Diamagnetism

1.
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very weak. It is due
to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed to an applied magnetic field.
Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic moments (ie., all
the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a
field, a negative magnetization is produced and thus the susceptibility is negative. If we plot M
vs H, we see:
Note that when the field is zero the magnetization is zero. The other characteristic behavior of
diamagnetic materials is that the susceptibility is temperature independent.
2. Paramagnetism
This class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in the material have a net magnetic moment
due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. One of the most important atoms with
unpaired electrons is iron. However, the individual magnetic moments do not interact
magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the magnetization is zero when the field is removed. In the
presence of a field, there is now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the
direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.
At normal temperatures and in moderate fields, the paramagnetic susceptibility is small (but
larger than the diamagnetic contribution). Unless the temperature is very low (<<100 K) or the
field is very high paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied field. Under these
conditions, paramagnetic susceptibility is proportional to the total iron content. Many iron
bearing minerals are paramagnetic at room temperature.
3. Ferromagnetism
When you think of magnetic materials, you probably think of iron, nickel or magnetite. Unlike
paramagnetic materials, the atomic moments in these materials exhibit very strong interactions.
These interactions are produced by electronic exchange forces and result in a parallel or
antiparallel alignment of atomic moments. Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field
on the order of 1000 Tesla, or approximately a 100 million times the strength of the earth's field.
The exchange force is a quantum mechanical phenomenon due to the relative orientation of the
spins of two electrons. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments resulting
in large net magnetization even in the absence of a magnetic field.
The elements Fe, Ni, and Co and many of their alloys are typical ferromagnetic materials.
Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are their
(1) spontaneous magnetization and the existence of
(2) magnetic ordering temperature
Spontaneous Magnetization
The spontaneous magnetization is the net magnetization that exists inside a uniformly
magnetized microscopic volume in the absence of a field. The magnitude of this magnetization,
at 0 K, is dependent on the spin magnetic moments of electrons. A related term is the saturation
magnetization which we can measure in the laboratory. The saturation magnetization is the
maximum induced magnetic moment that can be obtained in a magnetic field (Hsat); beyond this
field no further increase in magnetization occurs.
The difference between spontaneous magnetization and the saturation magnetization has to do
with magnetic domains (more about domains later). Saturation magnetization is an intrinsic
property, independent of particle size but dependent on temperature.
There is a big difference between paramagnetic and ferromagnetic susceptibility. As compared to

paramagnetic materials, the magnetization in ferromagnetic materials is saturated in moderate
magnetic fields and at high (room-temperature) temperatures:
4. Ferrimagnetism
In ionic compounds, such as oxides, more complex forms of magnetic ordering can occur as a
result of the crystal structure. One type of magnetic ordering is call ferrimagnetism. A simple
representation of the magnetic spins in a ferrimagnetic oxide is shown here.
The magnetic structure is composed of two magnetic sublattices (called A and B) separated by
oxygens. The exchange interactions are mediated by the oxygen anions. When this happens, the
interactions are called indirect or superexchange interactions. The strongest superexchange
interactions result in an antiparallel alignment of spins between the A and B sublattice.
In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B

sublattices are not equal and result in a net magnetic
moment. Ferrimagnetism is therefore similar to
ferromagnetism. It exhibits all the hallmarks of
ferromagnetic behavior- spontaneous magnetization,
Curie temperatures, hysteresis, and remanence.
However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very different
magnetic ordering.
Magnetite is a well known ferrimagnetic material. Indeed, magnetite was considered a
ferromagnet until Nel in the 1940's, provided the theoretical framework for understanding
ferrimagnetism.
Magneto-optic Kerr effect magnetometry and

microscopy (MOKE)
The magneto-optical Kerr effect (MOKE) is a well-established technique to study magnetization
properties. The effect is based on the fact, that the plane of polarization of light is rotated when
the light is reflected from a magnetic material. The physical origin of MOKE is the magnetic
circular dichroic effect: exchange and spin-orbit coupling in a magnetic material lead to different
absorption spectra for left- and right-circularly polarized light. Measuring the change of the
polarization of the reflected beam (often referred to as Kerr angle Kerr) gives access to the
magnetization state of the sample.
With MOKE it is possible to study quasi-static magnetization reversal properties and magnetic
anisotropies. When using a pulsed laser system it is also possible to study the time dependence of
the magnetization under the influence of, e.g., a pulsed magnetic field or a microwave field.
Since it is an optical technique it is non-invasive, and the spatial resolution is only limited by the
optical resolution. Thus, we are able to study the static and dynamic properties of magnetic thin
films and magnetic structures with lateral dimension down to 1 m.
Fig. 1: Schematic setup of a longitudinal Kerr magnetometer.

Our group uses four different MOKE setups, all of them using the same principle. The light of a
laser source is s-polarized through a thin-film polarizer. The beam is focused onto the sample.
The polarization of the reflected light is analyzed by a detector unit that was developed and is
built in our laboratory. A Wollaston prism divides the beam into two orthogonally polarized
beams, which are monitored by a pair of photodiodes. The detector works as an opto-electrical
bridge circuit to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. The obtained normalized differential signal
(I1I2)/(I1+I2) is directly proportional to the Kerr angle Kerr.
Four experimental setups are available to investigate different scientific aspects:
Longitudinal Kerr magnetometer: Longitudinal MOKE geometry to probe quasi-static

properties of magnetic thin films. Optical resolution 100 m, magnetic field up to 0.2 T,
automated sample positioning and rotation.
Microfocused Kerr microscope with rotation unit: Longitudinal MOKE geometry to probe
quasi-static properties of micro-structured magnetic elements. Optical resolution < 1 m, agnetic
field up to 60 mT, automated sample positioning, rotation and stabilization.
Dual MOKE magnetometer: Two combined MOKE magnetometers working in parallel, one in
longitudinal and one in polar geometry to study the quadratic MOKE effects on magnetic thin
films. Optical resolution 100 m, two orthogonal pairs of magnet coils to provide any in-plane
field direction up to 25 mT, automated sample positioning and rotation.
Time resolved scanning Kerr microscope: Longitudinal or polar MOKE geometry to study
dynamic magnetization reversal properties of micro-structured elements. Optical resolution
Time resolved scanning Kerr microscope: Longitudinal or polar MOKE geometry to study
dynamic magnetization reversal properties of micro-structured elements. Optical resolution <
500 nm, time resolution 60 ps, magnetic field up to 15 mT, automated sample positioning and
stabilization.

Diamagnetism

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1.

Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are their

(1) spontaneous magnetization and the existence of

(2) magnetic ordering temperature

There is a big difference between paramagnetic and ferromagnetic susceptibility. As compared to

In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B

Magneto-optic Kerr effect magnetometry and

Fig. 1: Schematic setup of a longitudinal Kerr magnetometer.

Four experimental setups are available to investigate different scientific aspects:

Longitudinal Kerr magnetometer: Longitudinal MOKE geometry to probe quasi-static

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