GEOPHYSICS 224 – Winter 2008

CHAPTER 6 – MAGNETIC EXPLORATION

(Textbook: chapter 7)

6.1 Basic Concepts

6.1.1 Magnetic force and magnetic field

The magnetic force arises from moving electric charges – e.g., current flowing through a
wire or motions of electrons in an atom.

A magnetic pole is the point at which the magnetic force appears to originate. Consider
two poles (strengths p1 and p2) that are separated by a distance r. The magnetic force is:
μ pp
Fm = 0 1 2 2
4πμ r r
The first term is a constant that reflects the properties of the medium that surrounds the
poles: μ0 is the magnetic permeability of a vacuum and μr is the relative magnetic
permeability, where μr = μ/μ0 and μ is the magnetic permeability of the medium.
• magnetic permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to convey a
magnetic flux
• The magnetic permeability of a vacuum is μ0 = 4π×10-7 N A-2 (or H/m)
• For air and water, the permeability is similar to a vacuum, so μr ~ 1

Note that the magnetic force obeys an inverse square law and has the same form as the
Gm1 m 2
gravitational force: Fg =
r2

A magnetic monopole can have either a positive or negative charge.

• If two monopoles have the same charge, they will repel each other.
• If the charges have opposite charges, they will attract each other.

The magnetic flux density is the magnetic force that is exerted on a unit positive
magnetic monopole:
F μ p
B = m = 0 21
p 2 4πμ r r
Gm
This is analogous to the expression for gravitational acceleration: g = 2 1
r

The units for magnetic flux density are N A-1 m-1, which is referred to as a Tesla (T).
• for the Earth, the magnetic field is ~5×10-5 T and magnetic anomalies are much
smaller. Therefore, it is convenient to use the unit nanotesla (nT). 1 nT = 10-9 T
 2

The magnetic flux density (B) is related to the strength of the magnetic field (H) by
the magnetic permeability:

B = μH

H is sometimes called the magnetizing force. Note that the parameters are in bold to
indicate that these are vector fields.

Magnetic monopoles do not exist in nature – a positive magnetic pole is always

coupled with a negative magnetic pole. This is called a dipole. A bar magnet is an
example of a dipole. If you break the bar magnet in half, two dipoles are created, not
two monopoles.

The magnetic field of a dipole can be visualized by considering the magnetic force on
a unit positive magnetic charge due to each pole:

The magnetic field appears to originate from the north pole (positive monopole) of
the magnetic dipole and terminate at the south pole (negative monopole).

This is different from the gravitational field. The force of gravity is always attractive
and acts in the direction connecting two point masses. The direction and strength of
the magnetic field will change depending on your location relative to the dipole

For a magnetic dipole of length L and poles of strength p+ and p-, the magnetic
dipole moment is defined as: m = pL.
.
 3

Induced magnetization
If an object is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic field will influence the
motion of electrons within the object, producing atomic-scale magnetic dipoles.
Therefore, the object will acquire an induced magnetization. If the magnetic field is
removed, the induced magnetization will disappear.

The intensity of the induced magnetization (Mi) is related to the strength of the
surrounding magnetic field (H):
Mi = kH

k is the magnetic susceptibility and depends on the properties of the object (e.g.,
chemical composition). Magnetic susceptibility can be either positive or negative:
• positive values mean that the induced field aligns with the surrounding field
• negative values mean the induced field is in the opposite direction

The induced magnetic field will change the magnetic flux density of the object. The
total magnetic flux density is given by the sum of the surrounding magnetic density
(B0) and the flux density of induced magnetic field (Bi):

B = B0 +Bi = μ0H + μ0Mi = μ0H + μ0kH = μ0(1+k)H = μ0μrH

This equation reflects the modification of the magnetic flux density by the object.
• The magnetic permeability μ0 is the magnetic flux density in the absence of
any materials (water and air have similar permeabilities to a vacuum).
• the relative magnetic permeability is:
μr = μ/μ0 = 1+k
• note that k is dimensionless

6.1.2 Types of induced magnetization

The magnetic behaviour of a material depends on its atomic structure – specifically,
the details of the electron shells.

Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic materials have no unpaired
electrons in their atomic structure. When placed
in a magnetic field, the electron orbits will
reorganize so that the atoms develop an induced
magnetism that opposes the surrounding field.

The magnetic susceptibility (k) is small and

negative.

Common diamagnetic materials are quartz,

feldspar, calcite, graphite and salt.
 4

Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic materials have an odd number of
electrons in their outer shells. The unpaired
electrons will produce a net magnetic moment
that aligns with the surrounding magnetic
field.

The magnetic susceptibility (k) is small and

positive.

Some paramagnetic minerals are pyroxene,

olivine, pyrite, and biotite.

Ferromagnetism
This is a special case of paramagnetic behaviour, where there is a near-perfect
alignment of the atomic magnetic dipoles in large regions of the material. This
results from a positive feedback between adjacent atoms – if a few atoms become
aligned with the magnetic field, the local magnetic field will increase which causes
more atoms to become aligned. Domains are regions within the material that have
the same magnetization directions. Typical sizes are 10-6 m.

Ferromagnetism occurs when all the

domains are aligned, producing a strong
magnetization.
Æ occurs for a few pure elements, such
as iron, nickel and cobalt

Anti-ferromagnetism occurs when

adjacent domains have opposite
magnetization directions and no net
magnetization is produced.
Æ hematite is anti-ferromagnetic

Ferrimagnetism occurs when there is a

stronger magnetization in one direction
then the other, producing a net
magnetization in the direction of the
surrounding magnetic field.
Æ examples are magnetite and ilmenite
 5

6.1.3 Curie Temperature

The magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic materials (including ferromagnetic, anti-
ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials) depends on temperature. Magnetic
susceptibility will decrease with increasing temperature. Above a critical temperature
(the Curie temperature, Tc), it is not possible to produce induced magnetization.

Some Curie temperatures: magnetite 578°C

pure iron 770°C

Since temperature increases with depth in the Earth, rock magnetization will only
occur at shallow depths.

6.1.4 Remanant Magnetization

Manyost ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials will remain magnetized after the
applied magnetic field is removed. This is called remanant magnetization (Mr).

Thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) occurs when rocks form and are cooled
below the Curie temperature of the magnetic minerals. The direction of the
surrounding magnetic field at the time of cooling will be locked into the rock, and can
exist with little change over geological times (unless the rock is heated above the
Curie temperature, e.g., due to metamorphism).

Depositional remanent magnetization (DRM) – alignment of magnetic minerals in

sediments during deposition due to the surrounding magnetic field.

Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM) – chemical alteration of a rock during

diagenesis or metamorphism.

Viscous remanent magnetization (VRM) – alignment of domains as rock undergoes

viscous relaxation

Rocks with magnetic minerals can possess both induced (Mi) and remanent
magnetization (Mr). This is expressed in terms of the Königsberger ratio: Mr/Mi

6.1.5 Magnetic susceptibilities and rememanent magnetization

Magnetic susceptibility (k) Mr/Mi

in SI units

Sedimentary rocks 0.0005 0.01

Metamorphic rocks 0.0030 0.1
Granites 0.0050 1.0
Basalt/gabbro 0.0600 10.0
Ultramafic rocks 0.1200 --