YABELLO IFA BORU SPECIAL BOARDING

SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS SHORT NOTE

FOR GRADE 12

BY:
Wondimu Getachew
(2017 EC)
UNIT-4: Electromagnetism
Introduction
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics that deals with the
electromagnetic force that occurs between electrically charged particles. It
involves the study of electromagnetic force.
Electromagnetic force is one of the fundamental force in nature consisting
of the elements, electricity and magnetism.
The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of
electric fields and magnetic fields.
At the subatomic level, electromagnetism is related to the electromagnetic
force that causes the attraction and repulsion of electrically charged
particles. It is the basic reason electrons bound to the nucleus and
responsible for the complete structure of the nucleus.
When electrically charged particles, such as electrons, are put into motion,
they create a magnetic field. When these particles are made to oscillate,
they create electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves. Therefore,
electromagnetism refers to the phenomena associated with both magnetic
field and electric field.
Electricity and magnetism have been known to humans for a long time.
The relationship between Electricity and magnetism was discovered in 1819
when, during a lecture demonstration, Hans Christian Oersted found that
an electric current in a wire deflected a nearby compass needle. His
experiment provided the first reproducible observation of a relationship
between electricity and magnetism, A current carrying wire produced a
magnetic field whose strength and direction depends on the amount of the
current flowing and direction of the current.
In the 1820s, further connections between electricity and magnetism were
demonstrated independently by Faraday and Joseph Henry (1797-1878).
They showed that an electric current can be produced in a circuit either by
moving a magnet near the circuit or by changing the current in a nearby
circuit.
The discovery of electromagnetism marked the birth of modern science and
technology. Now, it is known that all magnetic phenomena result from
forces arising from electric charges in motion. Without an understanding of
electromagnetism, devices such radios, televisions, computers, tape
recorders, CD players, electric motors, and generators, could not have been
invented.
4.1 Magnetism
Magnetism has been known since the time of the ancient Greeks,
but it has always been a bit mysterious.

In ancient time, the first magnetic phenomena to

be observed were associated with rough
fragments of Loadstone/lodestone (an oxide of
iron) found near the ancient city of Magnesia
before 2000 years ago (the name of this region is
the sources of a word like magnetic).
A lodestone, also known as Magnetite, is a naturally occurring rock
that is a magnet.
It is an extremely rare form of the mineral magnetite (Fe3 O4 ) that
occurs naturally as a permanent magnet.
This natural magnet was observed to attract bits and pieces of
unmagnetized iron or iron filings.
In ancient time, people were used this Loadstone as compass for
navigation.
After that a device which exerts magnetic force is called a magnet.
The force of attraction and repulsion that occurs when the
molecules in a material align is known as Magnetism.
A magnet is any object that produces its own magnetic field that
interacts with other magnetic fields and which has two poles,a north
pole and a south pole.
Now a day, magnets are commonly found in everyday objects, such
as in toys, hangers, elevators, doorbells, televisions, radios,
telephones box, computer devices and so on.
It either pulls or repels certain materials such as nickel and iron.
The mysterious is what makes a magnetic material to be a
magnet? How magnetism is occurs?
To get a brief idea on these phenomena, let us see the domain
theory of magnetism.
Domain theory of magnetism
What are magnetic domains? Magnetism in matter is currently
believed to result from the movements of electrons in the same
atom of substances.
If this is true, magnetism is a property of charge in motion and is
closely related to electrical phenomena.
Individual atoms of a magnetic substance are to be made up of a
huge number of invisibly tiny magnets with north and South Pole.
This does not explain what magnetism is, It just replaces the
question “What is a magnet?”
By the question, so “What are those tiny magnets in magnetic
materials?”
The magnetic polarity of atoms stems primarily from the spin of
electrons and is due to partially rotating to their orbital molecules
around the nucleus. Figure below illustrates the two types of
electron motion.
1. Orbital Motion: Electrons revolve around the nucleus of the atom.
This is called electron orbital motion.
2. Spin Motion: Electrons rotate on their own axis. This is called
electron spin.
It is usually agreed that the magnetism in a specimen is due to the
electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom, which carry a
quantity of electricity and move and spin inside the atom.
These moving and spinning electrons constitute tiny circular electric
current, which together produce the magnetism in a magnet.
Let us start with an arbitrary unmagnrtized piece of steel. The little
magnets are there, but they are in clusters rather than aligning
themselves orderly like you would get a large number of small bar
magnets into a box (Figure (a) below).
The atoms in a magnetic material are grouped into microscopic
magnetic region called Domains.
All the atoms within the domains are believed to be magnetically
polarized along a crystal axis.
Those large numbers of domains have a large number of North poles
at one end of a tiny magnet, and the same number of South poles
at the other end.
Magnetic poles are always in pair; never exist a magnet that had a
north pole unless it also had a corresponding south pole somewhere
else.
In unmagnetized material, these domains are oriented in random
direction, as indicated by the arrow, a dot and cross signs in above
Figure (a).
A dot sign is used to indicate an arrow directed out of the paper
and a cross sign used to indicate a direction into the paper.
In unmagnetized material, the resultant magnetism of all the
domains is zero because the domains oriented randomly in different
directions and cancel out to each other.
If a large number of domains become oriented in the same direction,
as in above Figure (b), the material will exhibit strong magnetic
properties and the material becomes a magnet.
Generally the domain theory of magnetism can be summarized as
follows:
The domain theory states that inside a magnet there are small
regions in which the magnetic directions of all the atoms are aligned
in the same directions. These regions are known as domains.
Within a domain, the alignment of the magnetic direction is the
same.
This theory of magnetism is highly believable in that it offers an
explanation for many of the observed magnetic effects of matter.
Types of a magnet

All magnets are not composed of the same elements, and thus can
be broken down into three categories based on their composition
and source of magnetism. Commonly they are permanent magnets,
temporary magnets, and electromagnets.
Permanent magnet and Temporary magnet
Permanent magnets remain magnetized even without the influence
of the external magnetic field for a long time.
While, temporary magnets are magnets that lose their magnetism
when removed them from the external magnetic field, such as an
iron pin, paper clip.
Therefore, Temporary magnets are magnets that perform like
permanent magnets when in the presence of a magnetic field, but
lose its magnetism when not in a magnetic field.
Electromagnet

Electromagnets are wound coils of wire that function as magnets

when an electrical current is passed through.
Electromagnets require an electric current to work as a magnet. By
adjusting the strength and direction of the current, the strength of
this magnet is also altered.
Electromagnets are made by winding a wire into multiple loops
around a core material this formation is known as a solenoid.
It is an example of a temporary magnet. So why is an electromagnet
classified as a temporary magnet?
Because when the power from the battery ceases, so does the
current and the magnetic field disappears and it loses its magnetism.
The polarity of the electromagnet

The polarity of the electromagnet is determined by the direction the

current flows.
There are some simple rules to find out which end of an
electromagnet is North and which is South pole.
a) Clock rule
When we observe the flow of current through the coil from the two
ends of the coil, the direction of the current round the ends of the
coil of wire is either clockwise or anti-clockwise.

In the diagram given above, look at the ends of the coil from the
outside, we have seen that the current flows clockwise when we
viewed from end A and Anticlockwise when we viewed from end B.
 Then from simple ‘Clock’ rule the polarity of the induced poles are
determined as follow.

Therefore, the end of the bar at with current enters in clockwise

direction becomes South pole (S) and the other end of the bar
becomes North pole (N).
b) Right-Hand Rule

The north pole of the electromagnet

is determined by using your right
hand.

Wrap your fingers around the coil in the same direction as the
current is flowing (conventional current flows from + to -).
The direction your thumb is pointing is the direction of the
magnetic field, so North would come out of the electromagnet in the
direction of your thumb.
Properties of a magnet

All magnets exhibit the following properties:

1 The poles of a magnet are always in pairs. the North Pole and the
South Pole
2 Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and
cobalt.
3 The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than in the
middle.
4 A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in the North-South
direction.
5 Like poles of the magnet repel each other and unlike poles attract
each other.
1. The poles of a magnet are always in pairs. the North Pole and
the South Pole.
A bar magnet has a north and a south pole. When we break a bar
magnet into two pieces, the bar magnet does not lose its properties.
The new pieces now behave as individual magnets, each having a
north and a south pole.
The north and the south poles of the two magnets have their north
and south poles at the same side as that of the original magnet.
Therefore, if the magnet is broken into six pieces, there will be six
north poles and six south poles. No matter how small the broken
parts may be, each of them is a magnet.
Any two broken parts of a bar magnet are always oppositely
polarized. Since the north and the south poles of the broken pieces
are on the same side as the original piece, the north pole of one
piece faces the south pole of another and vice versa.
Generally, when a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will
behave as an individual magnet. Therefore, every broken piece will
have a north pole and a south pole.
 2. Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel,
and cobalt.
3. The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than
in the middle.
Suppose a bar magnet is dipped into a pa of iron filings and
removed, experiment shows that:

The tiny pieces of irons or iron filings

are observed cling mainly or more
strongly around the end of a bar
magnet.
The regions where the magnet‘s
strength appears to be concentrated
(the ends of the magnet) are called
Magnetic poles.
4. A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in the
North-South direction.
The bar magnet, suspended so as to swing freely in a horizontal
plane, always comes to rest with its axis pointing itself in a
North-South direction.
The pole which points towards the North is called the North-seeking
pole or the North (N) pole of the magnet and the other end is
referred to as the South(S) pole of the magnet.
A compass needle is like a small suspended bar magnet. Its
North-seeking pole will point to the Earth‘s North Pole. If you know
which direction is north, then you can line up a map correctly to find
your way through unfamiliar areas. If you bring two bar magnets
towards each other, then you will feel either a force of attraction or
repulsion between them.
5. Like poles of the magnet repel each other and unlike poles
attract each other.
If N-pole of a magnet is brought near to N-pole of a suspended
magnet, repulsion occurs and if the N-pole is brought near to the
S-pole, attraction occurs. Thus the two electrostatic laws are stated
as:
Like or similar poles repel each other (two N- or two S-poles).
Unlike poles attract each other (an N- and S-poles).
Magnetization
Magnetization is the process of converting magnetic materials, iron or
its alloys into a magnet.
The process of removing the magnetic properties from a magnet is
known as demagnetization.
Magnetization, as mentioned above, is the process by which a magnetic
substance attains magnetism temporarily or permanently.
A magnetic material like a piece of iron or steel can be magnetized and
becomes a magnet by different methods such as:
a single touch method,
a double touch method,
divides touch method and
an electrical method of magnetization.
I) A single Touch Method
Take a strong permanent magnet and bring
one of its poles (say North Pole) to one
end of the rod and gently rub the magnet
on the rod from one end to the other.
When the other end is reached, lift away
the magnet from the rod and bring back to
the starting end.
Repeat the process several times. Rub to one side gently as
Figure.The rod will get magnetized such as its starting end will act
as the North Pole and the other end as the South Pole.
If the South Pole of the magnet is used for magnetization, then the
rod will get magnetized such that its starting end will act as the
South Pole and the other end as the North Pole.
II) A double Touch Method

Keep the bar which is to be magnetized on

a top of two permanent magnets (Iron rod)
Figure below. Two permanent magnets
separated by a piece of wood or cork are
held together such that their opposite poles
are together.

This combination is placed on the rod at the center and then moved
to and fro without lifting it.
The rod gets magnetized such that the opposite pole that to the
nearest stroking magnet is created on its ends. The use of
supporting magnets increases the strength of magnetization.
III) Divide Touch Method
Keep the bar, Iron rod, which is to be magnetized on a top of two
permanent magnets as Figure.
Take another two strong permanent magnets and bring their
opposite poles and touch them in the middle of the rod and gently
rub the two magnets on the rod moving away from each other
towards the end. When ends are reached lift away the magnets and
bring back them again at t he starting position. Repeat the process
several times.

The rod will gets magnetized such

that the end where the South Pole
leaves the rod becomes North Pole
and the end where the North Pole
leaves the rod becomes South Pole.
The use of supporting magnets increases the strength of
magnetization.
IV) Electrical Method

Wound an insulated copper wire around the rod

forming a coil. Pass a strong direct electric current
through the coil for some time. The rod gets
magnetized such magnets are called Electromagnets.
The end of the rod at which current enters in clockwis
direction becomes South Pole and the other end of the
rod becomes North Pole (Clock rule).
To magnetize electromagnets, an electrical current is passed through
the solenoid to create a magnetic field. The field is strongest on the
inside of the coil, and the strength of the field is proportionate to
the number of loops and the strength of the current.
The electromagnet core inserted in the coil (the solenoid) can also
affect t he strength of an electromagnet. If a wire is wrapped
around a non-magnetic material, such as a piece of wood, the
overall magnetic field will not be very strong. However, if the core is
composed of ferromagnetic material, such as iron, the strength of
the magnet will significantly increase.
Induced magnetism
The magnetism acquired by a magnetic material when it is kept near
a permanent magnet is known as Induced magnetism.
Induced magnetism is often only temporary, and when the field is
removed the domains gradually become disoriented.
The process in which a piece of magnetic material acquires the
magnetic properties temporarily due to the presence of another
magnet near it is called Magnetic induction.
If we brought the North Pole of inducer magnet near to one of ends
of unmagnetized iron rod, then the end of the rod near to the North
Pole becomes South Pole and the far end of the rod becomes North
Pole.
Thus magnetic pole induces an opposite polarity on the near end
and similar polarity on the farther end of the iron rod.
Methods of Demagnetization

The process used to destroy the magnetic properties of the material

is called Demagnetization.
When a piece of iron becomes demagnetized, its aligned dipoles or
domains return to random directions.
Rough handling of the magnet, continuously dropping it from a
height, hammering it, heating it to a high temperature, allowing
high frequency of AC to pass through it or keeping a magnet near
another magnet of similar strength with their like poles facing each
other, both get demagnetized due to induction in few days.
All these things break the orderly alignment of molecules or domains
of the magnet.
Some materials, such as pure iron, return to random alignment as
soon as they are removed from the magnetizing field.
Substances that become demagnetized spontaneously and instantly
are called soft ferromagnetic materials.
Iron may be alloyed with certain materials, such as aluminum and
silicon that have the effect of keeping the dipoles or domains aligned
even when the magnetizing field is removed.
These alloys are used to make permanent magnets and are referred
to as hard ferromagnetic materials.
Keepers for Bar Magnets
In time, a bar magnet will become weak or demagnetized as the
poles at its ends begin to reverse the polarity of the atomic dipoles
inside it.
To prevent this bar magnets are stored in pairs with unlike poles
opposite and pieces of soft iron across the ends.
If bar magnets are stored in pairs with their opposite poles adjacent
and with small pieces of soft iron (called “keepers”) across the
ends, demagnetization does not occur because the keepers become
induced magnets and their poles neutralize the poles of the bar
magnets.
The keepers themselves become strong induced magnets and form
closed loops of magnetic dipoles, thus preventing demagnetizing
poles from forming.
Magnetic shielding

Sometimes you may not want a piece of equipment to become

magnetized as it could be damaged as a result.
A magnetic shield stops the equipment from being affected by a
magnet.
Magnetic shielding is the way to protect some sensitive equipment
from the influence of an external magnetic field by limiting it.
Magnetic shielding comes in various forms depending on the
equipment that needs to be protected.
The inside part of a hollow spherical conductor can be used to shield
equipment from an external electric fields.
Some materials used as magnetic shields to protect equipment from
becoming magnetized are: sheet metal, metal foam, aluminum foil,
plastic sheet, plasma . . . etc.
4.2 Concepts of magnetic fields
Every magnet is surrounded by a space in which its magnetic effects
are present. Such regions are called Magnetic field..
Magnetic field lines are imaginary line that drawn around a magnet
and current carrying wire.
Magnetic field is not only generated by magnet itself but also the
modern theory of magnetism holds that magnetic field results from
electric current running through a wire and moving charged particles.
Therefore, magnets are not the only sources of magnetic fields.

Properties of magnetic field lines

1 Magnetic field lines never cross or intersect each other
2 Magnetic field lines leave the North Pole of the magnet and enter
the South Pole outside the magnet and run from South Pole to
North Pole inside the magnet to make a closed loop.
3 Magnetic field lines do not have origins or terminating/ending
points.
Magnetic fields in the vicinity of a magnet
Every magnet is surrounded by a space in which its magnetic effects
are present.
Magnetic fields, like gravitational fields, cannot be seen or touched.
We can feel the pull of the Earth’s gravitational field on ourselves
and the objects around us, but we do not experience magnetic fields
in such a direct way.
We know of the existence of magnetic fields by their effect on
objects such as magnetized pieces of metal, naturally magnetic
rocks such as lodestone, or temporary magnets such as copper coils
that carry an electrical current.
If a small compass needle is placed at a point near to one end of a
bar magnet, the needle immediately swings round on its support and
settles in a definite direction.
At other points near the magnet, Figure below, the needle again
settles in a difference directions.
Any compass needle placed in the gap will feel a force turning it into
the direction.
The arrow at the dark red represents the north end o f the compass
needle (that is, the end which normally points away from the North
Pole of the magnet).
This observation shows that the compass needle placed in this area
or region will experience a magnetic force which makes it to align
itself in a particular direction. Such region is called a magnetic
field.
A magnetic field can be defined as a region in which a magnetic
force may be exerted or detected.
Magnetic field can be produced by a magnet itself, a current
carrying wire or an electric current and a moving charge.
The existence of the magnetic field can be described by the magnetic
field lines or magnetic lines of force or lines of magnetic flux.
In Figure (a), the lines are oval in shape and come out of the N-pole
into the air and enter the S-pole.
The lines are continuous and passing from South-pole to North-pole
in the magnetic material.
In Figure (b) and (c), the field between the N-and S-poles has many
lines and strong strength.
In contrast, there are no lines round point P between N-and N-poles
facing each other, and hence there is no magnetic force or field here.
This point is a neutral point. A neutral point is a point where the
combined or resultant magnetic field is zero.
Magnetic effect of current
In 1819/20 a Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted set up an
experiment and discovered that a current through a wire causes a
nearby compass needle to deflect.
Hans Christian Oersted
(1777–1851)
Danish Physicist and Chemist

The deflection of the needle indicated that a current flowing in the

wire is capable of generating a magnetic field.
In terms of charges this means that there is a magnetic field or
magnetic field is produced when charges are in motion but not when
they are at res or stationary.
Oersted investigated the nature of the magnetic field produced by a
long, straight current carrying wire. This discovery about deflected
compass needles demonstrates that a current-carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field.
Figure below shows how this effect can be demonstrated in the
classroom. Several compass needles are placed in a horizontal plane
near a long vertical wire.
When no current is present in the wire, all the needles point in the
same direction (that of the Earth‘s magnetic field), as expected.
When the wire carries a strong, steady current, the needles all
deflect in a direction tangent to the circle.
Circular magnetic field lines surrounding a current -carrying
conductor, displayed with iron filings.
As mentioned previously, an electric current can produce a magnetic
field.
The magnetic field lines around a current carrying wire can be
represented by concentric circles centered round the wire.

This means that the field is symmetrical round the wire, as we may
expect when there are no other magnetic influences.
The gap between them increases with distance as the field gets
weaker.
The magnetic field liens pattern of a current-carrying wire is plotted
as show below.
 N J
In physics, the cross and dot
symbols indicates the direction of a
magnetic field or current into and
out of the page respectively.
The direction of magnetic lines and force can be determined using
Right-Hand Rule.
The direction of the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying
wire can be determined by the Right Hand Rule (RHR).

Hold the wire with your right hand in

such a way that your thumb
indicates the flow of the convectional
current (I) through the conducting
wire and the four curled fingers circle
in the direction of the magnetic
fields (B) around the wire.
The pattern of magnetic field lines of a current loop and
solenoid

A solenoid is a current carrying coiled wire. It consists of many

circular turns of wire wound in the forms of a helix as shown below.
The magnetic field produced in and around a solenoid is similar to
that of a bar magnet. The current in each side of the coil has
contribution to the overall magnetic field.
The magnetic field is uniform at the center of the coil and the field
strength is stronger at the center and weaker outside the coil.
The Earth’s Magnetism

Centuries ago it was known that a

pivoted or suspended magnetic
needle came to rest pointing nearly
in the North-South direction.
The magnetic compass is still used
for navigation purposes with this
property.
Do you know the reason, why a suspended bar magnet always
pointing in the north-south direction?
The reason is because of the influence of earth‘s huge magnetic field.
It is believed that the electric currents circulating from earth’s core
to space give rise to the earth’s magnetic field, but some of the
common observations may be explained by imagining a fictitious
magnet at the middle of the Earth, as shown in Figure.
But no actual magnet could exist, as the enormously high
temperature inside the Earth would destroy its magnetism.
4.3 Magnetic Force
In the previous section we have studied that a current produces a
magnetic field.
This means that if a magnet is placed near a current carrying wire,
the magnet experiences a force due to the magnetic field caused by
the current.
By Newton‘s third law, the action force of the wire on the magnet is
opposed by the reaction force of the magnet on the wire.
The magnet interacts with the magnetic field of the wire to
experience the force. Similarly, the current carrying wire experiences
a magnetic force since it is immersed in the magnetic field of the
magnet.
On the other hand, a magnetic force can also be exerted on a
charged particle which passes through the field.
Therefore, the charged particle would experience a magnetic force
when it passes through a region where there is a magnetic field.
Magnetic force on a current carrying wire
When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a magnetic force (F), because the magnetic field exerts
a force on current-carrying wire in a direction given by the right
hand rule.
One can demonstrate the effect of the magnetic force acting on a
current-carrying wire by hanging the wire in a magnetic field, as
shown in Figure below.
Suppose the magnetic field is directed out of the page and covers
the region within the shaded squares.
a. When there is no current in the wire, then
it remains vertical.
b. When the wire carries a current directed
upward, then it deflects to the right.
c. If we reverse the direction of the
current(downward) in the wire, then it
deflects to the left.
Consider a current carrying wire placed in a uniform magnetic field
⃗ directed from left to right.
(B)
Where θ is the angle between the current carrying wire and the
magnetic field.
The magnetic force exerted on a current carrying wire depends the
current flowing through the wire (I)
length of t he wire (L)
magnetic field strength(B)
angle between the conductor and the magnetic field(θ)
The magnetic field has two components, which are parallel (B∥ ) and
perpendicular(B⊥ ) to the conducting wire.
When the component is parallel to the flow of current no magnetic
force is exerted on the wire due to this component.
Therefore, the magnetic force that exerted on the current carrying
wire is due to the perpendicular component of the external magnetic
field and the current flow.
The magnetic force on a current-carrying wire through a magnetic
field is given by:

F = B⊥ IL = B sin θL = BIL sin θ

When a current is passed through a magnetic field, the magnetic

field exerts a force on the wire in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and the magnetic field.
In figure above, based on the Right Hand Rule, the direction of the
resulting force is into the page. Where B is the magnetic field
strength measured in N/Am.
 Right Hand Rule
The direction of the magnetic force exerted on a current carrying
wire placed in a magnetic field can be determined by the Right
Hand Rule (RHR). The right hand rule states that as:

a. Make your right hand Flat in such a way that your

thumb indicated in the flow of conventional current(I)
through the conducting wire and your four fingers
indicate in the direction of the external magnetic(B),
then a perpendicular to your palm points in the
direction of the magnetic force(F).
b. Point your right thumb in the direction of the velocity (v),
your index finger in the direction of the magnetic field (B),
and then your middle finger will point in the direction of the
resulting magnetic force (F). Negative charges will be
affected by a force in the opposite direction. A positive
charge moves in the same way as the conventional current
flows.
1. Consider the following three cases such as when the conducting wire
is parallel to the magnetic field, placed at an angle (θ) with the field
and perpendicular to the magnetic field. Find the magnetic force on
the wire in each cases.

2. What will happen to the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted

on a current carrying wire if the angle between the conducting wire
and the magnetic field increases from 00 to 1800 ? Illustrate it by
drawing the Force versus angle graph.
Magnetic force on a moving Charge
Previously we have studied that a current carrying wire immersed in a
region of magnetic field experiences a magnetic force. Similarly, a charged
particle also experiences a force when moving through a magnetic field.
Consider a particle having a positive charge ‘q’ and moving with a velocity
‘v’ enters into a uniform magnetic field directed as shown in Figure below.

A force on a charge ‘q’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in the magnetic field is the
same as that on a wire of length L and carrying a current I.
q L
F = BIL sin θ = B L sin θ = Bq sin θ = Bqv sin θ
t t
Where θ is now the angle between v(the direction of the motion of the
particle) and B (the magnetic field).
The direction of F is perpendicular
to both v and B.
If v is reversed the force direction
will also be reversed.
The direction of this force can be
determined by the Right-Hand-Rule.
When the particle‘s velocity vector makes any angle θ with the
magnetic field, the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular
to both v and B; that is, F is perpendicular to the plane formed by
v and B.
The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge is in the direction
opposite to the direction of the magnetic force exerted on a negative
charge moving in the same direction.
The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the moving particle
is proportional to sin θ where θ is the angle the particle’s velocity
vector v makes with the direction of B vector.
 The path which the particle follows in a magnetic field depends on
the angle θ between the direction of motion(v) and the magnetic
filed(B). We have three (3) cases to consider.
i. When the particle moves parallel to the magnetic field (when θ = 0
and sin 0 = 0), then no magnetic force is exerted on the particle. As
a result the particle moves along a straight line as initially moving.

F = Bqv sin θ = Bqv sin 0 = 0

ii. When a charged particle enters perpendicular to a uniform magnetic

field (θ = 900 ), then it follows a circular path of radius “r” because
the magnetic force FB is perpendicular to both v and B and has a
constant magnitude:

F = qvB sin θ = qvB sin 900 = qvB

.
The particle continues to follow this curved path until it forms a
complete circle.
We know that the magnetic force is
always perpendicular to velocity of
the moving particle, so that it does
no work on the charged particle.
The particle‘s kinetic energy and
speed thus remain constant.

The direction of motion or velocity is affected but not the speed.

However, the magnetic force does not do work on the moving
charge, it continuously changes the direction of the motion of the
particle.
If v and B are perpendicular to each other, the charged particle will
follow a circular path.
As Figure above illustrates, the rotation is counterclockwise for a
positive charge. If q were negative, the rotation would be clockwise.
As we could recall from unit one, a body making a circular motion
has a centripetal force to keep it motion in a circle.
In this situation, the centripetal force (Fc ) is provided from the
magnetic force exerted on the moving charge.
mv 2
Fc =
r
Noting that the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the
magnitude of the magnetic force is reduced to:
FB = qvB
Since the magnetic force FB supplies the centripetal force Fc , we
have:
FB = Fc
mv 2
qvB =
r
Solving for r and v yields:
mv qBr
r= v=
qB m
The radius of the path followed by the charged particle is directly
proportional to the linear momentum of the particle and inversely
proportional to the product of the quantity of charge and the
magnitude of the field strength.
The angular speed of the particle from uniform circular motion is:
qBr
v qB
ω= = m =
r r m
The period of the motion or the time interval the particle requires to
complete one revolution is equal to the distance traveled (the
circumference of the circle) divided by the linear speed of the
particle. Based on this, we can derive the period of motion as:
2π 2π 2π 2πm
ω= =⇒ T = = qB =
T ω qB
m
iii. If a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field with its
velocity v at some arbitrary angle θ with respect to B, Figure below,
its path will be a helix path or spring like path.
For example, if the field is directed in the x direction, as shown in
Figure, there is no component of force in the x-direction.
As a result, ax = 0, and the x- component of velocity remains
constant.
However, the magnetic force qvB causes the components vy and vz
to change in direction in time, and the resulting motion is a helix
whose axis is parallel to the magnetic field.
If the velocity is not perpendicular to the magnetic field, then we
can compare each component of the velocity separately with the
magnetic field.
The component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field
produces a magnetic force perpendicular to both this velocity and
the field:
v∥ = vx = v cos θ and v⊥ = vy = v sin θ
Where θ is the angle between v and B.
The component parallel to the magnetic field creates constant
motion along the same direction as the magnetic field.
The parallel motion determines the pitch (⃗s ) of the helix, which is
the distance between adjacent turns.
This distance equals the parallel component of the velocity times the
period:
⃗s = vx T = v cos θT
The result is a helical motion, as shown in the following Figure below

The projection of the path onto the yz plane (as viewed along the x axis) is
a circle. The projections of the path onto the xy and xz planes are
sinusoidals.
Example

1. A proton having a speed of 105 m/s from right to left enters at right
angle to a uniform magnetic field of intensity 0.8T directed into the
page.
a. Describe the path followed by the proton in the field.
b. Describe the direction in which the particle rotates.
c. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the proton?
d. Determine the radius of the path that followed by the proton if its
mass is 1.67x10−27 kg.
e. What is the period of the motion of the particle? Do it by yourself.
Magnetic force between two parallel current-carrying wires
Consider two long, straight, parallel wires separated by a distance r
and carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same direction, as in Figure
below.
Each wire produces a magnetic field at the site of the other wire and
both wires exert magnetic forces on each other.
The forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
They satisfy Newton’s third law.
The two wires experienced equal force through a distance ‘r’
between them.
The forces can be either attractive or repulsive depending on the
current flow direction.
If the currents in the two wires are in the same direction, the wires
attract each other.
On the other hand, if the wires carry currents in the opposite
direction, they repel each other.
The strength of the magnetic field created due to current in wire I1
at the location of wire-2 is given by:
µ0 I 1
B1 =
2πr
The strength of the magnetic field produced due to current in wire
I2 at the location of wire-1 is given by:
µ0 I 2
B2 =
2πr
The magnetic force on a length L of wire-1 is:
µ0 I2 µ0 I1 I2 L
F1 = I1 B2 L = I1 =
2πr 2πr
The magnetic force on a length L of wire-2 is:
µ0 I1 µ0 I1 I2 L
F2 = I2 B1 L = I2 =
2πr 2πr
From the above calculations we have seen that the magnitude of the
magnetic force exerted on wire-1 due to I2 and the magnetic force
exerted on wire-2 due to I1 is the same in magnitude and given by:
µ0 I1 I2 L
F =
2πr
The force between two parallel wires is used to define the ampere as
follows:
Defining the ampere

This is the way that the size of a standard ampere has been fixed
(you may well think of a current of 1 ampere as meaning that 1
coulomb of charge is flowing past every second, but in reality that is
the way the coulomb is defined an ampere is one of the fundamental
units of SI-system).
Andre Marie Ampere stated as:
If one ampere is flowing in each of two parallel wires 1m apart in a
vacuum, then the force on each wire due to the other will be exactly
2x10−7 N on every meter length.
The value 2x10−7 N/m is obtained from equation above with
I1 = I2 = 1A and r = 1m, µ0 = 4πx10−7 Tm/A.
Because this definition is based on a force, a mechanical
measurement can be used to standardize the ampere.
The results are then used to standardize other, more conventional
instruments, such as Ammeters. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb,
is defined in terms of the ampere.
From equation above F = µ02πrI1 I2 L
, we can rearrange it as force per
unit length to illustrate Ampere‘s law:

F µ0 I1 I2 L 4πx10−7 Tm/Ax1Ax1A
= = = 2x10−7 N/m
L 2πr 2πx1m
5.4 Magnetic field strength
A magnetic field is a region with the lines of force generated by a
magnetic, current carrying wire and a moving charge. The quantity
that describes a magnetic field is called magnetic field strength.
The magnetic field strength is determined by the number of field
lines passing a unit area.
If the numbers of magnetic field lines are dense, the strength of the
magnetic field is strong a nd weak if they are rare or less dense.
It is also known as magnetic flux density and denoted or symbolized
by B.
Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field (B) produced by a
current-carrying wire when the field is perpendicular to the
conducting wire is given by:
F
F = BIL =⇒ B =
IL
 Where L is the length of the wire in meter (m) and I is current flows
through the wire in Ampere (A).
Since force is a vector quantity, then magnetic field strength is also
a vector quantity.
Nikola Tesla
The SI-unit of B can be derived from Austrian
the above equation and it is Newton Physicist and
per Ampere-meter (N/Am) which is Engineer.
called tesla(T).

A magnetic field having a magnetic field strength (flux density) of

one N/Am will exert a force of one newton on a charge of one
coulomb moving perpendicular to the field with a velocity of one
meter per second.
When the conducting wire is placed in the field at an angle with the
field, the magnetic field strength can also be defined as:
F
F = BIL sin θ =⇒ B =
IL sin θ
Example

1. A wire 2m long is perpendicular to a magnetic field of 5x10−2 T .

What is the force exerted on the wire when it carries a current of
2A?
2. A wire of 1m long and carrying a current of 5A is perpendicular to
the magnetic field directed along the y-axis. The current flows along
the +x-axis.
(a) Determine the magnitude of the magnetic field strength if the
wire experiences a force of 2.4x10−2 N.
(b) Describe the direction of the magnetic force that exerted on the
conducting wire.
Magnetic field strength at a point due to a current
carrying wire
The strength of the magnetic field (B) at a point due to a long
straight wire a carrying current I depends on:
i. The current flows through the wire (I)
ii. The perpendicular distance from the wire (d or r)
iii. The permeability of the medium (µ)
The strength of the magnetic field (B) at a point perpendicular to
the wire produced due to a current carrying wire can be expressed as
µI
B = 2πd
µ0 I
B = 2πd in vacuum µr = 1
µ = µ0 µr permeability of the
medium.
µ0 = 4πX 10−7 Tm/A permeability of
free space.
µr relative permeability
The magnetic field strength inside a solenoid
A solenoid is a current carrying coiled wire. It consists of many
circular turns of wire wound in the forms of a helix as shown below.
The magnetic field produced in and around a solenoid is similar to
that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field strength at the center of a solenoid depends on
the
i) Number of turns of wire per unit length (n)
ii) Permeability of medium (µ) inserted in the solenoid
iii) Current flowing through the wire (I)
iv) Material inserted inside a solenoid (iron core)

B = µNIL = µnI
N: number of turns of a wire.
L: length of the solenoid.
B = µ0 nI in vacuum (µr = 1)
Magnetic field strength of circular loop

If a wire is bent into a circular loop of radius r and connected to a

source of current as shown in Figure, a magnetic field similar to that
of bar magnet will be set up.
The right hand rule will still serve to give the field direction in rough
manner, but now the field lines no longer circular.
The magnetic field strength varies considerably from point to point.
At the center the magnetic field is nearly uniform.
The magnitude of the magnetic field strength at the center of a
circular loop of radius r carrying a current I is given by:

B = µI2r
If the wire consists of a coil having
N-turns of wire, the above equation
becomes
B = NµI2r
Example

1. Determine the magnetic field strength at a point 5cm from a long

wire carrying a current of 10A.
2. A solenoid has 800turns per meter and carrying a current of 5A.
What is the magnetic field strength at the center of the solenoid?
Assume there is no any core inside the solenoid.
3. A solenoid is constructed by winding 400turns of wire on a 20cm
iron core. The relative permeability of the iron is 12000. What
current is required to produce a magnetic induction of 2T in the
center of the solenoid?
4. A circular coil having 800 turns of wire in vacuum has a radius of
10cm. If 5A of current sent into the coil, what will be the
magnitude of the magnetic field strength at its center?
5. A circular coil having 40 turns of wire in air has a radius of 6cm.
What current must exist in the coil to produce a flux density of
2x10−3 T ?
4.5 Electromagnetic Induction
Electricity and magnetism were considered as separate and unrelated
phenomena for a long time.
In the early decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on
electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the
fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found
that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example,
an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its
vicinity.
This naturally raises the questions like:
→ Is the converse effect possible?
→ Can moving magnets produce electric currents?
→ Does the nature permit such a relation between electricity and
magnetism?
The answer is yes. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that
magnets could be used to generate electricity. He showed that a
changing or variable magnetic field can produce an electromotive
force (emf). This e.m.f produces an induced current in a closed
circuit. We call this effect electromagnetic induction.
 This discovery led Faraday to invent the dynamo (generator)
through the use of electromagnetic induction.
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is not only of
theoretical or academic interest, but also of practical utility. Imagine
a world where there is no electricity, no electric lights, no trains, no
telephones, and no personal computers.
The pioneering experiments of Faraday and Henry have directly led
to the development of modern generators and transformers.
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction is
based on a long series of experiments by Faraday and Henry.

Michael Faraday (1791–1867) Joseph Henry (1797–1878)

British Physicist and Chemist American Physicist
Magnetic flux

Faraday’s great insight lay in discovering a simple mathematical

relation to explain the series of experiments he carried out on
electromagnetic induction.
However, before we state his laws, we must get familiar with the
notion of magnetic flux, ϕB .
Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field lines of
force which passes through a given area A perpendicularly.
 For a plane of surface area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B,
magnetic flux is mathematically written as:
⃗ ·A
ϕB = B ⃗ = BA cos θ

where θ is angle between B and A. The SI

unit of magnetic flux is Weber(Wb),
named after a German physicist Wilhelm
Eduard Weber. 1Wb = 1Tm2
Wilhelm Weber
(1804-1891)
Example
1. A square loop of side 3 cm is positioned in a uniform magnetic field of
magnitude 0.5 T so that the plane of the loop makes an angle of 600
with the magnetic field. Find the flux passing through the square loop?
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are
based on a long series of experiments carried out by Faraday and
Henry. From the experimental observations, Faraday concluded that
an emf is induced when the magnetic flux across the coil changes
with time.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law considers how the changing magnetic fields can cause
current to flow in wires. Lenz’s law tells about the direction of the
current.
Faraday’s law states that the magnitude of the induced electromotive
force (emf) is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic
flux in a closed coil.

∆ϕB
ε=−
∆t
Where, ε is the induced voltage (also known as electromotive force) ∆ϕB
is change in magnetic flux and ∆t Change in time.
 In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux
associated with each turn, is the same. Therefore, the expression for
the total induced emf is given by:

∆ϕB
ε = −N
∆t
The negative sign is involved according to Lenz’s law.
Heinrich Lenz
Lenz’s law states that the
(1804-1865)
direction of the induced
Baltic German/Russian
current in the coil is such that
physicist
it opposes the change that
causes the induced emf.
Lenz’s law depends on the principle of conservation of energy and
Newton’s third law. It is the most convenient method to determine
the direction of the induced current.
 Figure below illustrates Lenze’s law. The change in magnetic flux
caused by the approaching magnet induces a current in the loop.
When the change in magnetic flux induces a current in a conducting
coil, the induced current also generates its own magnetic field that
opposes the change in the flux that creates it.

When a magnet is moving towards the coil.

The induced current acts to repel the
N-pole of the magnet, that is, to oppose its
movement.

When a magnet is moving away from the

coil. The induced current acts to attract
the N-pole of the magnet, that is, to
oppose its movement.
Example
1. A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5Ω is placed vertically
in the east-west plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up
across the plane in the northeast direction. The magnetic field is
decreased to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the
magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-interval.
2. The emf induced in a coil can be increased by:
A) increasing the number of turns in the coil ( N ).
B) increasing magnetic field strength surrounding the coil.
C) increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.
D) All
3. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage or emf is proportional
to:
A) the resistance of the coil
B) the cross sectional area of the coil.
C) the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the coil.
D) All
4. Lenz’s law is the result of the law of conservation of:
A) mass B) charge C) energy D) Momentum
5. In Lenz’s law the induced emf opposes the magnetic flux.
A) True B) False
6. a) Calculate the induced emf when a coil of 100 turns is subjected
to a magnetic flux change at the rate of 0.04Wb/s.
b) Calculate the induced current if the resistance of the coil is
0.08Ohm.
Mutual and Self-inductance
Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance is when a change in the
magnetic field due to one coil induces an
e.m.f. in another coil.

When the current is changing in one

circuit, its changing magnetic field cuts
through the other circuit and induces a
voltage in it.
The faster the current in one changes, the greater the e.m.f. induced in
the other. This linkage between the two circuits is described as mutual
inductance. It will be small if the two circuits are well spaced apart; it will
be large if a coil in one circuit is wound round a coil in the other circuit.
The SI unit of inductance is the henry(H),1H = 1Tm2 /A = 1Wb/A = Vs/A.
The mutual inductance M of a pair of circuits is defined by:
e.m.f .inducedinonecircuit = M × (rateofchangeofcurrentintheothercircuit)
∆I1 ∆I2
E2 = −M2 and E1 = −M1
∆t ∆t
The changing flux in coil-1 is proportional to the changing current in
coil-2, while changing flux in coil-2 is proportional to the changing current
in coil-1.
The proportionality constant M1 and M2 are the mutual inductance of the
coils.
From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that
E = −N ∆ϕ ∆t .

∆ϕ21 ∆ϕ12
E2 = −N2 and E1 = −N1
∆t ∆t
Equating the above equations
∆ϕ21 ∆ϕ12
M 2 = N2 and M1 = N1
∆I1 ∆I2
Where; ∆ϕ12 is the change in flux through coil 1 due to the change in
current ∆I2 in coil 2, and ∆ϕ21 is the change in flux through coil 2 due to
the change in current ∆I1 in coil 1.
Therefore, the constant of proportionalities (M1 and M2 ) are equal,
M1 = M2 = M.
∆I1 ∆I2 E1 ∆I2
E2 = −M and E1 = −M =⇒ =
∆t ∆t E2 ∆I1
The same flux changes at the same rate through each coil, that is
∆ϕ12 ∆ϕ21
∆t = ∆t

∆ϕ21 ∆ϕ12 E1 N1
E2 = −N2 and E1 = −N1 =⇒ =
∆t ∆t E2 N2
Therefore,
E1 N1 ∆I2
= =
E2 N2 ∆I1
is called transformer ratio
The mutual inductance of the pair coils depends on the geometrical factors
of the two coils and indicates the amount of emf induced in a coil following
a change in the current of a nearby coil. The larger the number of turns
and size of cross-sectional area of either coil are, the greater will be the
mutual inductance of the pair of coils.
Example

1. The mutual inductance of an electromagnet is 8H. If the current in

the second coil changes at a rate of 4A/s, what is the induced emf
in this coil?

2. Consider two single-turn co-planar,

concentric coils of radii R1 and R2 ,
with R1 > R2 , as shown in Figure.
What is the mutual inductance
between the two loops?
Self-Inductance
Faraday‘s law also tells us that any change in the magnetic flux through a
coil, causing by a change in its own current, will induce emf in the coil
itself. This mean that when a current through a coil changes, the coil
induces an emf that opposes the change.

Consider again a coil consisting of N turns and

carrying current I in the counterclockwise
direction, as shown in Figure. If the current is
steady, then the magnetic flux through the loop
will remain constant.
However, suppose the current I changes with time, then according to
Faraday‘s law, an induced emf will arise to oppose the change.
∆I
The induced current will flow clockwise if ∆t > 0, and counterclockwise if
∆I
∆t < 0.
The property of the loop in which its own magnetic field opposes any
change in current is called self-inductance, and the emf generated is called
the self-induced emf or back emf, which we denote as EL .
All current carrying loops exhibit this property. In particular, an inductor is
a circuit element which has a large self-inductance.
Mathematically, the self-induced emf can be written as
∆ϕ
EL = −N
∆t
∆I
and if ∆t is the rate of change of current through the coil, then the
average induced emf can be related to the self-inductance L by
∆I
EL = −L
∆t
The two expressions can be combined to yield
∆ϕ ∆I ∆ϕ
−N = −L =⇒ L = N
∆t ∆t ∆I
The constant of proportionality L in the above equation is called the
Self-inductance of the coil.
Physically, the inductance L is a measure of an inductor‘s resistance
to the change of current; the larger the value of L, the lower the
rate of change of current. Inductive coils are useful to protect a
sudden increase or decrease of current in a circuit.
 The SI-unit of self-inductance is volt second per ampere (vs/A).
1vs/A = 1Henry (H) = 1H named after the scientist Joseph Henry.
The magnitude of the induced emf in both mutual and
self-induction depends on the geometry and kind of core material
introduced in the coil. Some of the geometrical factors are:
the number of turns (N)
the cross-sectional area (A)
the length of the coil (l) and so on.

Example
1. The current in a solenoid of self-inductance 0.6H is increasing at rate of
2A/s. How large is the induced emf in the solenoid?

2. Compute the self-inductance of a solenoid with N

turns, length l , and radius R with a current I
flowing through each turn, as shown in Figure.
3. An emf induced in a solenoid of self-inductance of 4H is found to be 12v.
At what rate will the current be decreasing during this time?
Inductance of Solenoid
Consider a coil of N turns and length l in a circuit as shown in
Figure below.

For a fixed area, A, and a changing current, I, Faraday’s law becomes

∆ΦB ∆B
E = −N = −NA
∆t ∆t
We know that the magnetic field of a solenoid is given by

N
B=µ I = µnI
l
For a long coil the e.m.f. is approximated by
∆B N 2 ∆I
E = −NA = −µA
∆t l∆t
 We also know that

∆I
E = −L
∆t
If we equate these two expressions we get

N2
L=µ A
l

Example
1. Find the inductance of an air cored solenoid of 500 turns per unit length
and area 5cm2 . The permeability of free space is 4π × 10−7 Tm2 /A.
The energy stored in an inductor
Consider an inductor in a circuit, as shown in Figure below.

When an electric current flows through the inductor, we know that

there is an induced voltage given by

∆I
E = −L
∆t
When the current is flowing through the inductor, there is energy
stored in the magnetic field, which we give the symbol UB (it is
potential energy stored by a magnetic field, B).
The instantaneous power that must be supplied to the inductor to
initiate the current in the conductor, P, is given by

∆I
P = EI = −LI
∆t
 We can find the energy stored when there is a final current I at time
t by integrating the expression for power like this
Z t Z I
1
UB = Pdt = LIdI = LI 2
0 0 2

Example
1. Find the energy stored in the inductor in the example above. when a
current of 2 A flows through it.
Magnetic energy density

Magnetic energy density is defined as the energy per unit volume of

a magnetic field.

UB Energy
uB = =
V volume
Consider an inductor of length l and area of cross section A as
shown in Figure below.
 We know that the energy stored in the inductor 12 LI 2 , magnetic field
2
of solenoid B = µ Nl I and the inductance of solenoid is L = µ Nl A.
Substituting the expression for L and I
2
N2 B2 B2

1 Bl
UB = LI 2 = µ A = Al = V
2 l Nµ 2µ 2µ
The magnetic energy density, or the energy stored per unit volume
in the magnetic field of the inductor, is

UB B2
uB = =
V 2µ

Example
1. Find the energy density for an inductor with an air core with a magnetic
field of 0.5 T. The permeability of free space is 4π × 10−7 Tm2 /A.
AC Generator

An AC generator is a mechanical device that converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy in the form of alternate electromotive
force (emf). For example, the electricity generated at various power
plants is produced by the generators installed there.
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction governs the operation of
an AC generator. It consists of a strong permanent magnet and a
rectangular coil with a number of wires wounded around an iron
core which is used to boost the magnetic flux. When the coil spins
in the magnetic field or moves relative to the magnet, it generates
an alternating electromotive force.
The construction of a simple AC-generator is shown in Figure below.
The essential parts of AC generator are a coil or armature, slip rings,
brushes, and a strong magnetic field.
The field magnet may be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
The armature is any number of conductive wires wound in loops
which rotates through the magnetic field. For simplicity, the
generator in Figure, consists of a single loop of wire suspended
between the poles of field magnet.
 Pair of slip rings is fused to each end of the loop and rotate with the
loop as it is turned in the magnetic field. Induced current is led
away from the system by graphite brushes, which ride on each slip
ring. Mechanical energy is supplied to the generator by turning the
armature in the magnetic field. In turn, electrical energy is
generated in the form of an induced current. The direction of the
induced current can be determined by Lenz‘s law.
“The induced current must be in such a direction that it produces a
magnetic force which opposes the force causing the motion”.
Working Principle of AC generator
A simple AC generator works on the principle of Faraday‘s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. It has a coil of wire or armature that rotates
at a steady speed in a magnetic field.
The movement of a conductor or a coil in a uniform magnetic field
changes the magnetic flux linked with the coil, thus inducing an emf. As
the coil rotates, the magnetic flux through it changes continuously.
This changing magnetic flux induces an emf in the coil, and the emf
causes current through the coil in the direction induced. As a coil on
one side moves up through the magnetic field, an emf is induced in
one direction.
As the rotation of the coil continues and this side of a coil moves
down and another side of the coil moves up, an emf is induced in
the reverse direction. This process repeats for every cycle and the
emf produced is of alternating type.
In order to understand the operation of an AC-generator, let us
follow the loop through a complete rotation in Figure below,
observing the current generated throughout the rotation.
During every revolution each, two opposite sides cut twice per cycle,
coil cuts 4(BA) magnetic field lines. If the coil makes n revolutions
per unit time, magnetic field lines are cut at a rate:
∆ϕ
Eav = −N = −4NBAω
∆t
Where ω = 2πn and n is in rev per second or cycle per second and
then ω is in rad per second. This is the average induced
electromotive force in volt. Where B is expressed in Tesla, A in m2
and n in cycle per second.
When a coil of simple generator rotates at a constant angular speed,
the electromotive force varies with time as shown in Figure above.
Such electromotive force is called alternating electromotive force
and gives rise to an alternating current in a resistor. E is zero when
the coil is at right angles to the field and rises to maximum Emax
when the coil turned through 900 . Then V decreases or drops to
zero at 1800 , then reaches to a negative maximum at 2700 and
finally goes back to zero at 3600 , completing one cycle.
 This curve is repeated for each complete revolution of the coil. The curve
is called a sine curve because its equation is E = Emax sin θ, where θ = ωt
and ω = 2πf = 2π T is the angular speed of the coil and Emax = NBAω. zs
The alternating electromotive force is

E = NBAω sin ωt = Emax sin ωt

Example
1. An alternating current generator contains 5 rectangular loops of conducting wire
with side lengths 15cm and 25cm, the ends of which form terminals. The sides
of the loops with the same lengths as each other are parallel to each other. The
loops rotate at15 revolutions per second within a 620mT uniform magnetic
field. What is the peak potential difference across the terminals? Give your
answer to two decimal places.
2. The dimensions of a rectangular coil are 80cm by 20cm and it has 200 turns of
wire. The coil is mounted on axle at right angles to a magnetic field of
0.15Wb/m2 . At what speed must it rotate in order to generate an average emf
of 0.50v during each half revolution?
4.6 Transformers

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy

from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic
induction. It is most commonly used to increase (’step up’) or
decrease (’step down’) voltage levels between circuits with out
altering the frequency, (figure below).

A Step-up Transformer converts the low primary voltage to a high

secondary voltage and steps up the input voltage. On the other
hand, a step-down transformer steps down the input voltage.
A transformer is simply a pair of coils wound on the same core. The
core is often shaped as a square loop shown in Figure below with
primary and secondary coils wound on opposite sides. The
construction of a transformer allows the magnetic flux generated by
a current changing in one coil to induce a current in the neighboring
coil.

The operating principle of a transformer is based on electromagnetic

induction. The current from the electrical supply that is connected
to the primary coil is an alternating current. An alternating current
is a current whose magnitude and direction varies or changes
continuously at a certain frequency.
The alternating current produces a flux or magnetic field lines which
link the primary and the secondary coils. The magnetic flux varies in
magnitude and direction.
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid,
distribution sector, transmission and electric energy consumption.
The primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated from
each other but are magnetically linked through the common core
allowing electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary
winding is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the
primary winding (NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the
secondary winding (NS ).
The number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of
turns of the secondary coil is called the ratio of transformation, more
commonly known as a transformers ’turns ratio’.
If the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting
voltages must also change by the same ratio.
The relationship between the voltage applied to the primary winding
VP and the voltage produced on the secondary winding VS is given
by

NP VP IS
= = =⇒ Transformer Ratio
NS VP IP
Where Np and Ns are number of primary and secondary turns Vp
and Vs are primary and secondary volts respectively.
For a transformer operating at a constant AC voltage and frequency
its efficiency can be as high as 98%. The efficiency, η of a
transformer is given as:

Power Output Pout

efficiency = × 100% =⇒ η = × 100%
Poewr Input Pin
Where input and output are all expressed in units of power.
Working principle of transformer in house appliances

An alternating current (AC) changes its direction periodically and

typically supplies power to run household appliances and industrial
equipment.
Transformer in Chargers: There are many appliances that use
transformers in their circuity. Your phone, laptop, computer, tablet
power supplies have transformers in them. They step the voltage
down to a safe voltage that will not harm you to charge your device
battery. Your microwave uses a step up transformer to provide a
high voltage to make microwaves to cook food.
A transformer in real life is a commonly used circuit that can either
step up the voltage of incoming current or step down the voltage of
incoming current. But why is there a need for a transformer in a
mobile phone or laptop charger shown in figure below. The reason is
the current in your wall outlet is at high voltage.
So, if this voltage is not stepped down to a lower voltage, it will
damage the circuits in your mobile phone or laptop. The electronics
in your mobile phone or laptop are designed to work at low voltages
compared to the electric current you get in wall outlets.
A mobile phone charger also contains a rectifier. After Stepping
down the voltage, AC is converted to DC using the rectifier. You
will learn about the working principle of rectifier in unit five.
Example

1. A transformer has a primary and a secondary coil with the number

of loops of 500 and 5000 respectively. If the input voltage is 220 V.
What is the output voltage?
2. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil
with 1000 loops. If the current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then
what is the current in the secondary coil.
3. Calculate the turn ratio to step 110 V AC down to 20 V AC.
4. Why does a transformer can not raise or lower the voltage of a DC
supply? Explain your answer.
4.7 Application and safety
Over the last 200 years, physicists have discovered a lot about the
natural world. A lot of the time, when that knowledge is first
discovered it seems pretty useless, but it almost always leads to
applications later.
Now the modern society has numerous applications of
electromagnetism. Some computer hard drives apply the principle of
electromagnetism to record information. Historically, reading these
data was made to work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
However, most input information today is carried in digital rather
than analogue form a series of 0s or 1s are written upon the
spinning hard drive.
Graphics tablets, or tablet computers where a specially designed pen
is used to draw digital images, also applies electromagnetic
induction principles. This tablets is different than the touch tablets
and phones many of us use regularly, but it is still be found when
signing your signature at a cash register.
 Underneath the screen, shown in Figure
below, there are tiny wires running across
the length and width of the screen. The
pen has a tiny magnetic field coming from
the tip.
As the tip brushes across the screen, a changing magnetic field is
felt in the wires which translates into an induced emf that is
converted into the line you just drew.
Applications of electromagnetism
Today, there are countless applications for electromagnetism, ranging
from large scale industrial machinery, to small-scale electronic
components.
These machines can be electric motors, generators, transformers or other
similar devices. All of these work with the principles related to
electromagnetism. The principle of Ampere’s law is used in solenoid,
straight wire,cylindrical conductor and toroidal solenoid.
Electromagnets at Home or School
Electromagnets are used for various purposes on a day-to-day basis. For
example, in electric bells, headphones, loudspeakers, relays, MRI machines,
electric fan, electric doorbell, magnetic locks, and others. Most of the electric
appliances used in the home use electromagnetism as the basic working principle.

Magnetic Relays
A magnetic relay is a switch or circuit breaker that can be activated into the
’ON’ and ’OFF’ positions magnetically.
One example is the low-power reed relay used
in telephone equipment, which consists of two
flat nickel¡iron blades separated by a small gap
as shown in Figure.
The blades are shaped in such a way that in the absence of an external force,
they remain apart and unconnected (OFF position).
Electrical contact between the blades (ON position) is realized by applying a
magnetic field along their length. The field, induced by a current flowing in the
wire coiled around the glass envelope, causes the two blades to assume opposite
magnetic polarities, thereby forcing them to attract together and close out the
circuit gap.
Electric bell
Electric bell is based on the principle of electromagnetism. When
the switch is pressed on, the electromagnet is activated and it
attracts the soft iron towards the electromagnet. At this time, the
hammer moves and hits the bell. As the hammer moves, the circuit
breaks at the screw contact and the electromagnet is disabled.
This causes the hammer and the soft iron to go back to initial
position due to the spring and then the circuit completes again as
shown in Figure below. This process is continuously repeated giving
the ringing sound of the bell.
DC Electric Motor
Freely rotating loop is placed between two permanent magnets
whose poles facing each other with a sufficient space between them
to allow rotation of the loop.
Connecting the ends of the loop to battery terminals makes the loop
an electromagnet. Since the loop has become a magnet, one side of
it will be attracted to the north pole of the magnet and the other to
the south pole. This causes the loop to rotate continuously.
The components of the DC motor is shown in Figure below. A DC
power source supplies electric power to the motor.

The commutator is the rotating

interface of the rotating loop (or
coil) with a stationary circuit. The
permanent magnetic field helps to
produce a torque on the rotating coil.
The brushes conduct current between
stationary wires and moving parts.
Electromagnets are generally safe for their various uses, but you
need to take precautions depending on the context in which you use
them. very powerful electromagnets that come into contact with
laptops or computers can damage their hard drives.
An electromagnet can affect monitors for computers or television
sets. For classic cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets, powerful
magnets can distort the images on the screen when they come close
to them. This is because the magnets deflect the beam of electrons
that the television sends to produce an image.
Electromagnets help us to lift metal plates and transport them
comfortably and quickly. All factors that determine the operation of
the electromagnet must be taken into account. The number of
plates to be lifted, their weight or the conditions of the surface on
which they are located are essential details to be considered. For
example, if some of the materials create an air gap between the
magnet and the plate, this will have an impact on the lifting.