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3.10 Magnetism

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TRAINING NOTES (3.

10 Magnetism)
(a)
 Theory of magnetism
 Properties of a magnet Action of a magnet suspended in the Earth's magnetic field;
 Magnetization and demagnetization;
 Magnetic shielding;
 Various types of magnetic material;
 Electromagnets construction and principles of operation;
 Hand clasp rules to determine: magnetic field around current carrying conductor.
(b)
 Magneto motive force
 field strength,
 magnetic flux density,
 permeability, hysteresis loop,
 retentivity,
 coercive force reluctance,
 saturation point,
 eddy currents ;
 Precautions for care and storage of magnets..
 MAGNETISM:-
 Everyone has seen and handled a magnet in the form of a straight or horseshoe shaped bar of steel or
steel-alloy.
 The magnet was originally a piece of steel before it was magnetized.
 A material called magnetite is a naturally occurring magnet (also called lodestone) which was used at
sea for primitive navigation.
 A magnet is easily recognized by its ability to attract pieces or iron and steel; and if suspended freely
on a piece of string, will swing to align with the earth’s own magnetic field.
 MAGNETIC THEORIES
 MOLECULAR THEORY
 If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and smaller pieces we would eventually arrive at the
smallest piece, which would be a molecule and this molecule would be a magnet. Thus the molecular
theory of magnetism states that:
 All materials contain molecules with magnetic properties.
 In unmagnified substances, these molecules are arranged in a random manner and no external
magnetic effect is produced.
 When the material is being magnetized, we are aligning the molecules. The number aligned increases,
as we further magnetize the specimen and when all are aligned no further increase in magnetization is
possible and the specimen is said to be magnetically saturated.
 In theory all substances could be magnetized, but in practice it is impossible to align the molecules of
most substances.
 DOMAIN THEORY
 In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials are composed of tiny individual magnets called
domains, a single domain is very small - about 1012 atoms.
 Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit the nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
 In non magnetic materials the same number of electrons spin clockwise as Anti-clockwise.
 In magnetic materials more electrons spin one way than the other way
 The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic moments.
 In unmagnified state the moments of the electrons are in the same direction in a single domain, but the
domains produce random pockets of magnetism.
 As the magnetic material becomes magnetized the domains become partially aligned. In fully
magnetized material all domains become fully aligned.

 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

 MAGNETIC POLES
 The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the attracting forces appear to be concentrated are
called the magnetic poles.

 The pole (when freely suspended) which points towards the earth’s geographic north pole is called the
North Seeking Pole ‘N’ (or north pole for short) and that which points to the south geographic pole, the
South Seeking Pole ‘S’ (or south pole).
 It is observed that two north poles repel each other and likewise with two south poles; however a north
pole and a south pole will attract each other.
 This is summarized in the fundamental law of magnetism:
Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract
 To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is necessary to observe repulsion.
 Attraction simply means that the specimen is magnetic but it may not be magnetized. Thus the test for
magnetism is repulsion..
 MAGNETIC FIELD
 The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is called the ‘magnetic field’. T
 he magnetic field is three-dimensional and it may be shown visually by drawing imaginary lines called
‘lines of magnetic flux’.
 LINES OF FLUX
 A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a free north pole would travel, if placed in the field
at that point.
 Alternatively it is the direction in which the north pole of a compass needle would point.
 The direction which would be taken is indicated on the lines of flux by arrow heads.
 Therefore lines of flux emanate from north poles and re-enter at south poles, see diagram below.

 Properties of Lines of Flux


 To make the imaginary lines of flux describe the behavior of the magnetic field we must give them
appropriate properties.
 Thus lines of flux have the following properties:
 They are imaginary.
 By definition they emerge from a north pole and re-enter at a south pole.
 They are continuous and never ending (thus they travel inside the magnet from the south to north).
 They never cross each other (a compass placed at a given point can only point in one direction).
 They can bend, but resist bending or distortion.
 They behave as though elastic (and therefore try to shorten themselves).
 They repel each other sideways (they fill evenly the volume available – there are no abrupt
discontinuities).
 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetized and exhibit strong magnetic properties. This group
can be further subdivided into hard and soft magnetic materials. Above certain temperatures
ferromagnetic materials behave as paramagnetic materials.
 Hard Iron
 Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetize but retain most of their magnetism when the
magnetizing force is removed.
 Examples - steel and nickel alloys such as:
 Ticonal - Iron-Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminum / Titanium and Copper
 Alnico - Iron-Nickel / Cobalt And Aluminum
 These materials are used for permanent magnets
 Soft Iron
 Soft magnetic materials become magnetized very easily, but they loose most of the magnetism when
the magnetising force is removed.
 Examples - alloys such as stalloy and mumetal
 These materials are used for temporary magnets
 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Most materials fall into this group. These materials can only be magnetized with a great amount of
effort, usually resulting in their destruction.
 If magnetized the material only exhibits small magnetic properties.
 Examples – Wood / Glass /Air / Water / Aluminum
 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a magnetising force.
 If placed in a magnetic field they will decreases its strength. If suspended in a magnetic field, they will
swing to adopt a position at 90 degrees to the lines of flux.
 Examples – Copper / Brass / Bronze / Mercury / Bismuth
 CORKSCREW RULE
 Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to determine the direction of the magnetic field using
Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule, usually abbreviated to the Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes the right hand
screw rule).
 The Corkscrew Rule states; if a corkscrew is turned so that it moves in the direction of conventional
current flow, then the direction of rotation of the corkscrew corresponds to the direction of the magnetic
field, see diagram below.
.
 Attraction & Repulsion

 Two parallel wires, which are close together, each carrying an electric current, produce magnetic fields
which interact with one another.
 If the currents flow in the same direction, the wires experience a force of attraction.
 If the currents flow in opposite directions, the wires experience a force of repulsion, see diagram below.
 The force between two such conductors forms the basis for the definition of the unit of current - the
ampere.
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

 If a straight wire carrying a current is formed into a circular loop, the magnetic field is as shown.
 The field may be deduced by taking elements of the loop and looking at the field around each part of
the loop
 PRODUCTION OF A BAR MAGNET
 If a length of wire is bent into a series of loops, it forms a solenoid.
 The direction of the magnetic field around any small part of it can be obtained by using the corkscrew
rule.
 If the fields for a series of such loops are combined, the result will be a field pattern similar to that of a
bar magnet.

 END RULE
 The direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of conventional current flow.
 We can find out which end of the coil is acting as the north pole and which is the south pole by
observing the direction of current flow at each end.
 This is called the End Rule or sometimes, the clock rule, see diagram below.

 RIGHT HAND GRIPPING RULE


 The right hand gripping rule can also be used to determine the north pole of a coil.
 The coil is gripped by the right hand with the fingers pointing along the conductors in the direction of
conventional current flow, when the thumb is then extended, it indicates the end of the coil that has a
magnetic north polarity

 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF)


 In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the existence of an electromotive force. In the same
way, in a magnetic circuit, a flux is established due to the existence of a magneto motive force. The
mmf is produced by the current flowing in the coil and its value is the product of the current and the
number of turns on the coil.
Magneto motive Force = Current x Number of Turns on the Coil
 Note that, although mmf is quoted in ampere turns, the actual unit dimension is in amperes.

 . MAGNETISING FORCE
 The magnetomotive force can be expressed in terms of the length of the magnet.
 It is then referred to as the magnetising force or magnetic field strength and given the symbol H.
 The magnetising force is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic effects at any given point in the
magnetic field.
Magnetising Force (H) =Magneto motive Force/Length of magnet

 FLUX & FLUX DENSITY


 A magnetising force produces a certain amount of magnetic flux (Φ), measured in Webers. The
magnetic field is represented by imaginary lines of magnetic flux.
 The number of lines of flux passing though a given area is called the ‘flux density’. Flux density is
denoted by the symbol B and given the unit Tesla.
Flux density (B) =Φ/ATeslas

 The unit of flux density is actually Webers per m2, so: 1 Tesla =1 Weber/m2

 PERMEABILITY
 When an mmf produces a magnetising force H, a certain flux density B is established.
Ratio B/H is termed 'the permeability of the material
 Permeability is an indication of the ability of the flux to permeate the material.
 If the material in which the flux is established is a vacuum, or free space, then the ratio is called ‘the
permeability of free space' and given the symbol μo. This value is considered to be a constant, 4 ×
10-7 H/M
 If a flux is established in any material other than air or free space, then the flux density will increase.
The number of times by which the flux density increases is called the ‘relative permeability of the
material’ denoted by the symbol μr.
 This is not a constant but varies with different material. i.e. steel = 800.
 The product of μo and μr is called the ‘absolute permeability’ and is denoted by the symbol μ.
 For all materials
B/H= µ= µo x µr

 RELUCTANCE
 The opposition experienced by a magnetising force to the creation of a flux is called ‘reluctance’ and
denoted by the symbol S.
 The following derivation is for information only.
Total Flux Φ = B × A Webers (1) (from flux density B =Φ/A)
mmf = I.N and H =IN/length

Therefore H x length = IN and mmf = H × length (2)


Using equations (1) and (2) above
Φ/mmf=B x A /H x length
B/H= µo x µr
Therefore
Φ/mmf= µo x µr x A/length
And reluctance (S) =mmf/Φ =length/µo x µr x A
 The units of reluctance are Ampere Turns /Weber
 BH CURVE
 For any ferromagnetic material there is a definite value of flux density (B), corresponding to a specified
value of magnetising force (H).
 These values can be ascertained from graphs of B against H for each material.
 A BH curve can only be obtained using a piece of material that has never been magnetized before.
 Once the material has been magnetized and the curve obtained, the production of another BH curve,
from the same piece of material, is not possible.
 The BH curve is the line O to Q on the hysteresis curve shown below.
 The gradient of the BH curve gives the permeability of the material. In practice it is found that the
magnetic property of different specimens of the same material varies considerably. The fact that
permeability varies for a given material may also be seen from the shape of the curve, if the permeability
was a constant, the graph of B against H would be a straight line.
 HYSTERESIS LOOP
 A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after the magnetising force is removed. The BH
curve (O to Q) will therefore only be followed once, on initial magnetization.
 When a material is subjected to a changing magnetising force, the flux density is affected by its
previous magnetic history.
 There is tendency for the magnetic conditions to lag behind the magnetising force that is producing
them.
 This is known as ‘hysteresis’ and comes from the Greek meaning late or lagging.
 If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle of magnetising and demagnetizing the graph of
B against H is as shown, this diagram is called a hysteresis loop.

 to Q - Initial magnetization to saturation at point A


 Q to R - Magnetising force is reduced to zero.
 O to R - Represents remanence. Remanence is the flux density remaining in or the material after the
magnetising force is removed. It is sometimes
 0 to U called ‘retentivity’. If the material had not been taken to saturation then OR or OU would
represent the remanent flux density.
 R to S - The magnetising force is reversed.
 O to S - Represents the magnetising force required to reduce the flux density or to zero. This is called
the coercivity of the material. If the material
 O to V had not reached saturation it is termed the ‘coercive force’.
 S to T - Further increase in the reverse magnetising force. This causes the Material to reach saturation
in the opposite direction.
 T to Q - Reversal of magnetising force again eventually makes the material saturate in original
direction.
 The term residual magnetism is used to describe the useful flux remaining after the magnetising force
has been removed for a considerable time.
 It is proportional to the coercivity of the material and is also called coercivity.
 This term should not be confused with remanence or remanent flux density.
 The area of the loop represents the energy loss during each magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated.
It’s size is dependent upon the type of material and frequency at which the magnetising force is
switched.

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