial Fraction Expansion

The partial fraction of X(z)/z is
𝑋(𝑧)
=
𝑧
Where
To
obtain the remaining coefficient, we multiply by the denominator and get the equation
Equating the coefficient of z2 gives
35
Thus, the partial fraction expansion in this special case includes two terms only. We
now have
4. Inverse z-transformation
From the z-transform tables, the inverse z-transform of X(z) is
Example: Solve the difference equation

𝑦(𝑘 + 2) + 5𝑦(𝑘 + 1] + 6𝑦(𝑘) = 𝑘
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 ≥ 0 , 𝑦(0) = −1 , 𝑦(1) = 1?
Answer
time ‫باالستفادة من خاصية‬
Taking the Z-transform for both sides gives:
advance property
𝑧 2 𝑦(𝑧) − [ 𝑧 2 𝑦(0) − 𝑧𝑦(1)]
+ 5{𝑧 𝑦(𝑧) − 𝑧 𝑦(0)} + 6𝑦(𝑧)
𝑧
=
(𝑧 − 1)2
Substitute the values of y(0) and y(1) and arrangement the equation
𝑧
𝑧 2 𝑦(𝑧) + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 + 5𝑧 𝑦(𝑧) + 5𝑧 + 6𝑦(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 1)2
𝑧
𝑦(𝑧){𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6} + 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 =
(𝑧 − 1)2
𝑧
𝑦(𝑧){𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6} = − 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧
(𝑧 − 1)2
𝑧 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧
𝑦(𝑧) = −
(𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6) 𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6)
−𝑧 4 − 2𝑧 3 + 7𝑧 2 − 3𝑧
𝑦(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 6)
𝑦(𝑧) −𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 + 7𝑧1 − 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶1 𝑐2
= = + + +
𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 + 2) 𝑧 + 2 𝑧 + 3 𝑧 − 1 (𝑧 − 1)2
After finding A, B, C1, C2, we get
36
17 15 7 1
𝑦(𝑧) − 9
= + 16 − 144 + 12
𝑧 𝑧 + 2 𝑧 + 3 𝑧 − 1 (𝑧 − 1)2
17 15 7 1
𝑦(𝑧) = (−2)𝑘 + (−3)𝑘 − 𝑢[𝑘] + 12 𝑘
9 16 144
Example : Solve 𝑢(𝑛 + 2) − 3𝑢(𝑛 + 1) + 2𝑢(𝑛) = 4𝑛 given that

𝑢0 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢1 = 1?
Ans:
𝑢(𝑛 + 2) − 3𝑢(𝑛 + 1) + 2𝑢(𝑛) = 4𝑛
Taking Z-transform on both sides:
𝑍{𝑢(𝑛 + 2)} − 3𝑍{𝑢(𝑛 + 1)} + 2𝑍{𝑢(𝑛)} = 𝑍{4𝑛 }
𝑍
[𝑍 2 𝑋(𝑍) − 𝑍 2 𝑢(0) − 𝑍𝑢(1)] − 3[𝑍𝑋(𝑧) − 𝑍𝑢(0) + 2𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑍−4
Substitute 𝑢(0) = 0 , 𝑢(1) = 1
𝑍
(𝑍 2 𝑋(𝑍) − 0 − 𝑍] − 3[𝑍𝑋(𝑧) − 0] + 2𝑋(𝑍) =
𝑍−4
𝑍
(𝑍 2 − 3𝑍 + 2)𝑋(𝑧)] = +𝑍
𝑍−4
𝑍 + (𝑍 − 4) 𝑍 + 𝑍 2 − 4𝑍
(Z − 1)(Z − 2)X(z) = =
𝑍−4 𝑍−4
𝑍 2 − 3𝑍
X(z) = (1)
(𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2)(𝑍 − 4)
𝑋(𝑧) 𝑍−3
=
𝑍 (𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2)(𝑍 − 4)
𝑍−3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 2)(𝑍 − 4) 𝑍 − 1 𝑍 − 2 𝑍 − 4
Using partial fraction A= – 2/3, B = 1/2 , C=1/6
−2/3 1/2 1/6 −2 𝑍 1 𝑍 1 𝑍
𝑋(𝑧) = + + = . + +
𝑍−1 𝑍−2 𝑍−4 3 𝑍 − 1 2𝑍 − 2 6𝑍 − 4
Taking inverse Z-transform of both sides
−2 −1 𝑍 1 𝑍 1 𝑍
𝑍 −1 {𝑋(𝑧)} = .𝑍 { } + 𝑍 −1 { } + 𝑍 −1 { }
3 𝑍−1 2 𝑍−2 6 𝑍−4
−2 1 1
𝑢(𝑛) = . (1)𝑛 + (2)𝑛 + (4)𝑛
3 2 6
37
−2 1 1
𝑢(𝑛) = + (2)𝑛 + (4)𝑛
3 2 6
More examples
Example: Using Z-transform, solve the difference equation?
𝑦(𝑘 + 1) − 3𝑦(𝑘) = −6 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦(0) = 1
Ans.
1. z-transform
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘 + 1) − 3𝑍{𝑦(𝑘) = 𝑍{−6}
−6𝑧
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘 + 1) = 𝑧 𝑍{𝑦(𝑘)} − 𝑧 𝑦(0) = 𝑧−1
−6 𝑧 −6𝑧 + 𝑧(𝑧 − 1) 𝑧 2 − 7𝑧
(𝑧 − 3) 𝑍{𝑦(𝑘) = +𝑧= =
𝑧−1 𝑧−1 𝑧−1
𝑍 2 − 7𝑍
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘)} =
(𝑍 − 1)(𝑍 − 3)
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘)} 𝑧−7
=
𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3)
Applied partial fraction
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘)} 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−3
𝑧−7 1 − 7 −6
𝐴= |𝑧=1 = = =3
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3 1 − 3 −2
𝑧−7 3 − 7 −4
𝐵= |𝑧=3 = = = −2
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3 3−1 2
3𝑧 2𝑧
𝑍{𝑦(𝑘)} = −
(𝑍 − 1) 𝑧 − 3
𝑧 𝑧
𝑦(𝑘) = 3𝑍 −1 { } − 2𝑍 −1 { }
𝑧−1 𝑧−3
𝑦(𝑘) = 3𝑢(𝑘) − 2(3𝑘 )
1
Example: For the difference equation [𝑛] − 2 𝑦[𝑛 − 1] = 𝑢[𝑛] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0 , where y[-
1]=0?
Answer
38
Example: Solve
Ans.
First, shift the equation so that we can take advantage of the form of the initial
conditions. We replace 𝑘 → 𝑘 − 2 to obtain
39
Second order difference equation

To solve 2nd order linear constant coefficient difference equation two initial
conditions are required. typically either y0 and y1 or y−1 and y−2..
Example: Solve the difference equation
𝑦(𝑛 + 2) = 𝑦(𝑛 + 1) + 𝑦(𝑛)?
Sol.
Begin by taking the z-transform, then insert the initial conditions and solve the
resulting algebraic equation for Y (z), the z-transform of {yn}:
40
Now solve the quadratic equation z2 − z − 1 = 0 and hence factorize the denominator.
This form for Y (z) often arises in solving second order difference equations. Write it
in partial fractions and find y(n), leaving a and b as general at this stage:
41
With an appropriate computational aid you could (i) check that this formula does
indeed give the familiar sequence
{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . .}
Example 2:
Use the right shift property of z-transforms to solve the second order difference
Equation 𝑦(𝑛) − 7𝑦(𝑛 − 1) + 10𝑦(𝑛 − 2) = 0 , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦(𝑛 − 1) =
16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(−2) = 5?
Sol:
42
Inverse of Z-Transform
Let X[n] is the continuous time function whose Z-transform is X(z) then the inverse
transform is not necessarily equal to X[n], rather it is equal to X(nT) which is equal to
X[n] only at the sampling instants. Once X[n] is sampled by an the ideal sampler, the
information between the sampling instants is totally lost and we cannot recover actual
X[n] from X(z),
𝑋[𝑛𝑇] = 𝑍 −1 [𝑋(𝑧)]
The transform can be obtained by using
1. Inspection method
2. Long division method.
3. Partial fraction method
4. Power series method.
1. Using the definition

Example: Consider 𝑋(𝑧) = 1 + 2𝑧 −1 + 3𝑧 −2 + 2𝑧 −3 find the inverse?
Solution
𝑋[𝑛] = 𝑋1 [𝑛] + 2𝑋2 [𝑛 − 1] + 3𝑋3 [𝑛 − 2] + 2𝑋4 [𝑛 − 3]
𝑋[𝑛] = {1, 2, 3, 2}
2. Use long division

By this method, two steps are used to find the inverse Z-transform:
a) Use long division, expand X(z) as a series to obtain
𝑖
−1 −𝑛
𝑋1(𝑧) = 𝑋0 + 𝑋1 𝑍 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛 𝑍 = ∑ 𝑋[𝑛]𝑍 −𝑛
𝑛=0
b) Use the coefficients of the expansion to write the time sequence (X1, X2, … ,
Xi). where i is number of points in the time sequence.
0.5 𝑍 2 +0.5 𝑍)
Example: Finding the inverse Z transform of 𝐻(𝑧) = ?
𝑍 2 −𝑍+0.5
Answer
The long division is
43
H(Z) = 0.5 + Z −1 + 0.75Z −2

𝐻[𝑛] = 0.5 𝛿[𝑛] + 𝛿[𝑛 − 1] + 0.75𝛿[𝑛 − 2]
Ex: Obtain the inverse z-transform of the function?
Ans:
1. Long division
2) Inverse transform
X[n] = {0,1,0.8, -0.26}
44
Common Z Transform Pairs
45
3. Partial-Fraction Expansion (PFE) Method
This method expand X(z)/z rather than X(z). The PFE is used to express the X(z) as a
sum of simple terms for which the inverse transform may be recognized by inspection
method ( available in Z-transform table).
The steps of find the inverse Z-transform are:
a) Find the PFE of X(z)/z or X(z).

b) Obtain the inverse transform X[n] using the Z-transform tables.
 The ROC plays a critical role in this process.
There are three cases:
1) Simple real roots.

2) Complex conjugate and simple real roots.
3) Repeated roots.
3.1 Simple real roots.
The residues method is the most convenience method to get PFE of a function with
simple real roots.
When dealing with linear time-invariant systems the z-transform often in the form
𝐴(𝑧) ∑𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑍
−𝑘
𝑋(𝑍) = 𝐵(𝑧) = 𝑁
∑𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑍 −𝑘
𝑖𝑓 𝑀 < 𝑁
If M ≥ N use long division method and express X (z) in the form
Note 1: If X(z) is expressed as ratio of polynomials in Z instead of Z –1 then convert

into the polynomial of Z –1 .
Note 2: Convert the denominator into product of first-order terms
∑𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑍
−𝑘
𝑋(𝑍) =
𝑎0 ∏𝑁 −1
𝑘=1(1 − 𝑑𝑘 𝑍 )
Where dk are the poles of X(z).
46
2𝑍 2 +2
Example: Find the inverse Z-transform for 𝐺(𝑧) 𝑍 2 +2𝑍−3 ?
Ans:
𝐺(𝑧) 2𝑍 + 2 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑍 (𝑍 + 3)(𝑍 − 1) 𝑍+3 𝑍−1
. Z= -3 ‫ ونعوض‬Z ‫ بالمعادلة االصلية الناتجة من القسمة على‬A ‫ نضرب مقام‬A ‫اليجاد‬
2𝑍 + 2 −4
𝐴= |𝑍→−3 = =1
𝑍−1 −4
2𝑍 + 2 4
𝐵= |𝑍=1 = = 1
𝑍+3 4
𝐺(𝑧) 1 1
= +
𝑍 𝑍+3 𝑍−1
𝑍 𝑍
𝐺(𝑧) = +
𝑍+3 𝑍−1
==> (−3)𝑛 1(𝑛) + 1(𝑛)
Example 1
Find the Z-transform using partial fraction expansion for
1− 𝑍 −1
𝑋(𝑧) = 1 1 ?
(1− 𝑍 −1 )(1− 𝑍 −1)
2 3
Answer
1 1
To solve for A1 and A2, multiply both sides by (1 − 2 𝑍 −1 )(1 − 3 𝑍 −1) ) to obtain
So,
To check:
47
Now, we have
Possible of ROCs
And
Recall transform pairs
48
And
𝟏− 𝒁−𝟏 −𝟑 𝟒
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒀(𝒛) = 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟏 ?
(𝟏− 𝒁−𝟏 )(𝟏− 𝒁−𝟏) 𝟏− 𝒁−𝟏 𝟏− 𝒁−𝟏
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
There are three possible of ROCs for a signal with this z-transform.
The three possibles are
ROC Signal
𝟏
< |𝒛|
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
< |𝒛| <
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏
|𝒛| <
𝟑
49
Power Series Expansion:

The defining expression for the z-transform [Eq. (4.3)] is a power series where the
sequence values x[n] are the coefficients of z-n. Thus, if X(z) is given as a power series
in the form
𝑿[𝒛] = ∑∞
𝒏=−∞ 𝑿[𝒏]𝒁
−𝟏
= . . . +𝑿[−𝟐]𝒁𝟐 + +𝑿[−𝟏]𝒁 + 𝑿[𝟎] + 𝑿[𝟏]𝒁−𝟏 + 𝑿[𝟐]𝒁−𝟐 + ⋯

We can determine any particular value of the sequence by finding the coefficient of the
appropriate power of Z –1. This approach may not provide a closed-form solution but is
very useful for a finite-length sequence where X(z) may have no simpler form than a
polynomial in Z –1.
Example: Using the power series expansion technique, find the inverse z-transform of
the following X(z):
a) Since the ROC is |z| > |a|, that is, the exterior of a circle, X[n] is a right-sided
sequence. Thus, we must divide to obtain a series in the power of z–1 . Carrying out the
long division, we obtain
50
Thus
So, we have
And we obtain
(b) Since the ROC is lzl < lal, that is, the interior of a circle, x[n] is a left-sided sequence.
Thus, we must divide so as to obtain a series in the power of z as follows, Multiplying
both the numerator and denominator of X(z) by z, we have
And carrying out the long division, we obtain
Thus
So, we have
𝑋[−1] = −𝑎−1 ; 𝑋[−2] = −𝑎−2 ; 𝑋[−3] = −𝑎−3 ; … ; 𝑋[−𝑘] = −𝑎−𝑘 ;

And we obtain
51
Examples
Example 4 Find the inverse Z-transform of
Answer
52

Digital Control (Unit-1)

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DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM

University of Tikrit – College of Petroleum and Minerals Engineering

Introduction to control system

Figure 1: A block diagram of a control system.

Control systems can be classified in several ways:

An event control system controls a sequential series of events. An example is a

Categories of control systems

Figure 2: Open-loop control system (no feedback)

An example of open-loop CS is the motor that rotates the arm at 5 degrees/second

(a) Block diagram

(b) A simple open-loop position system

Closed-loop control: A control system that uses feedback by using a sensor. A

Figure 4: Closed-loop control diagram

Comparison between open-loop and closed-loop control system

Advantages of digital control in comparing with analog control

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

The transfer function of a component is an extremely useful number. It allows you to

We can calculate the total transfer function (TFtot), as follow:

Control systems are classified by application. Process control usually refers to an

Continuous-time signal Discrete-

Figure: Continues signal with its discrete signal

Figure: Sampling with different sample rates

The sampling frequency (fS) = (1/TS).

Converting between analog signals and discrete signals

Sampling is done by using an analog to digital (A/D) converter (also called an

Figure 8: Different analog signals map to same sequence

Figure: Example of different sampled periodic

Figure 7: Sampling with wrong sampling rates

Laplace transform z-transform

𝑋(𝑍) = ∑ 𝑋[𝑛] 𝑍 −𝑛 . .. (1)

Where z is a complex variable, 𝑧 −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Note: The Laplace transform of a function f(t):

The mapping between a sequence and its z-transform is denoted by:

Example 1: find the z-transform for the sequence

Example 4: From 𝑋(𝑧) = 4 − 5𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3 − 2𝑧 4 ,find the X[n] sequence?

Z-Transform of Common Sequences

For 𝛿𝑛−𝑚 where m positive integer, the z- transform

𝑍{𝑢(𝑛)} = 𝑢(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑢(𝑛)𝑍 −𝑛

The z-transform of the sampled exponential signal is

Discrete ramp sequence:

4. Discrete cosine sequence

The first step is the choice of the alternative

Plugging into the definition of the z-transform

Example7: Find the z-transform of the sequence – 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1]?

This geometric series converges when |z| < a:

The Z-Transforms of common sequences are shown in table 1.

Poles and zeros representation.

𝑍(𝑎𝑋1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝑛)) = 𝑎𝑍(𝑋1 (𝑛) + 𝑋2 (𝑛))

4.2 Time Shifting

Example: shifted exponential sequence

From the ROC, this is a right-sided sequence. Rewriting,

4.3 Multiplication by an exponential sequence

Therefore the result is

4.5 Differentiation of the Z-transform

4.6 Initial value theorem

Convergence of the z-transform

Figure 3: The ROC

ROC is an important part of the specification of the z-transform

Example 8 (no ROC)