Module - 3 : Transformers

Contents: Magnetic materials, BH characteristics, ideal and practical transformer, equivalent

circuit, losses in transformers, regulation and efficiency. Auto-transformer and three-phase
transformer connections.

Classification of Magnetic Materials:

All materials can be classified in terms of their magnetic behavior falling into one of five
categories depending on their bulk magnetic susceptibility. The two most common types of
magnetism are diamagnetism and paramagnetism, which account for the magnetic properties of
most of the periodic table of elements at room temperature.
Diamagnetism: In a diamagnetic material the atoms have no net magnetic moment when there
is no applied field. Under the influence of an applied field (H) the spinning electrons presses and
this motion, which is a type of electric current, produces a magnetisation (M) in the opposite
direction to that of the applied field. All materials have a diamagnetic effect, however, it is often
the case that the diamagnetic effect is masked by the larger paramagnetic or ferromagnetic
term. The value of susceptibility is independent of temperature.
Paramagnetism: There are several theories of paramagnetism, which are valid for specific
types of material. The Langevin model, which is true for materials with non-interacting localised
electrons, states that eachatom has a magnetic moment which is randomly oriented as a result
of thermal agitation. The application of a magnetic field creates a slight alignment of these
moments and hence a low magnetisation in the same direction as the applied field. As the
temperature increases, then the thermal agitation will increase and it will become harder to
align the atomic magnetic moments and hence the susceptibility will decrease. This behaviour is
known as the Curie law.
Ferromagnetism: Ferromagnetism is only possible when atoms are arranged in a lattice and
the atomic magnetic moments can interact to align parallel to each other. This effect is explained
in classical theory by the presence of a molecular field within the ferromagnetic material, which
was first postulated by Weiss in 1907. This field is sufficient to magnetise the material to
saturation. In quantum mechanics, the Heisenberg model of ferromagnetism describes the
parallel alignment of magnetic moments in terms of an exchange interaction between
neighbouring moments. Weiss postulated the presence of magnetic domains within the
material, which are regions where the atomic magnetic moments are aligned. The movement of
these domains determines how the material responds to a magnetic field and as a consequence
the susceptible is a function of applied magnetic field. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials are
usually compared in terms of saturation magnetisation (magnetisation when all domains are
aligned) rather than susceptibility. In the periodic table of elements only Fe, Co and Ni are
ferromagnetic at and above room temperature. As ferromagnetic materials are heated then the
thermal agitation of the atoms means that the degree of alignment of the atomic magnetic
moments decreases and hence the saturation magnetisation also decreases.
Anti-ferromagnetism: In the periodic table the only element exhibiting antiferromagnetism at
room temperature is chromium. Antiferromagnetic materials are very similar to ferromagnetic
materials but the exchange interaction between neighbouring atoms leads to the anti-parallel

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alignment of the atomic magnetic moments. Therefore, the magnetic field cancels out and the
material appears to behave in the same way as a paramagnetic material. Like ferromagnetic
materials these materials become paramagnetic above a transition temperature, known as the
Néel temperature, TN. (Cr: TN=37ºC).
Ferrimagnetism: Ferrimagnetism is only observed in compounds, which have more complex
crystal structures than pure elements. Within these materials the exchange interactions lead to
parallel alignment of atoms in some of the crystal sites and anti-parallel alignment of others.
The material breaks down into magnetic domains, just like a ferromagnetic material and the
magnetic behaviour is also very similar, although ferrimagnetic materials usually have lower
saturation magnetisations. For example in Barium ferrite (BaO.6Fe2O3).

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Magnetic hysteresis:
1. Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a decrease in the applied field back to zero
results in a macroscopically permanent or residual magnetization, known as remanance, Mr.
The corresponding induction, Br, is called retentivity or remanent induction of the magnetic
material. This effect of retardation by material is called hysteresis.
2. The magnetic field strength needed to bring the induced magnetization to zero is termed as
coercivity, Hc. This must be applied anti-parallel to the original field.
3. A further increase in the field in the opposite direction results in a maximum induction in the
opposite direction. The field can once again be reversed, and the field-magnetization loop can be
closed, this loop is known as hysteresis loop or B-H plot or M- H plot.

Semi-hard magnets:
• The area within the hysteresis loop represents the energy loss per unit volume of material for
one cycle.
• The coercivity of the material is a micro-structure sensitive property. This dependence is
known as magnetic shape anisotropy.
• The coercivity of recording materials needs to be smaller than that for others since data
written onto a data storage medium should be erasable. On the other hand, the coercivity values
should be higher since the data need to be retained. Thus such materials are called magnetically
semi-hard.
• Ex.: Hard ferrites based on Ba, CrO2, γ-Fe2O3; alloys based on Co-Pt-Ta-Cr, Fe-Pt and Fe-Pd,
etc.

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Soft magnets:
1. Soft magnets are characterized by low coercive forces and high magnetic permeabilities; and
are easily magnetized and de-magnetized.
2. They generally exhibit small hysteresis losses.

3. Application of soft magnets include: cores for electro-magnets, electric motors, transformers,
generators, and other electrical equipment.
4. Ex.: ingot iron, low-carbon steel, Silicon iron, superalloy (80% Ni-5% Mo-Fe), 45 Permalloy
(55%Fe-45%Ni), 2-79 Permalloy (79% Ni-4% Mo-Fe), MnZn ferrite / Ferroxcube A (48%
MnFe2O4-52%ZnFe2O4), NiZn ferrite / Ferroxcube B (36% NiFe2O4-64% ZnFe2O4), etc.
Hard magnets:
1. Hard magnets are characterized by high remanent inductions and high coercivities. •These
are also called permanent magnets or hard magnets.
2. These are found useful in many applications including fractional horse-power motors,
automobiles, audio- and video- recorders, earphones, computer peripherals, and clocks.
3. They generally exhibit large hysteresis losses.
4. Ex.: Co-steel, Tungsten steel, SmCo5, Nd2Fe14B, ferrite Bao.6Fe2O3, Cunife (60% Cu 20% Ni-
20% Fe), Alnico (alloy of Al, Ni, Co and Fe), etc

TRANSFORMER:
Working principle of transformer:
A Transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer
produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varying electromotive force (e.m.f) or
“voltage” in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic
field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday’s law of induction
discovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the
alternating voltages in electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have
become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electrical energy. A wide range of transformer design is encountered in electronic and electric
power applications.

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E.M.F Equation of Transformer:

The primary winding draws a current when it is connected to an alternating voltage source this
sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal flux Φ that can be expressed as:

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From eq.(26), it is seen that the input and output power are the same in case of an ideal
transformer , similarly the input and the output reactive power are:

Ideal transformer and it's characteristics:

An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has
- no copper losses (no winding resistance)
- no iron loss in core
- no leakage flux
In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power. The
efficiency of an idea transformer is 100%. Actually, it is impossible to have such a transformer
in practice, but ideal transformer model makes problems easier.

Characteristics of ideal transformer:

 Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as secondary

winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are purely inductive in
nature.
 Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required for
flux establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less magnetizing current is
required to magnetize the transformer core.

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  No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked with
secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of flux get
linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).
 100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis loss,
eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal transformer is exactly equal to the
input power. Hence, 100% efficiency.

Fig. Transformer is unloaded. Fig. Transformer is loaded.

Now, if an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding of an ideal transformer,

counter emf E1 will be induced in the primary winding. As windings are purely inductive, this
induced emf E1 will be exactly equal to the apply voltage but in 180 degree phase opposition.
Current drawn from the source produces required magnetic flux. Due to primary winding being
purely inductive, this current lags 90° behind induced emf E1. This current is called magnetizing
current of the transformer Iμ. This magnetizing current Iμ produces alternating magnetic flux Φ.
This flux Φ gets linked with the secondary winding and emf E 2 gets induced by mutual
induction. This mutually induced emf E2 is in phase with E2. If closed circuit is provided at
secondary winding, E2 causes current I2 to flow in the circuit.

For an ideal transformer, E1I1 = E2I2

Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance:

Magnetic leakage

In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with primary winding does not get linked
with secondary winding. A small part of the flux completes its path through air rather than
through the core (as shown in the fig at right), and this small part of flux is called as leakage flux
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or magnetic leakage in transformers. This leakage flux does not link with both the windings, and
hence it does not contribute to transfer of energy from primary winding to secondary winding.
But, it produces self induced emf in each winding. Hence, leakage flux produces an effect
equivalent to an inductive coil in series with each winding. And due to this there will be leakage
reactance.

(To minimize this leakage reactance, primary and secondary windings are not placed on
separate legs, refer the diagram of core type and shell type transformer from construction of
transformer.)

Practical Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance

In the following figure, leakage reactance and resitance of the primary winding as well as
secondary winding are taken out, representing a practical transformer.

Where, R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding respectively.

X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding resp.

Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.
Z1 = R1 + jX1 ...and Z2 = R2 + jX 2 .
The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each winding. Considering this
voltage drop the voltage equation of transformer can be given as -
V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1 ) -------- primary side
V2 = E2 - I2(R2 + jX2 ) -------- secondary side

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding

V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding respectively. (EMF equation of
a transformer.)

Equivalent circuit of transformer:

In a practical transformer –

(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and R2
respectively. These resistances causes voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1
and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core can not be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed.

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Mutual flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.
We need to consider all the above things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.
Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined
separately from the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the function of windings,
thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage.

The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing components Iμ)
and non inductive resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which are connected into
parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The
value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.
But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplifies the calculations. To make calculations
simpler, it is preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to primary side or to
the secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is more
convenient.
From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,
E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K
Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.
Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............... where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary
parameters referred to the primary.

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Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small that, V1 and E1 can
be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of R0
and X0 would not affect significantly, if we move it to the input terminals as shown in the figure
below.

Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq

Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown in the figure below

Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer:

If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole excitation branch (parallel
combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected. Then the equivalent circuit becomes as shown
in the figure below.

Transformer - Losses and Efficiency:

Losses in transformer:
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and

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output power. An electrical transformer is a static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage
or friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses
and copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that
transformers do not have mechanical losses.

(i) Core losses or Iron losses:

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used
for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.

 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in

the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron,
frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz
formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the
primary winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with
secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets
linked with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which
will result in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This
current is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be
dissipated in the form of heat.

(ii) Copper loss in transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R 1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary
winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current
depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.
Efficiency of Transformer
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output
power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .
Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full
load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output and input
are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of
transformer by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is using,
efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

Condition for maximum efficiency

Let,
Copper loss = I12R1
Iron loss = Wi

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Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are
equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.

Voltage Regulation of Transformer:

Voltage regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude between the sending and
receiving end of a component. It is commonly used in power engineering to describe the
percentage voltage difference between no load and full load voltages distribution lines,
transmission lines, and transformers.

Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer: An electrical power transformer is open

circuited, meaning that the load is not connected to the secondary terminals. In this situation,
the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be its secondary induced emf E2.
Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current

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I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation,
primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in the
secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of transformer. Now if at this loading
condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals, he or she will get voltage
V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary voltage E 2 and this is
because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage, is

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor

Zero Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

‘Zero voltage regulation’ indicates that there is no difference between its ‘no-load voltage’ and
its ‘full-load voltage’. This means that in the voltage regulation equation above, voltage
regulation is equal to zero. This is not practical – and is only theoretically possible in the case for
an ideal transformer.

Auto transformer:
An auto transformer is an electrical transformer having only one winding. The winding has at
least three terminals which is explained in the construction details below.

Some of the advantages of auto-transformer are that,

 they are smaller in size,

 cheap in cost,
 low leakage reactance,
 increased kVA rating,
 low exciting current etc.

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An example of application of auto transformer is, using an US electrical equipment rated for
115 V supply (they use 115 V as standard) with higher Indian voltages. Another example could
be in starting method of three phase induction motors.

Construction of auto transformer

An auto transformer consists of a single copper wire, which is common in both primary as well
as secondary circuit. The copper wire is wound a laminated silicon steel core, with at least three
tappings taken out. Secondary and primary circuit share the same neutral point of the winding.
The construction is well explained in the diagram. Variable turns ratio at secondary can be
obtained by the tappings of the winding (as shown in the figure), or by providing a smooth
sliding brush over the winding. Primary terminals are fixed. Thus, in an auto transformer, you
may say, primary and secondary windings are connected magnetically as well as electrically.

Working of auto transformer:

As I have described just above, an auto transformer has only one winding which is shared by
both primary and secondary circuit, where number of turns shared by secondary are variable.
EMF induced in the winding is proportional to the number of turns. Therefore, the secondary
voltage can be varied by just varying secondary number of turns.
As winding is common in both circuits, most of the energy is transferred by means of electrical
conduction and a small part is transferred through induction.

The considerable disadvantages of an auto transformer are,

 any undesirable condition at primary will affect the equipment at secondary (as
windings are not electrically isolated),
 due to low impedance of auto transformer, secondary short circuit currents are very
high,
 harmonics generated in the connected equipment will be passed to the supply.

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Three Phase Transformer Connections:
Three phase transformer connections In three phase system, the three phases can be connected
in either star or delta configuration. In case you are not familiar with those configurations, study
the following image which explains star and delta configuration. In any of these configurations,
there will be a phase difference of 120° between any two phases.

Three phase transformer connections

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-
star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv)delta-star, These configurations are explained below.

Star-star (Y-Y)

 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of

star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star
connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is
also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the
transformation ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

Delta-delta (Δ-Δ)

 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of

required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the
transformation ratio of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled,
system can continue to operate in open delta connection but with reduced available
capacity.
Star-delta OR wye-delta (Y-Δ)

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the

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 secondary winding is delta connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the
transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

Delta-star OR delta-wye (Δ-Y)

 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in
star with neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of
transmission line.
 The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the following figure.

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