Course-

Power Systems and

Protection(EEE2007B)

1
2
 Elective
Type of Elective Abbreviatio Course Code Name of Course
n
Professional PE - I EEE3007B PLC and Automation
Elective EEE3002B Java Programming
PE - II EEE3011B Robotics
Software Engineering and Project
EEE3012B
Management
Professional OPE EEE4003B Industrial IoT
Elective in Online
EEE4005B Business Analytics
Mode
EEE4008B Industrial Drives and Systems
EEE4004B Blockchain Technologies
EEE3005B Power Quality
Open Elective OE To be taken from other schools of FoET than the students own school.

2/6/2024 3
 Course Code EEE2007B
Course Category Professional Core
Course Title Power Systems and Protection
Weekly Teaching Hrs. and Credits L T Laboratory Credits
4 0 2 4+0+1
Pre-requisites: Basics of electrical engineering and electrical machines
Course Objectives:
1. To identify the basic structures and components of electrical power systems and calculate various related
electrical parameters
2. To acquire knowledge requirements of mechanical and electrical design of overhead transmission lines.
3. To grasp knowledge of construction and working principles of various relays and circuit breakers
4. To understand various types of faults and protection schemes in power systems components.
Course Outcomes: After completion of this course students will be able to
1. Design of electrical and mechanical aspects in overhead transmission (CL – III)
2. Evaluate different electrical parameters of transmission line configurations (CL - III).
3. Identify, formulate and solve problems in protection of power systems (CL – IV).
4. Select and allocate proper protection scheme for the power systems (CL – IV)

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Unit 01:
Power system structure: Structure of power system, evolution of power systems, power plants, national grid,
factors and terms associated with the generating station, types of conductors, overhead line supports,
spacing, span, sag, concept of real, reactive and complex power and their effect on power system operation.

Unit 02:
Transmission line parameters and models: Per unit system, reactance diagram calculation of resistance,
inductance and capacitance of single phase, three phase, double circuit lines, concept of GMR and GMD, skin
effect, proximity effect and corona effect, transmission line models - short, medium and long lines.
Unit 03:
Power Flow and Power System Stability: voltage and current waves, surge impedance loading, complex
power flow, power transmission capability, Ferranti effect, tuned power lines, methods of voltage control,
stability, dynamics of synchronous machine, swing equation, power angle equation and curve, equal area
criterion.
Course - Power Systems and
Protection
Course Code- EEE2007B
 Unit 1:
Power system structure
 Introduction
⚫ For electrification of a particular area, it is necessary to have the correct idea of 1oad
requirements of that area, also the growth of population as well as the standard of living of
peoples of that area which will affect the forecasting of load requirement.

⚫ Once the forecasting of this load has been done the job is to make a provision of sufficient
amount of power at economical important rate.

⚫ As there are number of important types of power stations namely Thermal, Hydro, Nuclear,
Diesel, we have to choose the power station which provides the power at lower cost, with
reliability and consistently.

⚫ In choosing the type of generation, number of points have to be considered. Such as kind of
fuel available and its cost, availability of suitable sites for a hydro power stations,
transmission and distribution costs of generated power, and nature of load to be supplied etc.
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⚫ The load on the power system is never constant due to variable demands at different times
(hour, day or month).

⚫ Therefore the nature of load to be supplied affects the choice of plant to a considerable
extent.

⚫ It is essential for the power system to maintain the reliability and continuity of power supply
at all times. The use of single generator unit to supply the whole load is neither practical nor
economical.

⚫ Hence a large number of sets are decided to fulfil the load demand.

⚫ However when a large number of generating sets is chosen, the operational problems and
maintenance cost increases. Capital cost is also high for large number of units.

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 ⚫ In this unit we will study the different load curves and the economic aspect of power
plant and its selection to fit in a particular load curve. Also we will study the factors
affecting the cost of generation and how to select the size and number of generator
units.

2/6/2024 10
 Structure of Power System
⚫ Energy plays a very important role in day to day life for overall development of country.

⚫ There are different forms of energy out of that the dependence of electrical energy is such
that without it life get somewhat cumbersome. The use of electrical energy is in different
fields such as for domestic purpose, where it is used for heating, cooking, refrigeration,
light etc.

⚫ Also it is used in industries, commercial complex, irrigation purpose etc.

`a network which is known as power system. Fig.1. indicates the general arrangement of a
power system.

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2/6/2024
Fig.1. General arrangement of power system 12
⚫ Fig. 1.is also can be represented by the block diagram.

• It mainly consists of generating stations (also known as power stations), substations,

transmission network and distribution network.

• According to the law of conservation, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it
can be transferred from one form to another form.

• Therefore power stations convert some form of energy into the electrical energy. It
mainly consists of two parts, one is turbine and other is alternator.

• Turbine converts some form of energy into mechanical form and then alternator
converts it into electrical form.
Fig -Prime mover alternator unit
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⚫ Generated electricity is in the form of 3 phase supply which is stepped up in power
substation.

⚫ Then this high voltage electrical energy is transmitted by transmission lines over a long
distance. Then it is stepped down in distribution substation to utilization level. This step
up and step down is done by transformer.

⚫ Then the electrical energy is distributed to different consumers.

⚫ As generated electrical energy has to be transmitted over a long distance owing to

following reasons :
⚫ The load on the power system is not concentrated but it is widely spread.

⚫ Generating stations are created away from the load centers due to some particular
site selection criteria. As the case in hydro power station, it should be located at hilly
areas owing to its requirement of huge amount of water and construction of dam. 14
⚫ In case of thermal power station and nuclear power station the pollution level is very high
which is dangerous to human beings.

⚫ Owing to these reasons, the generated electrical energy has to be transmitted to the
consumers via some conducting materials.

⚫ If these conductors are located over head with suitable spacing between them and adequate
clearance from ground then it is called as overhead transmission system.

⚫ If these conductors are placed underground by properly insulated from each other then the
system is known as underground transmission system.

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⚫ Fig. below shows typical layout of the power system.

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Structure of Power System
An electrical supply system has three main components,
⚫ Generating stations,
⚫ Transmission Lines
⚫ Distribution systems.
Power generating stations produce electricity at a comparatively lower voltage level.
Producing electricity at lower voltage level is economical in many aspects. Standard
transmission voltages are 132kV, 220kV, 400kV
Components of an Electric power system:
⚫ Generators: A device used to convert one form of energy into electrical energy.

⚫ Transformer: Transfer power or energy from one circuit to other without the change of
frequency.(to increase or decrease the voltage level)

⚫ Transmission lines: Transfer power from one location to another

⚫ Control Equipment: Used for protection purpose

⚫ Primary Transmission: 110kV, 132kV or 220kV or 400kV or 765kV, high voltage

transmission, 3 phase 3-wire system.

⚫ Secondary transmission: 3 phase 3-wire system, 33kV or 66kV feeders are used.

⚫ Primary distribution: 3 phase 3-wire system, 11kV or 6.6kV, 3 phase 3-wire system.

⚫ Secondary distribution: 400V for 3φ, 230V for 1φ

Generators:
⚫ Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generating
voltages are normally 6.6 kV,10.5 kV or 11 kV.

⚫ This generating voltage can be step up to 110 kV/132 kV/220kV at the generating(indoor
or outdoor) to reduce the current in transmission line and to reduce transmission losses.

⚫ Generators produce real power (MV) and reactive power (MVAR).

Transformers:
⚫ It is a static device which transfers power or energy from one circuit to another circuit
without change of frequency.

⚫ The main function of transformers is step up voltages from lower generation levels to the
higher generation voltage levels and also step down voltages from higher transmission
voltage levels to lower distribution levels.

⚫ When we are increasing the transmission voltage, current flowing through the current
flowing through the grid decreases, thereby transmission losses (I2R) reduces.
Control Equipment-
⚫ Circuit Breaker (CB)-
⚫ Circuit breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit normal and abnormal (fault)
condition.

⚫ Different types of circuit breaker are oil circuit breaker, air-blast circuit breaker,
vacuum circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker.

⚫ During fault conditions relay will give command to the circuit breaker to operate.
⚫ Isolators-
⚫ Isolators are placed in substations to isolate the part of system during maintenance.

⚫ It can operate only during no-load condition. Isolated switches are provided on
each side of the circuit breaker.
22
Busbar:
⚫ Busbars are used to connect number of lines operating at the same voltage
electrically.

⚫ It is made up of copper or aluminium. Different types of busbar arrangements

are–single busbar with sectionalisation, double bus bar arrangements, ring bus bar
scheme etc.

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Transmission System
⚫ It supplies only large blocks of power to bulk power station or very big consumers.

⚫ It interconnects the neighbouring generating stations in to a power pool i.e,

interconnection of two or more generating stations.

⚫ Tolerance of transmission line voltage is ± 5 to ± 10% due to the variation of loads.

Primary Transmission-
⚫ If the generated power is transmitted through transmission line without stepping up the
generated voltage, the line current and power loss would be very high.

⚫ So the generated voltage is stepped up to higher value by using the step up transformer
located in substations known as sending end substations near the generating stations.

24
⚫ The high voltagetransmission lines transmit power from sending end
substation to the receiving end substation.

⚫ Primary transmission voltages are 110KV, 132 KV or 220KV 0r 400KV or 760KV.It

uses 3phase, and 3wire system.

Secondary Transmission-
⚫ At the receiving end substation, the voltage is stepped down to a value of 66 or 33 or 22
KV using step down transformers.

⚫ The secondary transmission line forms the link between the receiving end substation and
the secondary station. It uses 3 phase, 3wire system and the conductors used are called
feeders.
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Distribution System
⚫ The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an
area to the bulk power sources or transmission line is called a distribution system.
⚫ A distribution station distributes power to domestic, commercial and relatively small
consumers.
⚫ Distribution transformers are normally installed on poles or on plinth mounted
or near the consumers
Primary Distribution-
⚫ At the secondary substations, the voltage is stepped down to 11 KV or 6.6 KV
using step down transformers.
⚫ The primary distributor forms the link between secondary substation and distribution
substation and the power is fed in to the primary distribution system. It uses 3phase,
3 wire system.

26
Secondary Distribution-
⚫ At the distribution substation the voltage is stepped down to 400V (for 3phase) or
230V (for 1 phase) using step down transformers.

⚫ The distribution lines are drawn along the roads and service connections to the
consumers are tapped off from the distributors.
⚫ It uses 3 phase, 4 wire system.
⚫ Single phase loads are connected between one phase wire and one neutral wire.
 Different Factors Associated with generating stations
i. Connected load
ii. Maximum demand
iii. Demand factor
iv. Average load
v. Load factor
vi. Diversity factor
vii. Plant capacity factor
viii. Reserve capacity
ix. Plant use factor
x. Load curve
xi. Load duration curve
2/6/2024 29
 Factors Affecting Cost of Generation
Connected Load:
• It is sum of continuous rating of all the equipment(in Watts or kW) connected to supply
system.

• A power station supplies load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has a certain
equipment installed in his premises.

• The sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment's in consumer premises is the
connected load of consumer. The sum of connected loads of all consumers is the
connected load to power station

It is defined as “the total sum of all the loads (ON and OFF) connected to the power system.
All the loads may not be switched ON together, but such loads have to be calculated to
determine the required power and hence the capacity of the units.
For example, if one of the consumers has three lamps of 200 W each, four lamps of 100 W
each and a machine consuming 5 kW, then the connected load of the consumer = 3(200) +
4(100) + 5000 = 6000 W
Maximum Demand
• It is the greatest demand of load on power station during a given period.

• As load on the power station varies from time to time, there is certain instant at which
maximum demand occurs on the power system in a given period.

• Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all the consumer do
not switch on their connected load to the system at a time.

• Knowledge of maximum demand is necessary because the installed capacity of the plant is
decided on the basis of maximum demand since the power station must be capable of
supplying the maximum demand.

Demand Factor: The ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to the total rated load
connected with the system is called demand factor. It is always less than unity.
Following formula is used to calculate demand factor.
• Demand Factor = Maximum Demand / Connected Load
• Demand factor intimates in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.
Average Load: As the name implies, it indicates the average value of all the loads occurring
on the station for a given time period (such as day/s or month/s or year/s)

• The average of loads(kW) occurring on the power station in a given period(day or month
or year) is known as average load or average demand.

• It is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period of time in hours.

• Average load = (energy consumed in a given period) / (hours in that time period)

Average load(Daily) = No of units (kWh) generated in a day / 24 hours

Average load(Yearly) = No of units (kWh) generated in a year / 365 x 24

• Load Factor: In electrical engineering the load factor is defined as the average load
divided by the peak load(maximum demand) in a specified time period. It is a measure of
the utilization rate, or efficiency of electrical energy.
• It is the ratio of average load over a given period of time to the maximum demand
occurring in that period.
• usage; a high load factor indicates that load is using the electric system more efficiently,
whereas consumers or generators that underutilize the electric distribution will have a low
load factor.
• Load factor is always less than 1.
 • If the period considered is a day, then the load factor is the daily load factor, if period is
month it is the monthly load factor and similarly for the yearly load factor.

• Higher the load factor of the power statiön, lesser will be the cost per unit generated. It
is because higher load factor means. lesser maximum demand. The station capacity is
selected such that it meets the maximum demand. If lower maximum demand means
lower capacity of plant which reduces the cost of the plant.

• Monthly load factor = kWh or units supplied in a month/ Maximum demand x 24 x 30

2/6/2024 34
Diversity factor:
• To improve the working of the generating station the loads must be diverse or staggered.

• A Power Station supplies a variety of consumers. Each consumer will have an individual
demand and such max demands may not occur all at the same time.

• Hence the maximum demand on the generating station is always less than the sum of
individual maximum demands.

• Diversity Factor is defined as “the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands to
the total maximum demand on the system. It can be expressed as,

Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demand / Maximum demand on power station

• The maximum demands of the individual consumers of a group do not occur

simultaneously. Thus, there is a diversity in the load.

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 • Diversity factor always greater than 1
• Greater the DF, lesser is the cost of generation since more DF means less maximum
demand which corresponds to lesser plant capacity which reduces cost of the plant
and hence that of generation.

Plant Capacity factor:

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could be
produced during a given period.

Plant capacity factor = Actual energy produced

Maximum energy that could be produced
If the period of operation of plant is say T hours

Plant capacity factor = Average demand x T

Plant capacity x T
= Average demand
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Plant capacity 36
For a period of one year
Annual capacity factor = Annual kWh output
Plant capacity x 8760
• Thus it can be seen that the plant capacity factor indicates the reserve capacity of the
plant.
• A power Station should have some reserve capacity for increased load demand in the
future.
• Hence the installed capacity of the plant is greater than the maximum demand.
Reserved capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand

If the plant is not having ant reserved capacity then the plant capacity is equal to maximum
demand which indicates that capacity factor and load factor are same.

Some of the important terms related to this factor are as given below.
Firm power :
It is the power intended to be always available (even under emergency conditions)

2/6/2024reserves : Cold reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is available for
Cold 37
Hot reserves : Hot reserve is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but is
not in service

Spinning reserves: Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the
bus and is ready to take the load.

Plant use factor : It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the
number of hours for which the plant was in operation.

Plant use factor = Station output in kWh

Plant capacity x Hours of use

Utilization Factor: It is defined as it is the ratio of maximum demand to the rated capacity.

Utilization Factor = Maximum demand

Rated system capacity

2/6/2024 38
Curves used in System operation :
1) Load Curve :

• We know that the load on the power system is not constant but it varies from time to time.

• If we consider the load for particular day, then it is observed that the load is maximum
at evening and is very less during night and afternoon periods.

• In a year, load becomes maximum during summer and somewhat less in other seasons.

Fig a: Load Curve 39

• When variation of the load (in MW) is plotted against the time then the curve obtained is
known as Load curve“.
• Different load curves can be plotted such as daily load curve, monthly load curve and yearly
load curve.

Load curve gives the following important information.

1) The daily load curve shows the various load demands during different time of the day.
2) Area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
3) The highest point on the daily load curve shows the maximum demand on the station on that
day.
4) Load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
5) From Load curve operation schedule of the station can be prepared.

40
 Fig b: Load Curve

• Fig. (a) indicates the exact load demand at every instant.

• The same load curve can be approximated in the rectangular form as shown in Fig. (b)

41
Load Duration Curve:
⚫ When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called as a load duration curve.
⚫ Load duration curve represents the load v/s time with the ordinates rearranged in magnitude
sequence i.e. the greatest load on the left side, lesser loads towards the right and the least
load at the extreme right.
• Suppose we consider a daily load duration curve
of a system. The abscissa corresponding to any
kW ordinate of this curve will give the number of
hours during which that amount of load (MW)
has been on the plant.

• The load duration curve gives the data in a more

presentable manner.

Fig : Load duration curve • The area under the curve gives the total units for
2/6/2024 the period considered. 42
Integrated Duration Curve :
⚫ Integrated load duration curve is obtained from load duration curve.
⚫ Integrated load duration curve shows the total number of units (kWh) generated for
the given demand in kW.
⚫ The y' axis represents the load demand in kW and the 'x' axis represents the units
generated (kWh).

2/6/2024 43
Base Load and Peak Load Concept :
⚫ Consider the following load curve,
⚫ If we observe the typical load curve in Fig.(a) then there is certain amount of load which is
continuously present on the power station.
⚫ Thus the unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on a station is known as base
load.
⚫ From Fig.a, there are two peak demands on the power station which occurs for small period
only.
⚫ Thus various peak demands of load curve above the base load of the station is known as
peak load.
⚫ To achieve the overall economy different power stations are interconnected.
⚫ The most economical / efficient plant is used for base load and known as base load station.
⚫ The less efficient plant is used for peak load and known as peak load station.

2/6/2024 44
⚫ To understand the concept of integrated load duration curve, consider Fig. a).
⚫ Consider any load demand say point 'c' on load duration curve which corresponds to line cb.

⚫ The area under this section (area 'cbao') represents the number of units generated.

⚫ In integrated load duration curve Fig. (b), these units generated (h) are indicated by point P1,
which corresponds to load demand 'c’.

⚫ Similarly area under section 'deao' in load curve (Fig.(a) represents the units generated
corresponding line 'de’.

⚫ These units generated (h2) are indicated by point P2, which corresponds to load demand ‘d'
in integrated load duration curve.

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2/6/2024 46
 (a) In rainy season (b) In summer season

Fig. Base load station of peak load station

2/6/2024 47
⚫ Consider that the hydro-electric power station and thermal power station are interconnected
to fulfil the load demand.

⚫ Then the hydro power station is used as base load station during heavy rainfall and thermal
power station is used to satisfy the peak demand or used as a peak load station.

⚫ When there is insufficient quantity of water (in summer) then thermal power stations are
used as base load station and hydroelectric power station as peak load station.

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 Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines
Line Supports : Line supports provides the safe clearance between the conductor and
ground. The height of the line support depends on the system voltage.
Application :
Line supports should possess the following properties :
⚫ High mechanical strength : It is the most important required property of line support. It
should have high mechanical strength to withstand uncertain weather conditions such as
cyclone, heavy rain, wind loads. Also it should be capable of bearing the conductor
weight.
⚫ Light in weight : Line supports should be light in weight without loss of mechanical
strength to have easy transportation.
⚫ They should have longer life.
⚫ They should have low maintenance cost.
⚫ They should have good appearance.
⚫ They should be easily accessible for maintenance of line components.

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Types of Line Supports:
Following are the main four types of line supports :
a) Wooden poles.
b) Steel poles
c) R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete) poles.
d) Steel towers
The selection of line supports for particular application mainly depends on the line span, line
voltage, local conditions, etc.

2/6/2024 50
Wooden Poles: Wooden made up of seasoned wood (sal or chir).
These are useful for comparatively smaller cross-section of conductor and for voltages
upto 22,000 volts, and for spans upto 60 metres.
⚫ Under special conditions single 'H poles may be employed for lines working at
voltages as high as 132 kV and span length of 150 metres.
⚫ Double pole structure of ‘A ‘ or ‘H’ type are often used to obtain higher strength that
what a single pole could provide.
⚫ If properly impregnated against decay these may give a long useful life.

The major disadvantages of the wooden poles are-

⚫ They require periodic inspection and
⚫ Wooden poles tends to rot below the ground level therefore their useful life reduces
⚫ They can be used for comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)

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 Fig a and Fig b- Single Wooden Pole for 11 KV
Fig c and Fig d- Wooden Pole A and H type for
longer span
2/6/2024 52
Steel Poles:
⚫ Steel poles posses better mechanical strength and useful life (30 years) than wooden poles.
⚫ Steel poles finds more application in distribution system.
1) 11 kV, 150 m for primary distribution and
2) 450 V, 50m for secondary distribution system.
⚫ Basically there are three types of steel poles viz. rail poles, tubular poles and rolled steel
joints pole.
⚫ Steel poles can be used upto 33 kV line voltage for 100 to 150 metre span.

Main disadvantages of steel poles are.

⚫ They are costlier than wooden poles.
⚫ Owing high weight transportation and erection of poles are difficult.
⚫ They need to be galvanized or painted regularly in order to achieve long life.

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R.C.C.(Reinforced Cement Concrete) Poles :
⚫ RCC poles have much higher mechanical strength.

⚫ They can be used for longer span up to 75 metres.

⚫ They have longer life.

⚫ They have very low maintenance.

⚫ They have very good insulating properties.

⚫ They can withstand for all types of weather conditions.

⚫ They can be used up to 33 kV in urban as well as rural areas.

⚫ The major disadvantage of these types of poles is that due to heavy weight it is
difficult to transport, also transportation cost increases. This difficulty is overcome by
manufacturing these poles at site.

2/6/2024 54
2/6/2024
R.C.C Poles 55
Steel Towers :
⚫ The types discussed above are generally suitable for distribution system upto voltage level
of 11KV. In some cases their use can be extended upto 33KV.
⚫ But for transmission system, where voltage level is quite high i.e 132kV, 220kV and 400
kV, also the span is more, then these poles are not suitable. Hence steel towers are used.
⚫ Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life and they can withstand most
worst climatic conditions. They can be used for longer spans.
⚫ They required periodic painting or galvanization to protect against corrosion.
⚫ Steel towers can be used for double circuit at moderate additional cost.
⚫ Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth. Therefore each tower
acts as a lightning conductor.

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 a) 110kV Span 320m Single circuit tower b) 220kV Span 320m Double circuit tower
2/6/2024 57
 Fig- Single circuit 66 kV tower and Double circuit 66 kV tower
2/6/2024 58
 Spacing between Conductors
⚫ The spacing between the conductors should be such that it provides the safety against the flash
over due to swinging of wire in wind.

⚫ The spacing between the conductors depends on the line voltage, span length, and the weather
conditions.

⚫ Wires of low weight or light material require more spacing due to more swinging by wind than
heavy wires.

⚫ The spacing between the conductor should be such that it causes the reduction in corona and
proximity effect.

⚫ The spacing between the conductors should be such that it causes minimum mutual inductance
among the line conductors due to which voltage drop in each line reduces.
⚫ Also large spacing between the conductor causes the equal potential distribution across string of
insulators
2/6/2024 59
 Span Lengths
⚫ The distance between the two adjacent poles is known as span length. It is generally denoted by ‘l’
and specified in meters

⚫ The location of the supports (towers) depends upon the profile of the land along which the
transmission line is to be run. This means the span length may not be equal.

⚫ When successive spans are unequal, changes in load or temperature will bring unequal changes in
tension in the different span.

⚫ It is very difficult to calculate the sag and tension for each and every span and then to make
adjustment while erecting the transmission line.

⚫ Therefore it is necessary to have calculations assuming uniform tension in the conductor between the
two tension towers.

⚫ It can be shown mathematically that the variations in the tension with variation in load or
temperature
2/6/2024 are within permissible limits. 60
⚫ The equivalent span length can be calculated as follows.
⚫ Equivalent span length L =

⚫ Where l1 l2 and l3 are the lengths of the individual spans between the two tension
towers.
⚫ It is to be noted that the method of sag template for locating towers should not be
used for long spans as well as where the slope of the profile is very steep. In such
cases it is desirable to make actual calculations for sag and tension.

2/6/2024 61
 Sag
• The straight distance between the two poles gives the shortest distance.

• Therefore to minimise the length of conductor, we may stretch the conductor to make it
straight.

• However if the conductor is stretched too much, beyond its safe value, then conductor may
break due to excessive tension.

• It is very important that conductors are under safe tension. In order to permit safe tension in
the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed to have some dip.
• Thus the difference in level points of supports and lowest point on the conductor is called
sag.
• In the fig below A and B are 2 supports and
conductor is placed in between the 2 supports.
• The distance ‘S’ shows the ‘Sag’.

2/6/2024 62
 Calculation of Sag
⚫ For an overhead lines, the sag is adjusted in such a way that conductor tension is less
than 50% of its ultimate tensile strength i.e the minimum factor of safety should be 2.
⚫ The tension on the conductor depends on the following factors:
1) Weight of the conductor
2) Wind effects.
3) Ice Loading
4) Temperature variations

While calculating the sag there are 2 considerations

⚫ a) When the Supports are at equal ground level.
⚫ b) When the Supports are at unequal ground level

2/8/2024 63
Supports are at Equal Ground Level

Let us consider,.
⚫ The two supports 'A' and "B' at equal ground level.
⚫ Conductor is placed between the supports 'A' and 'B'.
⚫ The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially.
Refer the Fig. below in which ‘O' is the lowest point of conductor spacing.
⚫ L= Length of span in meters
⚫ W = Weight of the conductor per unit length
⚫ T = Tension in the conductor
⚫ Consider any point P on the conductor whose coordinates are 'x and 'y’ if ‘O’ is the origin.
⚫ If the curvature is small then the distance 'OP' is nearly equal to ‘x’.

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⚫ There are two forces acting on the portion 'OP' viz.
1) Weight of the portion ‘OP’ acting downward at a distance x/2 from origin ‘O’.
2) Tangential tension T acting at points ‘O'.
⚫ Taking the moments of the above forces about point ‘O' we have.
⚫ T * y = W * x * x/2
Therefore y = Wx2 / 2T
Here ‘y’ is the sag at point ‘P’. Therefore ‘S’ will be the (maximum) sag at point B.
Subsituting y = S and x= l/2 in above equation to have maximum sag.
Therefore we get,
S = W(l/2)2 / 2T
= Wl2 / 8T meter

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Supports are at Unequal Level
⚫ Due to certain geographical conditions such as
hilly areas, valleys etc the supports can be erected
at unequal ground level.
⚫ Fig. shows the position of lowest points ‘O’ of the
conductor which is not exactly at centre of distance l.
⚫ Therefore
x1 the distance of support at lower level (support A) from lowest point ‘O’
x2 is the distance of support at higher level (support B) from lowest point ‘O’
Fig.- Supports are at unequal ground
l is the span length = x1 + x2 level.
‘ T’ is tension on conductor
h = difference between 2 supports
= (S2 – S1)
If ‘W’ is the weight per unit length of conductor then

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 if l = x1 + x2
and h = (S2 – S1)

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⚫ Subtracting the equations

⚫ Adding the equations

⚫ Using above equations can be found out x1 and x2 and further S1 and S2.
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Effect of Wind and lce Loading on Sag Calculation
⚫ W/hile calculating the sag in above two cases, we have assumed that there is not any other
force acting on the conductor.
⚫ But in actual practice there are two more forces which we have to consider while
calculating the sag. These 2 forces are ice coating and wind pressure.
⚫ The wind pressure acts horizontally and ice coating acts vertically downwards as shown in
fig.below.

Fig- Ice Loading and wind pressure on conductor

• Therefore while calculating sag we have to consider the equivalent weight of the
conductor which is given by Wt
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 Wt = √(W + Wi)2 + (Ww)2
Due to wind pressure the conductor sets itself at an angle from vertical plane.

Sag is given as
This sag is known as Slant sag.

Therefore vertical sag is = S cos ϴ

where
W = conductor weight per unit length
= Conductor material density x volume of conductor per unit length
Wi = weight of ice coating per unit length
= density of ice x volume of ice per unit length
= density of ice x П/4 [(d + t)2 – d2 ] x 1
= density of ice x П/4 [4dt– 4t2 ]
= density of ice x Пt (d + t)
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 Ww = wind force per unit length
= wind pressure per unit area x projected area per unit length
= wind pressure x [(d + 2t) x1]

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