INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing method used for defect
detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as
critical as it is for some other NDT methods.

These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized Non-destructive testing
methods. MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e., iron filings) to detect
flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the
component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel,
cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized
to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.

The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and
weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a
component’s fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle
inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING FUNDAMENTALS

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be

considered as a combination of two non-destructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage
testing and visual testing. Consider a bar magnet, it has a magnetic field in and around the
magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A
pole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a
line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with
magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not
broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads
out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support
as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it
appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles were sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and
cluster not only at the poles (i.e., at the ends of the magnet) but also at the poles at the edges
of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the
basis for the ferromagnetic particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be
inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage
field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be
attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the
inspector can detect.

Principle of MPI: Magnetic Flux Leakage

Purpose of MPI: The surface and near surface defects up to 6mm (from the inspection
surface) will be detected in the ferromagnetic material by magnetizing either by original
magnet or a suitable current.

SECTION 2

MATERIAL & THEORY OF MAGNETIZATION

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and
electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom’s nucleus, and the electrons are in
constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce
a magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an
electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.

This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale, but consider electric current flowing
through a conductor. When the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the conductor,
a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a
compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle, which is another
example of a dipole. Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some
way by a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.

When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material’s
electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction.
However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field.
This reaction is dependent on a number of factors such as the atomic and molecular structure
of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments
associated with atoms have three origins: the electron orbital motion, the change in orbital
motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the opposite direction.
So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their magnetic fields to
cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some
unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic, or paramagnetic.

Diamagnetic Material
Materials have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic
materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are solids
with all paired electrons and, therefore, no permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron orbits under the influence
of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver,
and gold, are diamagnetic.

Paramagnetic Material

Materials have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials are
slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some
unpaired electrons and from the realignment of the electron orbits caused by the external
magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and
tantalum.

Ferromagnetic Material

Materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a
strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties after the
external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so
their atoms have a net magnetic moment.

They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these
domains, large numbers of atom moments (10 to 10^25) are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong. When ferromagnetic materials are in the non-
magnetized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for
the part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned
to produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of
ferromagnetic materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using the
magnetic particle method.

MAGNETIC FIELD CHARACTERISTICS

When magnetic domains remain aligned or extended after removal from the influence of a
magnetic field, the material is still said to be magnetized. This residual field is called
remanence or residual magnetic field.

The ability of materials to retain magnetism after the magnetizing force has been removed is
called retentivity. Although described as magnetic lines, the magnetic field within and
surrounding magnetized materials is continuous.
When a paper is placed over a magnet and fine iron particles are sprinkled on the paper, the
iron particles align with the magnetic field in distinct lines of equipotential magnetic intensity
and appear to form lines. Therefore, the magnetic field is referred to as lines or lines of force.
Although these terms seem to contradict the definition of a continuous field, they are used for
visualization and mathematical purposes only. Figure 2.2 illustrates this effect for a bar
magnet. In a permanent magnet, more of the magnetic domains remain aligned than are
randomly oriented.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

- They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles. In a single bar
magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form a closed loop from pole to pole.
- They never cross one another.
- They all have the same strength.
- Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher
permeability to an area of lower permeability.
- Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
- They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs.
They flow from the South Pole to the North Pole within the material and North Pole to South
Pole in air.

Electric Currents & Magnetic Fields in Conductors

Current in a coil. Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In 1820, Hans Christian
Oersted discovered that an electric current flowing through a wire caused a nearby compass
to deflect. This indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic field.

Magnetic Field in a Coil

When a current-carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a
magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along the
longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field
circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a
concentrated field down the center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to
show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the
length of the coil when it is wound tighter.

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by
studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced
magnetic flux density B and the magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
An example hysteresis loop is shown in the figure. The loop is generated by measuring the
magnetic flux B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force H is changed. A
ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly
demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the
greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component
(B+). At point “a” almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase
in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve
will move from point “a” to point “b.” At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux
remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero.

This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level
of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but
some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to
point “c”, where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on
the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net
flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from
the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point “d”).

Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point “e.” It will have a level of residual magnetism
equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will
return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some
force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from
point “f” back to the saturation point where it will complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined:

Permeability, μ - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux
is established in the component. Reluctance is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material
shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an
electrical circuit.

Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction
of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material’s ability to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation.
(The value of B at point B on the hysteresis curve.)

Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - The magnetic flux density that remains in a material
when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same
when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual
magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value
In magnetic particle testing the level of residual magnetism is important. Residual magnetic
fields are affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon content and
alloying of the material. A component with high carbon content will have low permeability
and will retain more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon content.Magnetization –
Magnetic Field Orientation

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects,it is important to understand that
orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two
general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component. A longitudinal
magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of the part.
Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the longitudinal field
set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished using permanent or electromagnets.A
circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the
perimeter of a part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current
through the component or by passing current through a conductor surrounded by the
component.

The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize the
specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best
detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to
the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the
magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part. As can
be seen in the image below, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see
little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.

Flaw Detectability

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to
form an indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is
normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component below
is considered, it is known that passing current through the part from end to end will establish
a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore,
defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects)
should be detectable. Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular
magnetization.Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials

There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a component
for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing
methods as either direct or indirect.

Magnetization Using Direct Induction (Direct Magnetization)

With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. Recall that
whenever current flows a magnetic field is produced. Using the right hand rule, which was
introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flux form normal to the direction of
the current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. When using the direct
magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good electrical contact is established
and maintained between the test equipment and the test component. Improper contact can
result in arcing that may damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components in
areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small cross-sectional area.

Direct magnetization is commonly accomplished several ways. One way involves clamping
the component between two electrical contacts in a special piece of equipment. Current is
passed through the component and a circular magnetic field is established in and around the
component.When the magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic field will remain
within the component. The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the
amount of current passed through the component a second technique involves using clams or
prods, which are attached or placed in contact with the component. Current is injected into
the component as it flows from the contacts. The current sets up circular magnetic fields
around the path of the current.

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)

Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish

a magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there are several ways
that indirect magnetization can be accomplished.

The use of permanent magnets is a low-cost method of establishing a magnetic field.

However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of
placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.Another way of
indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the magnetic field of a current
carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field can be established in cylindrical components by
using a central conductor. Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung from a
solid copper bar running through the inside diameter. Current is passed through the copper
bar and the resulting circular magnetic field established a magnetic field with the test
components. The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. When
the length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic
field can be established in the component. The component is placed longitudinally in the
concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization
technique is often referred to as a “coil shot.”

METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION

1. CONTINUOUS MAGNETIZATION
Continuous magnetization is employed for most of the operations utilizing either dry or wet
particles. The sequence of operations for both dry and wet applications is different.

a) Dry Continuous Magnetization Technique

Unlike wet particles, dry particles lose their mobility when they come into contact with the
part. Therefore, it is imperative that the part / area of interest be under the influence of
magnetic field while the particles are still airborne and free to be attracted towards the
leakage field. This dictates that the flow of current shall be initiated before the application of
dry medium and terminated after the excess powder is blown off.

b) Wet Continuous Magnetization Technique

The wet continuous magnetization technique generally applies to those parts processed on a
horizontal wet type unit. In practice, it involves bathing the part with the examination
medium to provide an abundant supply of particles on the surface of the part and terminating
the bath application immediately prior to cutting off the magnetizing current.

2. RESIDUAL MAGNETIZATION TECHNIQUE

In this technique, the examination medium is applied after the magnetizing force has been
discontinued. It can be used only on materials that possess high retentivity property, such that
the particles can be held on the surface and produce indications. This technique may be
advantageous for integration with production or handling requirements or for intentionally
limiting the sensitivity of the examination. It has found wide use in the inspection of pipe and
tubular goods.

Section 3 magnetize current

Electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in components during magnetic
particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the two basic types of current
commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three phase 440 volts are used when
generating an electric field in a component. Current flow is often modified to provide the
appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can have an effect on the inspection
results so the types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.

Direct Current

Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the
most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current is said to flow from
the positive to the negative terminal when in actuality the electrons flow in the opposite
direction. DC is very desirable when performing magnetic particle inspection in search of
subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the
material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates
the entire cross-section of the component, whereas, the field produced using alternating
current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.

Alternating Current

Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the
United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is common in
many countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use
of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field
in ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface
of the component. This phenomenon is known as “skin effect” and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the
domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used
only when the inspection is limited to surface defects.

Rectified Alternating Current

Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for the
detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC drives its use beyond
surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be
converted to a one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are
described below.

1. Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow
in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one-directional,
pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to
zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC
repeats at the same rate as the unrectified current (50 or 60 hertz typical). Since half of the
current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.

This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of
the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving
them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles.
The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often
used to power electromagnetic yokes.

2. Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)

Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it
out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually
performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle
mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the
subsurface magnetic field is improved.

3. Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current

Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more
favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. It is also highly desirable for
magnetic part testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very
closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three
phase AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave
rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.

The figure below shows waveforms of different current types: Input AC, Rectified AC, and
Rectified Filtered AC at Half-wave, Full-wave (single phase), and Full-wave (three phase)
currents.

SECTION 4

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING EQUIPMENTS & CURRENT SELECTION

TECHNIQUES FOR LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

Techniques for creating longitudinal magnetization are as follows:

YOKE

There are two basic types of yokes that are commonly used for magnetizing purposes. They
are permanent-magnet and electromagnetic yokes. Both are handheld and therefore, are quite
mobile.

Permanent-Magnet Yokes

They are used for applications where a source of electric power is not available or where
arcing is not permissible (as in an explosive atmosphere). The permanent magnetic yoke,
when placed on the part grips the surface well enough, particularly on an overhead part which
is to be magnetically examined. It can basically fit to any contour of the part, with little or no
difficulty. Permanent magnets can lose their magnetic field generating capacity by being
partially demagnetized by a stronger flux field, being damaged or dropped. In addition, the
particle mobility created by AC and HWAC in electromagnetic yokes is not present.

However, there are certain limitations of permanent-magnet yokes:

(a) Large areas or masses cannot be magnetized with enough strength to produce satisfactory
indications.
(b) Since it contains a predetermined magnetic field, the flux density cannot be varied at will.

(c) If the magnet is powerful, it may be difficult to remove it from the part.

(d) Particles, when applied, may cling to the magnet, possibly obscuring indications.

Electromagnetic Yokes

They consist of a coil wound around a soft iron core, usually in the form of a horseshoe. The
legs of a yoke can be either fixed or adjustable. Adjustable legs permit changing the contact
spacing to accommodate irregular objects. Unlike a permanent yoke, the electromagnetic
yoke can be readily switched on or off. This feature makes the yokes to be applied or
removed whenever required form the test piece. The design of the electromagnetic yoke can
be based on the use of either direct current or alternating current. Varying the amount of
current through the coil can vary the flux density of the magnetic field. The direct current
yoke has better penetration, while an AC yoke concentrates its magnetic field on the surface
providing good sensitivity to surface discontinuities over a broad area. In general, the
discontinuities to be disclosed should be centrally located between the pole pieces and should
essentially lie perpendicularly to an imaginary line connecting them. Extraneous leakage
fields in the immediate vicinity of the poles cause an excessive particle buildup. If such a
case is encountered, the pole spacing is increased, to limit this cause. As for prods, the
maximum pole spacing is 8" and the minimum pole spacing is 3". Spacing less than 3" will
cause banding of particles around the poles of yoke, obscuring any indication.

In operation, the part completes the magnetic circuit for the flow of magnetic flux. Yokes that
use AC for magnetization have numerous applications and can be used for demagnetization
also.

Discontinuities preferentially located transverse to the alignment of pole pieces are indicated.
Most yokes are energized by AC, HWAC, or FWAC. This method shall only be used to detect
discontinuities that are open to the surface of the part.

Except for materials ¼" thick (6mm) or less in thickness, AC yokes of equal lifting power for
the detection of surface discontinuities.

Yoke Magnetizing Strength

The strength of electromagnetic yoke is ascertained by checking the lifting power of yoke.

(a) Check that the AC yoke will lift a 10 pound (4.5 Kg) steel bar with the legs at the
inspection
(b) spacing. Check that the DC yoke will lift a 40-pound (18.1 Kg) steel bar with the legs.
spacing. at the inspection

The yoke shall be calibrated once in a year, or whenever the yoke is damaged. If the yoke has
not been in use for the past one year, a calibration check shall be done before its first use

Advantages

- No electrical contact
- Highly portable
- Can locate discontinuities in any direction, with proper yoke orientation
- Good sensitivity to surface discontinuities
- Wet or dry method can be used
- AC yoke can also serve as a demagnetizer in some cases

Disadvantages

- Time-consuming
- Yoke must be systematically repositioned to locate discontinuities with random orientation.
- Yoke must be properly positioned relative to the orientation of the discontinuity.
- Relatively good contact must be established between part and poles of the magnet.
- Complex part shape may cause difficulty.
- Poor sensitivity to subsurface discontinuities except in isolated areas.

COIL MAGNETIZATION

Single and multiple loop coils are used for longitudinal magnetization of components. The
field within the coil has a definite direction, corresponding to the direction of lines of force
running through it. The flux density passing through the interior of the coil is proportional to
the product of current and the number of turns of the coil. Therefore, changing either the
current or the number of turns of the coil can vary the magnetizing force. For large parts,
winding several turns of cable around the part can produce a coil. Care must be taken to
ensure that no indications are concealed beneath the cable.

The relationship between the length of the part being inspected to the width of the coil must
be considered. For a simple part, the effective overall distance that can be inspected using a
coil is approximately 6-9 inches on either side of the coil.

In testing large parts, either the part or the coil is moved at regular intervals for complete
coverage. The ease with which the part can be magnetized in a coil is significantly related to
the length diameter ratio (L/D) of the part. This is due to the demagnetizing effect of the
magnetic pole's setup at the ends of the part. This effect is considerable for L/D ratios less
than 10 to 1 and is very significant for ratios less than 3 to 1. When using a coil for
magnetizing a long bar, strong polarity at the ends of the part could mask transverse defects)
An advantageous field in this area is assured on full wave, three-phase, DC units by a special
circuitry known as "quick" or "fast" break.

Advantages

- All generally longitudinal surfaces are longitudinally magnetized to transverse

discontinuities. Longitudinal field easily attained by wrapping the part with a flexible cable.
- Easy and fast, especially where the residual method is applicable.
- Non-contact with part
- Relatively complex parts can be usually processed with the same ease as for a simple part.

Disadvantages

- Parts should be centered in the coil to maximize length effectively during a given shot.
Length may dictate additional shots as the coil is repositioned. Large Castings, Forgings, or
Shafts
- Multiple processing may be required because of part shape.
- L/D ratio is important in determining the current adequacy.
- Sensitivity diminishes at the end of the part because of the general leakage field pattern.
- Quick break of current is desirable to minimize the end effect on short parts with low L/D
ratios.

CURRENT FOR COIL METHOD

For this technique, the magnetization is accomplished by passing current through a multi-turn
fixed coil (or cables) wrapped around the part. The required field strength shall be calculated
based on the length (L) and the diameter (D). For non-cylindrical parts, D shall be the
maximum cross-sectional diagonal.

(i) Parts with L/D Ratios Equal to or Greater than 4:

The magnetizing current shall be within +/- 10% of the ampere-turns value determined as
below:

Ampere-turns = 35000

For example, a part with 10" long, 2" diameter has an L/D ratio of 5, and then the required
ampere-turns shall be:

Ampere-turns = 35000 / (5 + 2) = 5000 AT

(ii) Parts with L/D Ratio Less than 4, but Not Less Than 2:
The magnetizing current shall be within +/- 10% of the ampere-turns value determined as
below:

Ampere-turns = 45000

(iii) If the area to be magnetized extends beyond 6" on either side of the coil, field adequacy
shall be demonstrated by a field indicator.

(iv) For large parts, due to size and shape, the magnetizing current shall be 1200 AT to 4500
AT. Field indicator shall demonstrate the field adequacy. Magnetizing Current shall be
calculated by dividing the Ampere-turns obtained from above, by the number of turns of the
coil.

TECHNIQUES OF CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION

The techniques used to create a circular magnetic field in the material are as follows:

HEADSHOT TECHNIQUE

This is otherwise called as the Direct Contact Method. For small parts having no openings
through the interior, circular magnetic fields are produced by direct contact to the part.

This is done by clamping the parts between the contact heads of a headshot machine,
generally a bench unit as shown in the figure. A similar unit can also be used to supply
current to the central conductor. The contact heads are so constructed that the surfaces of the
part or not damaged either physically or pressure or structurally by heat from arcing or from
high resistance at the point of contact. The contact heads must be kept clean to carry out a
useful inspection. For the complete inspection of a complex part, it may be necessary to
attach clamps at several points or to wrap cables around the parts to orient the fields in a
particular direction. Copper braided pads are often used in headstocks to provide the contact
area and reduce the possibility of burning of the part during inspection, as high values of
current are passing through it.

Advantages

- Fast and easy technique

- Circular magnetic field surrounds the current path
- Good sensitivity to surface and near-surface discontinuities
- Simple as well as relatively complex parts can be easily processed with one or more shots.
- Complete magnetic path maximizes residual characteristics of the material.

Disadvantages

- Possibility of arc burns if poor contact conditions exist.

- Long parts should be magnetized in sections to facilitate batch application without resorting
to an overly long current shot.
- Large Castings and Forgings

CURRENT FOR HEADSHOT METHOD - DIRECT CONTACT TECHNIQUE

For this technique, passing current through the part magnetizes the part. Direct or rectified
current shall be used.

(i) The current shall be 300 Amp/inch to 800 Amp/inch of outer diameter.
(ii) Parts with geometric shapes other than round with the greatest cross-sectional diagonal in
a plane at right angles to the current flow shall determine the inches to be used.
(iii) If the current levels required for the above cannot be obtained, the maximum current
shall be determined by checking the field adequacy, by a field indicator.
(iv) For non-cylindrical parts, and when examining large parts by clamping the contacts to
the wall thickness, field adequacy shall be demonstrated by a field indicator.

PROD CONTACTS

For the inspection of large and massive parts too bulky to be put into any sort of units, prod
contacts are used to pass the current directly through the part or through a local portion of it.
Such local contacts do not always produce true circular fields, but they are very convenient
and practical for many purposes. Prod contacts are often used in the magnetic particle
inspection of large castings and weldments.

The prod tips that contact the piece should be aluminum, copper braid, or copper pads rather
than solid copper. With solid copper tips, accidental arcing during prod placement or removal
could cause copper penetration in the surface, which may result in metallurgical damage
(softening, hardening, cracking, etc.).

The prod electrodes (legs) are first pressed firmly placed against the test part. The
magnetizing current is then passed through the prods and into the area of the part in contact
with the part. This establishes a circular field in the part around and in between each prod
electrode, sufficient to carry out a local magnetic particle testing. Extreme care should be
taken to maintain clean pod tips, to minimize heating at the point of contact and to prevent
arc burns and local overheating of the surface. This could cause adverse effects on the surface
being examined and might cause an effect on the material properties as well. Prods should be
used on machined surfaces or on aerospace component parts.

Un-rectified AC limits the prod technique to the detection of surface discontinuities. HWAC
is the most desirable form of current since it will detect both surface and near-surface
discontinuities. The prod technique generally uses dry magnetic particles due to better
particle mobility. Wet magnetic particles are not generally used with prods because of
potential electrical and flammability hazards.
Proper prod placement requires a second placement with the prods rotated approximately 900
from the first placement to assure that all existing discontinuities are revealed. Sufficient
overlap should be given between successive prod placements. On large surfaces, it is good
practice to layout a grid for prod or yoke technique. Prod spacing is measured as the distance
from a centerline connecting the prod centers. It should not exceed 8" (200mm). Shorter
spacing may be used to accommodate geometric limitations of the area being examined, or to
increase sensitivity. Prod spacing of less than 3" are usually not practical due to the banding
of particles around the legs of the prods. When the area of examination exceeds a width of
one-quarter of prod spacing, the magnetic intensity should be verified at the edges of the area
being examined.

Advantages

- Circular field can be selectively directed to weld area by prod placement.

- In conjunction with HWAC and dry powder, provides excellent sensitivity to surface and
subsurface discontinuities.
- Portability can be brought to the examination site easily.

Disadvantages

- Only a small area can be examined at one time.

- Arc burns due to poor contact
- Surface must be dry when dry powder is being used
- Prod spacing must be in accordance with the magnetizing current level

CURRENT FOR PROD METHOD DIRECT CONTACT TECHNIQUE

Direct or rectified current shall be used. The current shall be 100 Amp/inch to 125 Amp/inch
of prod spacing for sections Inches (19mm) thick or greater. For sections less than 5 inches
thick, the current shall be 90mm/inch to 110amp/inch of prod spacing.

CENTRAL CONDUCTOR

Central conductor forms a part of inducing indirect magnetization in the specimen. For many
tubular and ring-shaped objects, it is advantageous to use a separate conductor to carry the
current rather than the part itself. Such a conductor, commonly referred to as a central
conductor, is threaded through the inside of the part and is a convenient means of circularly
magnetizing a part without the need for making direct contact with the material itself. Central
conductors are made of solid and tubular, magnetic and nonmagnetic materials that are good
conductors of electricity.

The basic rules regarding the magnetic fields around the circular conductor carrying direct
current are as follows:
- The magnetic field around the conductor of uniform cross-section is uniform.
- The magnetic field is 90 degrees to the path of the current through the conductor.
- The flux density outside the conductor varies inversely proportional with the radial distance
from the center of the conductor.

Circular Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity

When current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field forms in and around the
conductor. The following statements can be made about the distribution and intensity of the
magnetic field. The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a
maximum at the surface.

- The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor
increases when the current strength is held constant. However, a larger conductor is capable
of carrying more current.
- The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current strength.
- Inside the conductor, the field strength is dependent on the current strength, magnetic
permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the locations on the B-H curve.
- The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.

MULTIDIRECTIONAL MAGNETIZATION

With all magnetizing methods, discontinuities that are perpendicular to the magnetic field are
optimally detected. However, discontinuity detection depends heavily on material
penetrability and properties of the testing medium. It is true that magnetic particle inspection
also detects defects that are not exactly perpendicular to the magnetic field.

In this case, the lines of flux can be decomposed into two ways, one parallel and the other
perpendicular to the direction of the crack. The perpendicular component constitutes their
detectability. In some cases, even cracks appearing to be parallel to the field are weakly
detected. The reason is that most cracks are ragged in outline so that some sections may be
favorable for detection. However, at best, cracks can be detected when the angle between
them and the direction of magnetization is more than 30 degrees.
SECTION 5

DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

Solid Nonmagnetic Conductor Carrying Direct Current

The distribution of magnetic field inside a nonmagnetic conductor, such as a copper bar,
when carrying a direct current is different from the distribution external to the bar. At any
point outside the bar, the flux density is the result of only that portion of the current that is
flowing in the metal between the point and the center of the bar. Therefore, the flux density
increases linearly, from zero at the center of the bar to a maximum value at the surface.
Outside the bar, the magnetic field decreases along the curve as shown in the figure. In
calculating the flux densities outside the bar, the current can be considered to be concentrated
at the center of the bar. If the radius of the bar (R), and the flux density (B) at the surface of
the bar is equal to the magnetizing force (H), then the flux density at a distance of 2R from
the center of the bar will be H/2; at 3R, H/3; and so on.

Solid Ferromagnetic Conductor Carrying Direct Current

If the current carrying conductor is a solid magnetic material, the same distribution exists as
in a nonmagnetic conductor, but the flux density is much higher. The flux density is zero at
the center, but at the surface it is X H, where X is the permeability of the magnetic material.
The actual flux density may be much more than in a nonmagnetic material.

Solid Ferromagnetic Conductor Carrying Alternating Current

The distribution of the magnetic field in a solid ferromagnetic conductor carrying alternating
current is shown in the figure. Outside the conductor, the flux density decreases along the
same curve as if direct current produced the magnetic force, however, while AC is flowing,
the field is constantly varying in strength and direction. Inside the conductor, the flux density
is zero at the center and increases toward the outer surface – slowly at first, then accelerating
towards maximum at the surface. The flux density at the surface is proportional to the
permeability of the conductor material.

Central Conductor Enclosed Within Hollow Ferromagnetic Cylinder

When the central conductor is used to magnetize a hollow cylindrical part made of a
ferromagnetic material, the flux density is maximum at the inside surface of the part. The flux
density produced by the current in the central conductor is maximum at the surface of the
conductor, through the space between the conductor and the inside surface of the part. At this
surface, the flux density is immediately increased by the permeability factor (%) of the
material of the part and then decreases to the outer surface. Hence the flux density again
drops to the same decreasing curve it was following inside the part. This method then,
produces strong indications at the inside surface, as the flux density is maximum. Sometimes,
these indications may appear at the outside surface of the part. The flux density is same at the
inside surface of the part for both magnetic and nonmagnetic material, because it is the field
external to the conductor that constitutes the magnetizing the part.

In small hollow cylindrical parts, it is desirable that the conductor be placed centrally so that
a uniform magnetic field will exist for the detection of discontinuities at all portions of the
part. When AC is passed through a hollow circular conductor the skin effect concentrates the
magnetic field at the OD of the component.
As can be seen in the field distribution images, the field strength at the inside surface of
hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced by direct magnetization is very
low. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when inspecting the
inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength increases
rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID so if the defect has significant depth, it may be
detectable. However, a much better method of magnetizing hollow components for inspection
of the ID and OD surfaces is with the use of a central conductor. As can be seen in the field
distribution image to the right, when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central
conductor (copper bar) the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a
magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect detection on the
OD surface.

SECTION 6

MEDIUMS, TYPES & APPLICATION METHODS

Magnetic particles are classified according to the medium used to carry to the parts. The
medium can be air (dry particle method), or a liquid (wet-particle method). Magnetic
particles can be made of any low-Retentivity ferromagnetic powder that is finely subdivided.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Permeability

The particles used for magnetic particle inspection should have high permeability so that they
can be readily magnetized to low-level leakage fields that occur around discontinuities and
can be drawn to these leakage sites to form a visible indication. The leakage field produced
by some tight cracks is extremely weak. Low coercive force and low retentivity are other
desirable magnetic properties for mediums. If in high coercive force, wet particles become
strongly magnetized and form an objectionable background. In addition, the particles will
adhere to any steel in tanks or piping of the unit causing heavy settling-out losses. Highly
retentive wet particles tend to cling together quickly in large aggregates on the test surface,
leading to lack in mobility and coarse indication may backgrounds.

Effect of Particle Size

Large and heavy particles are not likely to be arrested by weak fields, but very weak fields
will hold fine particles. However extremely fine particles will adhere to fingerprints, rough
surfaces and soiled or other damp areas, thus obscuring indications. For a wet medium, if the
particle size is finer, the liquid will readily drain away leaving a thin film of particles on the
surface. Coarser particles will become stranded and immobilized.

Effect of Particle Shape

Long slender particles develop a strong polarity than globular particles. Because of the
attraction exhibited by the opposite poles, these tiny, slender particles, which have
pronounced north and south poles, arrange themselves into strings more readily than globular
particles. The ability of globular dry particles is that they flow freely and smoothly under
similar conditions, where elongated particles tend to mat. The greatest sensitivity is provided
by a blend of elongated and globular particles.

Visibility and Contrast

Visibility and Contrast are promoted by choosing particles that are easy to see against the
color of the surface of the part being inspected. The natural color of metallic powders used in
dry method is silver-gray, but pigments are added to impart color to the particles. The colors
of wet method particles are limited to black and red of the iron oxides that are used as the
base for wet particles. For increased visibility, the manufacturers coat particles with a
fluorescent pigment. The search for indications is conducted in total or partial darkness, using
ultraviolet radiation to activate the fluorescent dyes. They are available in both wet and dry
mediums, but fluorescent method is mast commonly used with wet method.TYPES OF
MAGNETIC PARTICLES

The two primary types of particles used in magnetic particle inspection are dry and wet
particles. The particle selection is influenced by

Location of the discontinuity, ie, surface or subsurface.

Size of the discontinuity, if on the surface. Which type, wet or dry particles, is easier to apply.

Dry Particles

Dry particles, when used with direct current for magnetization, are superior for detecting
discontinuities wholly below the surface. The use of AC is with dry particles is excellent for
detection of surface cracks that are not exceedingly fine, but is of little interest for subsurface
discontinuities. Dry powder is not recommended for the detection of fine discontinuities such
as fatigue cracks and grinding cracks.Dry Particle Uses in weld testing, the typical particle
technique uses with prods and yokes, with the inspector magnetizing and testing short
overlapping lengths of the weld. The continuous magnetization method is used (the magnetic
field is continuously activated while the inspector applies the powder and removes the
excess.). Automated processing has been used for testing linear welds on large diameter
pipes. However, much testing is usually done on site and only portable test systems can be
used. Direct current is usually preferred for the inspection of weld, as it penetrates deeply and
allows the indication of slightly linear subsurface discontinuities.

Dry particles are particularly used for magnetic particle inspection of large castings. Cast
objects are usually tested with yokes or prods, with test covering small overlapping areas.
Dry particles are mostsensitive for the use on very rough surface sand for detecting the flaws
beneath the surface. The reclamation and re- use of the particles is not recommended.
“Magnetic particle examination using dry mediums shall not be performed, if the surface
temperature of the part exceeds 600°F”

Application methods

Air is used as a medium to carry the particles to the part’s surface and care must be taken to
apply them correctly. Dry particles must be applied in gentle stream or cloud. If applied too
rapidly, the stream may dislodge already formed indications and will present an objectionable
background masking real indication. Manual and mechanized applicators can provide proper
density and speed of particle applications. When the particles are applied, they come under
the influence of the leakage fields when they are airborne and have a mobility, float a cloud
of particles onto the test objects surface and then a gentle stream of air to remove lightly held
background particlesFor best results, the magnetizing current should be present throughout
the application of the particles and the removal of background. It is equally important to
monitor the particles while they are being applied. This is especially true if all subsurface
discontinuity indications that are weakly held and not well delineated, as they are susceptible
to damage from particles applied later.

Particle Reuse

It is recommended that dry magnetic particles be used anly once. Ferrous magnetic powders
are dense. When agitated in bulk, as in a powder blower or a bulb, a lot of shearing and
abrasion happens which wears off the pigment. As a result, after each reuse, the color are
contrast will continually diminish to the point that discontinuity indications are not
visibleParticle Storage

The storage method for dry powders is critical to their subsequent use. The primary
environment condition is moisture. If they are exposed to high levels of moisture, they
immediately begin to form oxides. Rusting alters colors, but the major problem is that the
particles adhere to each other, forming lumps or large masses that are useless for magnetic
particle inspection. There are limitations, though not severe, on the temperatures at which dry
powders can be stored and used. Visible powders work on surfaces as hot as 3700C at which
some particles will become sticky and others lose some of their color Beyond 3700 C,
magnetic powders can ignite and burn Fluorescent and daylight fluorescent powders lose
their visible contrast at 1500C and sometimes at lower temperatures. This occurs because the
pigments are organic compounds that decompose or lose their ability to fluorescent at
particular temperatures.

Advantages of Dry Mediums:

Dry magnetic particle is superior to wet particles in the detection of near surface
discontinuities.
For large objects, when using portable equipment for local magnetization.

Superior particle mobility is obtained for relatively deep-seated flaws, with half-wave
rectified current as the source.

Can be readily removed from the surface easily.

Disadvantages of Dry Mediums:

Cannot be used in confined areas without proper safety breathing apparatus.

Probability of Detection (POD) is appreciably less than the wet medium for fine surface
flaws.

Difficult to use in overhead magnetizing positions

No evidence exists of complete coverage of the part as like wet method.

Lower production rates.

It is difficult to adapt to any sort of automotive system.

Wet Particles

Wet mediums are suited for the detection of fine surface discontinuities such as fatigue
cracks. Wet particles are commonly used with stationary equipment where the bath can
remain in use until contaminated. They are also used in field operations, but care should be
taken to maintain bath concentration by constant agitation.

They are available in red and black colors or as fluorescent particles that impart bluish green
or greenish yellow color. The particles are supplied in the form of a paste, or as a concentrate
that is suspended in a liquid to produce a bath. The liquid may be either water or petroleum
distillate having specific properties. (In wet method, particles size may range from 1/8th of a
micron up to 40 or 60 microns (0.0015-0.0025 inches). The particle size is smaller compared
to dry mediums and hence they are not a form of substitution for dry particles, when they are
not available. The small size and generally compact shape of wet particles have a dominating
effect on their behavior. Their size renders permeability measurements highly inexact and of
limited utility. In addition, the size influences the brightness of fluorescent indications when
detected by this medium. The temperature of the wet suspension and the surface of the part
shall not exceed 135°F.

Vehicles for Wet Method Particles

There are two kinds of vehicles that are used to carry the powder on to the surface of the part.
They are water and oil suspending liquids.

Oil Suspending Liquids

Oil is used as a suspending liquid for magnetic particle testing and should be odorless, well-
refined light petroleum distillate of low viscosity having low sulfur content and high flash
point. Low viscosity is desired because the movement of the particles in the bath is
sufficiently retarded to have a definite effect in reducing buildup, and therefore visibility of
indication from a small discontinuity. Parts should be pre-cleaned to remove coil and grease
from the surface of the part, because oil from the surface accumulates in the bath and
increases its viscosity. Oil vehicles are preferred in certain applications:

(a) Where lack of corrodibility to ferrous alloys is vital, such as finished bearing and bearing
races.

(b) Where water should pose an electrical hazard.

(c) On some high strength alloys, where hydrogen atoms from water can diffuse into the
crystal structure of certain alloys and cause hydrogen embrittlement.

Water Suspending Liquids

The use of water as a suspendable liquid eliminates additional cost and flammability hazards.
Water cannot by itself be used as a medium. It rusts ferrous alloys, wets the surface poorly,
and does not disperse the particles efficiently. Hence water suspendible particle concentrates
should contain the necessary wetting agents, dispersing agents, rust inhibitors, and anti-
foaming agents. It should not be used in freezing conditions where formation of ice would
seriously retard the mobility of the particles. However, ethylene glycol can be used to protect
against reasonably low temperatures. Water vehicles are preferred for the following reasons:

Lower cost.

Little fire hazard.

No petrochemical fumes.

Quicker indication formation.

Minimum cleanup required on site.

Bath Preparation
Wet magnetic particle baths may be mixed by the supplier or may be sold dry for mixing by
the user. If the user is preparing the bath, the concentration of the bath should be given
primary importance. The effectiveness and reliability of inspection is primarily dependent on
concentration of bath. If the concentration of the bath is too high, the background will be
intense enough to camouflage the indications. On the other hand, if the concentration is too
low, the indications will be weak and difficult to locate. Keeping the concentration at a
constant level eliminates the indication to background contrast.

Settling test

The effective concentration is ably achieved through a settling test. Since the 1940's, settling
test has been used to measure the particle bath concentrations. It is a convenient method that
requires little equipment, a simple procedure and only 30-60 minutes to perform. Its accuracy
is sometimes less than 80%, but its levels of precision are appropriate for most applications.

Settling Parameters

It is essentially that the settling test takes place in a location free from vibration. The settling
tube must be positioned in an area that is proven to be free of strong magnetic fields. Freshly
prepared bath settles very rapidly, often in 15 minutes or less,

Magnetization causes the particles to cling together and form large and fast sinking clusters.
Speed and settling volume depend on the particles magnetization level and this is the basis
for demagnetizing the settling tube sample.

Apparatus:

Settling test equipment is simple in construction and applicability. It consists of:

(a) A 100mL pear-shaped graduated centrifuge tube

(b) A stand for supporting the tube vertically, and

(c) A timer to signal the end of settling process.

The centrifuge tube with a 1ml. (0.05mL subdivisions) is used for a determining the
concentrations of fluorescent particle suspensions, and a 1.5ml (0.1mL subdivisions) is used
for non-fluorescent particle suspensions, The test method for determining perform the settling
test is as per ASTM-D -96 Before sampling, the suspension should run through a
recirculating system for about 30 minutes to ensure proper mixing of particles. A sample of
100mL is taken and demagnetized to avoid particle clinging to each other and to the tube
body. The settling conditions mentioned above are maintained, and a settling time of 30
minutes is given for water-based suspension, and 60 minutes for petroleum distillate
suspensions.
After the recommended settling time, the sample is interpreted visually without disturbing the
setup. If the settling volume is too low than the prescribed limits, then add sufficient amount
of particles. If the concentration is high, then add sufficient vehicle. The particles or vehicles
should not be added directly to the centrifuge tube. They are added to the container, in which
the medium was previously prepared.

If the particles that are settled appear as loose agglomerates, then the existing sample in the
tube is discarded, and a second sample is taken and the procedures are repeated. If they
continue to appear agglomerated, then the particles may already be in a magnetized state.
Hence the whole suspension is discarded and replaced. The procedures are again carried out
to determine the concentration. Sometimes bands or striations are noticed in the suspension.
These are due to the presence of contaminants in the suspension. If the total volume of
contaminates in the suspension exceeds 30 % of the volume of magnetic particle or if the
liquid is noticeably fluorescent, the bath should be replaced.

Settling Volumes

➤ For fluorescent bath, the concentration shall be 0.1mL to 0.4ml. in a 100ml settling
volume. For a Non-fluorescent bath, the concentration shall be 1.2mL to 2.4mL in a 100mL
of settling volume
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SECTION 7

MAGNETIC FIELD DIRECTION & INTENSITY

REFERENCE STANDARD FOR MAGNETIC PARTICLE SYSTEM

TOOL RING (OR) KETOOZ (BETZ) RING:

Tool Steel Ring Standard the tool steel ring is a commonly used standard reference standard
for magnetic particle test systems, but it essentially indicates only particle sensitivity. Its use
has been for both dry and wet mediums. The sample picture of the ring is shown below. The
ring standard is used by passing a specified DC through a conductor, which in turn passes
through the ring's center. The test system is evaluated on the basis number of holes detected
using various current levels. The number of holes that should be detected is given as per the
table 1 below:

MEASURING EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to determine
the direction and intensity of the magnetic field As discussed previously, the direction of the
magnetic field should be between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for
best detectability. The field intensity must be high enough to cause an indication to form, but
not too high or non-relevant indications may form that could mask relevant indications. To
cause an indication to form, the field strength in the object must produce a flux leakage field
that is strong enough to hold the magnetic particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux
measurement devices can provide important information about the field strength.

Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices
measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material.

There are a number of different devices that can be used to detect and measure an external
magnetic field. The two devices commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field
indicator and the Hall effect meter, which is also often called a Gauss meter. Pie gages and
shims are devices that are often

used to provide an indication of the field direction and strength but do not actually provide a

quantitative measure.

Pie Gage

Pie gages are disks of high permeability material divided into triangular segments separated
by known gaps. The gaps are typically filled with a nonmagnetic material.

The pie gage contains 8 segments, separated by gaps up to 0.75mm, which run to full depth
of the material. Raised cross indicators contain 4 gaps (in the shape of a cross) approximately
0.13mm (0.5") in width. The segments are cut away so that the known gap is raised a fixed
distance off the test object's surface. Both of these devices are used to determine the
approximate orientation and to a limited extent, indicate the adequacy of the field strength.
However, they do not measure the internal field strength of the object. The presence of
multiple gaps at different orientations helps reveal the approximate orientation of the
magnetic field. Slots perpendicular to the flux lines produce distinct indications, while those
lying parallel to the magnetic flux give little or no indications. Shim Discontinuity Standards

Shim discontinuity indicators are thin foils of high permeable materials containing well
controlled notch discontinuities, Frequently, multiple shims are used at different locations and
different orientations on the test object to examine the field distribution. One popular version
of the shim indicator is a strip containing 3 slots of different widths. The strip is placed in
contact with the test object surface and shares the flux with the test object. The principal
limitation of this standard is that they require 50mm gage length. Shims are most often used
while preparing test procedures, where they help in indicating particular test configuration.
Once the field distribute on is found adequate, the testing procedure is recorded and the
components are tested with the parameters established by the shims.

Laminated Magnetic Flux Strips (Burmah-Castrol Strips)

Laminated Magnetic Flux Strips, also known as Type G Burmah-Castrol Strips, have a core
of high permeability steel with brass cladding 0.002 in /0.05 mm thick on both sides. The
core material has three slots of different widths, providing discontinuities that show as linear
indications in a magnetic field. The strips are commonly used with wet visible materials for
power pack equipment and yoke inspections, but can also be used with dry magnetic
powders. Laminated Magnetic Flux Strips are stiffer than QQIs, and do not conform to
curved surfaces easily. But unlike QQIs, Laminated Magnetic Flux Strips are not permanently
affixed to a part so they can be reused for multiple applications... Because they form linear
indications in only one direction, Laminated Magnetic Flux Strips are not suitable for use
with multi-directional magnetization.

Field Indicators

Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane that will be
deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below shows the inside working of a field
meter looking in from the side. The vane is attached to a needle that rotates and moves the
pointer for the scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative
information can be obtained.

However, the measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to the mechanics of
the device. The one shown to the right has a range from + 20 gauss to - 20 gauss. This limited
ranges makes them best suited for measuring the residual magnetic field after
demagnetization.

Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter

A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout of the magnetic
field strength in Gauss or Tesla units. The meters use a very small conductive or
semiconductor element at the tip of the probe. Electric current is passed through the
conductor. In a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a force on the moving electrons
which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A Buildup of charge at the sides of the
conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the
two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the
Hall effect after Edwin H. Hall who discovered it in 1879. The voltage generated Vh can be
related to the external magnetic field by the following equation.

Vh=1B Rh/b

Where,
Vh is the voltage generated.

I is the applied direct current.

B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right angle to the direct current in the
Hall element.

Rh is the Hall Coefficient of the Hall element. b is the thickness of the Hall element.

Probes are available with either tangential (transverse) or axial sensing elements. Probes can
be purchased in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and with different measurement
ranges. The probe is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of force
intersect the major dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle.

ASTM Block

These test pieces for magnetic particle inspection will help you maintain your mag particle
process by verifying magnetic particle performance. Use to check for mag particle
deterioration, to compare different magnetic powders, to verify sensitivity or visibility or to
assure field direction and strength.

SECTION 8

INDICATION & INTERPRETATION

CLASSIFICATION OF INDICATIONS

Magnetic particle testing indications are classified as follows:

(a) Relevant Indications.

(b) Non-relevant Indications.

(c) False Indications

NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS

Nonrelevant indications are true patterns caused by leakage fields that do not result from the
presence of flaws. Nonrelevant indications have several causes and their indication is fuzzy
as that of a subsurface discontinuity indication. They should not be interpreted as flaws and
therefore require careful evaluation.
Sources for Non-Relevant Indications

Particle patterns that yield non-relevant indications can be the result of many factors. They
include the following:

- Particle Adherence Due to Excessive Magnetization

- Mill Scale

- Configurations

- Abrupt Changes in Magnetic Properties

- Magnetized Writing

Techniques for Identifying Non-relevant Indications

There are several techniques for distinguishing relevant from non-relevant indications. They
are:

- Carrying out a visual inspection before the commencement of magnetic particle

testing, as this would eliminate indications due to the presence of mill scale or surface
roughness.

- A careful study of the part’s design or drawing, to readily locate the section changes
or shape constrictions.

- A confusing indication can always be demagnetized and retested.

- Careful analysis of particle pattern.

- Inspection supplemented by another NDT method, such as radiography or ultrasonic

testing, to verify the presence of subsurface discontinuities.

Treatment of Indications Believed to be Non-relevant

Any indication, which is believed to be non-relevant, shall be regarded to be relevant unless it

is shown by re-examination by the same method or by the use of another NDT method or by
surface conditioning that no unacceptable imperfection is present.
RELEVANT INDICATIONS

Relevant indications are indications caused due to leakage flux emanating from the actual
discontinuities. They are the result of errors made during or after metal processing. They may
or may not be considered defects.

Terminology

- Discontinuity

- Defect

Classification of Indications

Relevant indications are further classified as either linear or rounded.

ACCEPTANCE STANDARDS

Evaluation involves determining whether an indication will be detrimental to the service of

the part. It is a judgment based on a well-defined accepts or reject standards that may be
either written or verbal.

General Evaluation Rules

Everything that has been said in this discussion thus far has emphasized the fact that general
rules for evaluation cannot be wholly laid down. These are not necessary for an evaluator
with sufficient knowledge and experience. Sometimes there exists a situation where
inspectors are called upon to make decisions regarding the seriousness of a defect. Hence it
should be the inspector’s responsibility to be aware of the general conditions, which will be
of great use to him in demanding conditions.

SECTION 9 DEMAGNETIZATION

Demagnetization is a process of removing magnetism from a ferromagnetic material.

Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by a relative ease of magnetism when exposed to a
magnetizing force. Once magnetized, the material retains some amount of magnetism even
after the magnetizing force is removed. This left over field in the material, after the force is
removed is referred to as the residual field or residual magnetism. The magnitude of this
residual field is a function of the following factors:

(a) The magnetic characteristics of the material.

(b) The immediate history of the materials magnetization.

(c) The strength of the applied magnetic field.

 (d) The direction of magnetic field, whether circular or longitudinal.

(e) The test objects geometry.

Characteristics of Residual Magnetic Field

(a) The residual field is in the same direction as the original magnetic field.

(b) The residual field is weaker than the original field.

(c) The original magnetizing force causes the residual field.

(d) When an article has been magnetized in more than one direction, the second field
applied will completely overcome the first field. However, this is only true if the
second field applied, is stronger than the first in magnitude.

This field may be negligible in soft materials, but in harder materials it may be comparable to
the intense fields associated with the special alloys used for permanent magnets. Although it
is time consuming and represents additional expense, the demagnetization of parts is
sometimes necessary in many cases. Demagnetization may be easy or difficult depending on
the type of material. Metals having high coercive force are difficult to magnetize and once
they are magnetized, it is equally difficult to remove the residual field from it.

Requirement for Demagnetization

Components that retain a relatively strong residual field can be a source to various problems
during subsequent processing of the material and its service life.

Demagnetization may be necessary for the following reasons:

(a) The part will be used in an area where a residual magnetic field will interfere with the
operation of instruments that are sensitive to magnetic fields. They may also affect the
accuracy of instrumentation incorporated in an assembly that contains the magnetized
part.

(b) Residual magnetism does not affect the mechanical properties of the part, but can
adhere metal chips, filings, scales or some other loose magnetic particles on the
surface being machined. This will adversely affect the surface finish, dimensions, and
tool life of the assembly.
 (c) During cleaning operations, the chips that are created by machining operation may
adhere to the surface of the part and seriously interfere with the subsequent painting
or coating operations.

(d) Abrasive particles that may be attracted to parts such as bearing races, gear teeth,
bearing surfaces, etc., may lead to abrasion or may obstruct oil holes or grooves.

(e) During some electric arc-welding operations, strong residual fields may deflect the arc
away from the point where it should be applied.

(f) Finally, the residual field will interfere with the re-magnetization of part at field
intensity too low to overcome.

The residual fields may sometimes be allowed to remain in the part, without demagnetizing
it. The reasons for not demagnetizing being:

(a) Parts made of magnetically soft materials do not retain residual magnetism, as they
have low retentivity properties.

(b) If the subsequent manufacturing process calls for the object to be heated above Curie
point, the material will readily be demagnetized as it loses all its magnetic properties

(c) If the part does not require additional machining and its intended function is not
compromised by the presence of a residual field, then demagnetization becomes
unnecessary.

(d) The part is to be re-magnetized for further magnetic particle inspection or for some
secondary operation in which a magnetic plate or chuck may be used to hold a part..

(e) Finally, demagnetization is only required if specified in the drawings, specifications,

or procedures.

Types of Residual Fields

- Longitudinal magnetic fields

- Circular Magnetic Fields

Summary of Demagnetization Procedures

- Alternating Current Demagnetization

- Direct Current Demagnetization

 - Demagnetization with Yokes

Residual Field Measurement

After complete demagnetization, the residual field should not exceed 3 Gauss (240Am-1),
anywhere in the piece. So in order to relatively maintain the recommended limits of residual
field in the material, the measurement of the level of residual field is necessary.

POST EXAMINATION CLEANING

The effect of Particles, if allowed to remain on the test surface, can cause difficulty in
subsequent processes such as painting or coating, or even a shot-blasting operation (when
tested using wet medium). Hence it is recommended to remove the magnetic particles after
the inspection, which is referred to as post-cleaning.

Means of Particle Removal

Particles can be removed by the following methods:

- Use of compressed air to blow off the excess particles

- Drying of wet particles and subsequent brushing or compressed air blow off.
- Removal of wet medium by use of a solvent.
- Any other means of particle removal, which do not interfere with the subsequent
requirements, can be used.