ME367: Non-Destructive Testing

MODULE 3

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI): Principles of MPI - basic physics of magnetism -

permeability - flux density, cohesive force - magnetizing force - rentivity - residual magnetism -
Methods of magnetization - magnetization techniques such as head shot technique - cold shot
technique - central conductor testing - magnetization using products using yokes - direct and indirect
method of magnetization - continuous testing of MPI - residual technique of MPI - system sensitivity -
checking devices in MPI - Interpretation of MPI - indications — advantage and limitation of MPI.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Magnetic particle testing is one of the most widely utilized NDT methods since it
is fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is
for some other methods. This method uses magnetic fields and small magnetic
particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an
inspectability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material (a materials that can be magnetized) such as iron, nickel,
cobalt, or some of their alloys.

The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings,
and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection such as
structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace
industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection
may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.

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Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle testing has a relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a
combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing.
For the case of a bar magnet, the magnetic field is in and around the magnet. Any place that a
magnetic line
of force exits or enters the magnet is called a “pole” (magnetic
lines of force exit the magnet from north pole and enter from the
south pole).

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with magnetic
poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in
two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole
and reenters at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounters the
small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot
support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the
magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to leak
out of the material and, thus is called a flux leakage field
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the
particles will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles
at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the edges
of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see
than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic
particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle testing is to magnetize the component that is to be inspected. If any

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defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field. After the component has
been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the
magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming
a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods are:

Advantages

 High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).

 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation
of the flaw.
 Minimal surface preparation (no need for paint removal)
 Portable (small portable equipment & materials available in spray cans)
 Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

Disadvantages

 Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.

 Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.
 Relatively small area can be inspected at a time.
 Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.

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BASIC PHYSICS OF MAGNETISM

The concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is known as a dipole. The
term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy within that
volume. The location where a magnetic field exits or enters a material is called a magnetic pole.
Magnetic poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name dipole.
Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second, equal but opposite,
magnetic pole on the other. A bar magnet is a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole at the
other.

The source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter, the
atom. Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons
and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the electrons are in
constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical
charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. A
magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The
strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.

When an electric current flows through a conductor, the movement of electrons through the conductor
causes a magnetic field to form around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a
compass. Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magnetic
field; however, materials do not react the same way to the magnetic field.

Reaction of Materials to Magnetic Field

When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's electrons will
be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction. However, materials can
react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field. The magnetic moments associated
with atoms have three origins: the electron motion, the change in motion caused by an external
magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs where these pairs spin in opposite

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directions. The opposite spin directions of electron pairs cause their magnetic fields to cancel each
other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons
will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field.

According to their interaction with a magnetic field, materials can be classified as:

i) Diamagnetic materials which have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.

Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. In diamagnetic materials all the electrons
are paired so there is no permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Most elements in the periodic
table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.

ii) Paramagnetic materials which have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic materials have some unpaired
electrons. Examples of paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium.

iii) Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field.
They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties
after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so
their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the
presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atom's moments are aligned

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parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong (this happens during the
solidification of the material where the atom moments are aligned within each crystal ”i.e., grain”
causing a strong magnetic force in one direction). When a ferromagnetic material is in
theunmagnetized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized (since the crystals are in
arbitrary directions) and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing
force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part.
Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials. Components made of these
materials are commonly inspected using the magnetic particle method.Magnetic Field
Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below.
A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper
over a magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings.
The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic
force produced by the magnet. It can be seen in the
magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of
the magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends
of the magnet (the north and south poles).

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the
horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles just like
a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same plane. The
magnetic lines of force flow from pole to pole just like in the bar magnet.
However, since the poles are located closer together and a more direct path exists
for the lines of flux to travel between the poles, the magnetic field is
concentrated between the poles.

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General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

 They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles (in
a single bar magnet shown, they attempt to form closed loops from pole to
pole).
 They never cross one another.
 They all have the same strength.
 Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.
 Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of
higher permeability to an area of lower permeability.

 They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs.
 They flow from the south pole to the north pole within a material and north pole to south pole in
air.

Electromagnetic Fields

Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. The flow of electric current through a conductor
generates a magnetic field. When electric current flows in a long straight wire, a circular magnetic field
is generated around the wire and the intensity of this magnetic field is directly proportional to the
amount of
current carried by the wire. The strength of the field is strongest next to the
wire and diminishes with distance. In most conductors, the magnetic field
exists only as long as the current is flowing. However, in ferromagnetic
materials the electric current will cause some or all of the magnetic
domains to align and a residual magnetic field will remain.

Also, the direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the electrical current in the
wire. The direction of the magnetic field around a conductor can be determined using a simple rule

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called the “right-hand clasp rule”. If a person grasps a conductor in one's right hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the
magnetic field.

MAGNETIZING FORCE

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by studying its
hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density
(B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop
is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or
has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line
demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the
component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional

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increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point
"a" to point "b". At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even
though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and
indicates the level of residual magnetism in the material (Some of the magnetic domains remain
aligned but some have lost their alignment). As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to
point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve
(the reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the
material is zero). The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction, point "d". Reducing H to zero brings the curve to
point "e". It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction.
Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to
the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve
will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined:

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a
magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual
magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation (The value of B
at point b on the hysteresis curve).
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - The magnetic flux density that remains in a material
when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same
when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual
magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the
saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis
curve).

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4. Permeability, µ - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is
established in the material.
5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a
magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

PERMEABILITY

As previously mentioned, permeability (µ) is a material property that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux density (B) created within a
material to the magnetizing field (H) and it is represented by the following equation:

µ = B/H

This equation describes the slope of the curve at any point

on the hysteresis loop. The permeability value given in
letrature for materials is usually the maximum permeability
or the maximum relative permeability. The maximum
permeability is the point where the slope of the B/H curve
for the unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is
often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin
is tangent to the B/H curve.

The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being magnetized. The hysteresis
curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.

 Relative to other materials, a material with a wider

hysteresis loop has:
- Lower Permeability
- Higher Retentivity
- Higher Coercivity
- Higher Reluctance
- Higher Residual Magnetism

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 Relative to other materials, a material with a narrower hysteresis

loop has:
- Higher Permeability
- Lower Retentivity
- Lower Coercivity
- Lower Reluctance
- Lower Residual Magnetism
In magnetic particle testing, the level of residual magnetism is important. Residual magnetic fields are
affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon content and alloying of the material. A
component with high carbon content will have low permeability and will retain more magnetic flux
than a material with low carbon content.

RETENTIVITY

A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic
material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field
when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation (The value of B at point b on the
hysteresis curve).

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM OR RESIDUAL FLUX

The magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that
residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the
saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value
when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.

COHESIVE FORCE
The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the
magnetic flux return to zero (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis curve).

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MAGNETIZATION USING PRODUCTS USING YOKES

An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic
field. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field
can be turned on and off.
They can be powered with AC from a wall socket or by
DC from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates a
very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles
of the magnet touch the part being inspected. Some yokes
can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.

MAGNETIZATION USING DIRECT INDUCTION (DIRECT MAGNETIZATION)

With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. The flow of current
causes a circular magnetic field to form in and around the conductor. When using the direct
magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good electrical contact is established and
maintained between the test equipment and the test component to avoid damage of the the component
(due to arcing or overheating at high resistance ponts).

There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly accomplished.

- One way involves clamping the component between two

electrical contacts in a special piece of equipment. Current is
passed through the component and a circular magnetic field is
established in and around the component. When the magnetizing
current is stopped, a residual magnetic field will remain within
the component. The strength of the induced magnetic field is
proportional to the amount of current passed through the
component.

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- A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached or

placed in contact with the component. Electrical current flows through the
component from contact to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic
field around the path of the current.

MAGNETIZATION USING INDIRECT INDUCTION (INDIRECT MAGNETIZATION)

Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish a

magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there are several ways that indirect
magnetization can be accomplished.

- The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a

magnetic field. However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the
field strength and the difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent
magnets from the component.

- Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable horseshoe

magnet (called a yoke) eliminate the problems
associated with permanent magnets and are used
extensively in industry. Electromagnets only exhibit a
magnetic flux when electric current is flowing around
the soft iron core. When the magnet is placed on the
component, a magnetic field is established between the
north and south poles of the magnet.

- Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using

the magnetic field of a current carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field
can be established in cylindrical components by using a central conductor.
Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper
bar running through the inside diameter. Current is passed through the copper

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bar and the resulting circular magnetic field establishes a magnetic field within
the test components.

- The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. When the length of a
component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinalmagnetic field

can be established in the component. The

component is placed longitudinally in the
concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of
a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique
is often referred to as a "coil shot".

MEASURING MAGNETIC FIELDS

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to determine the
direction and intensity of the magnetic field. The field intensity must be high enough to cause an
indication to form, but not too high to cause nonrelevant indications to mask relevant indications. Also,
after magnetic inspection it is often needed to measure the level of residual magnetezm.

Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices measure
the magnetic field that is outside of the material. The two devices commonly used for quantitative
measurement of magnetic fields n magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the Hall-
effect meter, which is also called a gauss meter.

Field Indicators

Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane
that is deflected by a magnetic field. The vane is attached to a needle that
rotates and moves the pointer on the scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and
calibrated so that quantitative information can be obtained. However, the
measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to the mechanics of
the device (the one shown in the image has a range from plus 20 to minus 20
Gauss). This limited range makes them best suited for measuring the residual
magnetic field after demagnetization.

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Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter

A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout of the magnetic field strength
in Gauss or Tesla units. The meter uses a very small conductor or semiconductor element at the tip of
the probe.
Electric current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic
field, a force is exerted on the moving electrons which tends to
push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup of charge at the
sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence,
producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the
conductor. The probe is placed in the magnetic field such that the
magnetic lines of force intersect the major dimensions of the
sensing element at a right angle.

MAGNETIZATION EQUIPMENT FOR MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar with the
different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As discussed previously,
one of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic
field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90
degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the
magnet flux. Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish a
magnetic field in at least two directions.

A variety of equipment exists to establish the magnetic field for magnetic particle testing. One way to
classify equipment is based on its portability. Some equipment is designed to be portable so that
inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the
laboratory or manufacturing facility.

Portable Equipment

1. Permanent Magnets

Permanent magnets can be used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of magnetism (bar

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magnets or horseshoe magnets). The use of industrial magnets is not popular because they are very
strong (they require significant strength to remove them from the surface, about 250 N for some
magnets) and thus they are difficult and sometimes dangerous to handle.
However, permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection in
underwater environments or other areas, such as explosive environments, where
electromagnets cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small
enough to fit into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.

2. Prods

Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the
component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current
(AC or DC) through the metal. Prods are typically made from copper and
have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the prods has
a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and
off. Sometimes the two prods are connected by any insulator, as shown in
the image, to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod
and is commonly used for weld inspections.

However, caution is required when using prods because electrical arcing can occur and cause damage
to the component if proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface. For
this reason, the use of prods is not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components.
To help prevent arcing, the prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not
oxidized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.

3. Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal

magnetic field within a component. When a preformed coil is used,
the component is placed against the inside surface on the coil.
Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the
molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil.

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Also, flexible conductive cables can be wrapped around a

component to form a coil. The number of wraps is determined by
the magnetizing force needed and of course, the length of the
cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as close together as possible.
When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is
usually expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the amperage
shown on the amp meter times the number of turns in the coil.

4. Portable Power Supplies

Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary

electricity to the prods, coils or cables. Power supplies are
commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small power
supplies generally provide up to 1,500A of half-wave DC or
AC. They are small and light enough to be carried and operate
on either 120V or 240V electrical service.

When more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be

used. These units come with wheels so that they can be rolled
where needed. These units also operate on 120V or 240V
electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of AC or half-
wave DC.

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Stationery Equipment

Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is

designed for use in laboratory or production environment. The
most common stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench)
unit. Wet horizontal units are designed to allow for batch
inspections of a variety of components. The units have head
and tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with electrical contact that
the part can be clamped between. A circular magnetic field is
produced with direct magnetization.

Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into
place so the indirect magnetization can be used to produce a
longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can
be obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle
solution is collected and held in a tank. A pump and hose system
is used to apply the particle solution to the components being
inspected. Some of the systems offer a variety of options in
electrical current used for magnetizing the component (AC, half
wave DC, or full wave DC). In some units, a
demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.

MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS

Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper direction is critical
when performing magnetic particle testing. There is actually no easy-to-apply method that permits an
exact measurement of field intensity at a given point within a material. Cutting a small slot or hole into
the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap with a Hall-effect meter is
probably the best way to get an estimate of the actual field strength within a part. However, since that
is not practical, there are a number of tools and methods that are used to determine the presence and
direction of the field surrounding a component.

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Hall-Effect Meter (Gauss Meter)

As discussed earlier, a Gauss meter is commonly used to measure the tangential field strength on the surface
of the part. By placing the probe next to the surface, the meter measures the intensity of the field in the air
adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied. The advantages of this device are: it provides a
quantitative measure of the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, it can be
used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and it can be used repetitively. The main disadvantage is
that such devices must be periodically calibrated.

Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)

The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often
the preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field
strength (it is used with the wet method only). The QQI is a thin strip (0.05 or
0.1 mm thick) of AISI 1005 steel with a specific pattern, such as concentric
circles or a plus sign, etched on it. The QQI is placed directly on the surface,
with the itched side facing the surface, and it is usually fixed to the surface
using a tape then the component is then magnetized and particles applied.
When the field strength is adequate, the particles will adhere over the engraved
pattern and provide information about the field direction.

Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight
sections by non-ferromagnetic material (such as copper). The divisions serve as artificial
defects that radiate out in different directions from the center. The sections are furnace
brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up and the test
piece is magnetized. After particles are applied and the excess removed, the indications
provide the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field. Pie gages are mainly used on
flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry powder is used with a yoke or
prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision parts with complex shapes, for
wet-method applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage should be

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demagnetized between readings.

Slotted Strips
Slotted strips are pieces of highly permeable ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths.
These strips can be used with the wet or dry method. They are placed on the test object as it is
inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of the field strength
in a particular area.
The basic principle of magnetisation is to produce magnetic lines of force across the expected
direction of cracks. If the likely crack direction is unknown, then test must be performed in two
directions at light angles.

METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
The basic magnetization methods are.
1. Magnetic flow: To make the component of a magnetic circuit by effectively using it as the
bridge of a permanent or electromagnet.
2. Current flow: To pass an electric current through the specimen, broadly along the direction
and through the region in which cracks are to be expected.

3.15.1. Head Shot Technique:

This technique produces circular magnetization by passing electric current through the part itself. In this
technique, a round bar is held between the head in a wet horizontal unit. As the current flows from one end to
the anothl end of the bar, the magnetic lines of force gets circulated around the bar. The circulation of magnetic
flux around the bar is known as the circular magnetic and the technique is called as the head shot technique.

Note: Wet horizontal unit is a stationary unit in which longitudinal an circular fields can be produced. The unit
has a fixed headstock and sliding tailstock.

One major disadvantage of head shot technique is that, it produ^ heating and arcing at the juncture. This is due
to the passage of high cum through small contact area. Therefore, to avoid over heating and arcing, ' contact
faces on the heads should be made flexible.

Prepared by, Varghese Paul & Jobin Joy 20

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MBITS
ME367: Non-Destructive Testing

3.15.2 Coil Shot Technique:

This technique produces longitudinal magnetization, by placing component longitudinally within a current
carrying coil. As current flux through the coil, the flux will be generated in the component, creating
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force f to the length of the part). This method of the transverse direction,
longitudinal direction of the component is known as longitudinal magnetism.
The major advantage is that they will not cause thermal damage to component, since the current does not flow
through it

3.15.3. Central Conductor Technique

Central conductor technique is also called as the threaded bar technique. This technique produces
circular magnetization and can be used to inspect both the inside and outside of the component objects such as
tubes, ducts car be inspected using this technique. The threading bar, which is placed inside the component, is
made up of a good conductor such as copper and aluminum As the current flows through the bar, the resultant
flux field will be generates surrounding the test object. This flux field will be at right angles to the current: flow
but the defects are shown in the direction parallel to the current flow.

A big advantage is that the flux flows on both the inner as well as the outer surface of the tube, so
that internal defects can be found. Also, there isja less risk of burning the component as the current flows through
the threading' bar.

Prepared by, Varghese Paul & Jobin Joy 21

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MBITS
ME367: Non-Destructive Testing

Prepared by, Varghese Paul & Jobin Joy 22

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MBITS