CHAPTER 5 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Introduction
The word magnet is derived from the name of an island in Greece called magnesia where
magnetic ore deposits were found, as early as 600 BC.
Some of the commonly known ideas regarding magnetism are:
▪ The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic field pointing approximately from the
geographic south to the north.
▪ When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction. The tip which
points to the geographic north is called the north pole and the tip which points to the geographic
south is called the south pole of the magnet.
▪ Similar poles repel and opposite poles attract.
▪ We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet is broken into two
halves, we get two similar bar magnets with somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric
charges, isolated magnetic north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
▪ It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.

BAR MAGNET
A bar magnet is a permanent magnet made by materials like steel, alnico etc. It is usually in the
form of a rectangular bar or cylindrical rod. Magnets are with two poles where the attractive
property of the magnet is concentrated. A freely suspended bar magnet aligns approximately in
the geographic north-south direction.

1) The two ends of a magnet are called the North Pole (N) and the South Pole (S). North
pole is the pole which point towards the geographical North and South Pole is the pole,
which points towards the geographical South, when a magnet is suspended freely. The
distance between the two poles is called magnetic length (2l) of the magnet.
2) A magnet can attract magnetic substances like iron, steel, cobalt nickel etc. The power of
attraction is maximum at poles. The poles are not situated exactly at the ends of the
magnet. Hence the magnetic length of a magnet is slightly less than its geometric length.
3) A freely suspended magnet will always come to rest approximately in the geographic
north – south direction. This is called the directive property of a magnet.
4) Isolated magnetic poles do not exist. Hence a magnet always has two poles – the N pole
and the S pole.
5) Like poles of magnet repel and unlike poles attract each other.

Note:
1) If a magnet is cut into two equal pieces perpendicular to its axis, each of the two pieces is
found to be still magnets. The pole strength of either part is found exactly the same as that of the
magnet. If the magnet is cut exactly into two halves by cutting it parallel to its axis, the pole
strength of each part is exactly half of the pole strength of original magnet.

2) In electricity, isolated charges exist but in magnetism, isolated poles do not exist.
The Magnetic field lines of (a) a bar magnet, dipole (b) a current-carrying
finite solenoid and (c) electric dipole

(a) (b) (c)

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

▪ The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops. (This is
unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on the
negative charge or escape to infinity.)
▪ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field B
at that point.
▪ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the
magnetic field B.
▪ The magnetic field lines do not intersect. (If they intersect, there would be more than one
direction for magnetic field at the point of intersection, which is not possible).

BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID

In the previous chapter, we have explained how a current loop acts as a magnetic dipole. We
mentioned Ampere’s hypothesis that all magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of
circulating currents.
The resemblance of magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a solenoid suggest that a bar
magnet may be thought of as a large number of circulating currents in analogy with a solenoid.
Cutting a bar magnet in half is like cutting a solenoid. We get two smaller solenoids with weaker
magnetic properties. The field lines remain continuous, emerging from one face of the solenoid
and entering into the other face. One can test this analogy by moving a small compass needle in
the neighborhood of a bar magnet and a current-carrying finite solenoid and noting that the
deflections of the needle are similar in both cases.
To make this analogy firmer we calculate the axial field of a finite solenoid.

MF at a far point on the axial line of a bar magnet

Also, MF at a far point on the equatorial line of a bar magnet

This is also the far axial and far point on the equatorial line magnetic field of a bar magnet which
one may obtain experimentally. Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic
fields. The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is thus equal to the magnetic moment of an
equivalent solenoid that produces the same magnetic field.
where, 'm' is the magnetic moment of the bar magnet (which is equal to the magnetic moment of
an equivalent solenoid that produces the same MF).

Magnetic dipole:
Two equal and opposite poles separated by a certain distance is called magnetic dipole. The
distance (2l) between the two poles is called magnetic length or dipole length Moment of a
magnet (m) OR Magnetic dipole moment.
Moment of a magnet is the product of pole strength and distance between the poles. Thus
moment,
m = P x 2l ; where P = pole strength and 2l =length of magnet.
Unit of dipole moment is A m2.
Note: magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity whose direction is from the south pole to the
north pole.

TORQUE ON A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l placed in a uniform
magnetic field B. Let qm be the pole strength of its each
pole. Let the magnetic axis of the bar magnet make an angle
⃗ , as shown in Fig.
𝜃 with the field 𝐵

Force on N-pole = qm B; along 𝐵⃗

⃗
Force on S-pole = qm B, opposite to 𝐵
The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite.
They form a couple.
Torque = force x perpendicular distance
=qm B 2l sin
= mB sin
In vector form,

An expression for magnetic potential energy can also be obtained on lines similar to electrostatic
potential energy. The magnetic potential energy Um is given by
Um = ∫τ (θ)d θ
=∫mB sin θ d θ
= − mB cos θ

Special cases Case1: θ=0, ( m and B are parallel)

Um =−mB (PE is minimum, this is stable equilibrium)
Case2: θ=180, ( m and B are anti parallel)
Um =mB (PE is maximum, this is unstable equilibrium)
Magnetism and Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
𝛟=∮𝐵⃗ ⋅ⅆ𝐬 =𝟎
The difference between the Gauss’s law of magnetism and that for electrostatics is due to the fact
that isolated magnetic poles (also called monopoles) do not to exist. There are no sources or
sinks of B; the simplest magnetic element is a dipole or a current loop.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Magnetic Intensity (H)
➢ The process of bringing up magnetism in a material is called magnetization.
➢ When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized. The
ability of the applied field to magnetize the substance is measured by the quantity -
magnetizing field denoted by the letter H.
➢ Magnetizations is a vector quantity, its unit is Am−1
➢ The MF inside a solenoid is given by B0 =μ0 nI
=μ0 H
➢ H=nI does not depends on the medium (material)inside the solenoid.

Intensity of magnetization (M/I)

➢ It is the net magnetic dipole moment induced per unit volume when the sample is
subjected to magnetizing field.

➢
𝑞𝑚 × 2𝑙 𝑞𝑚
𝑀= = where qm is the pole strength
𝐴×2𝑙 𝐴
➢ It is a vector quantity and its unit is Am-1
➢ It depends on the material property.

Permeability (μ)
➢ Permeability is the measure of the extent to which a material can be penetrated or
permeated by a magnetic field.
➢ Permeability μ of a medium is the ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the magnetic
intensity (H)

➢
 ➢
➢ Permeability of various magnetic substances can be compared with one another in terms
of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 . It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the medium to
the permeability of free space. Thus,

Magnetic susceptibility.
➢ Magnetic susceptibility measures the ability of a substance to take up magnetization
when placed in a magnetic field. It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization
M to the magnetising field intensity H.
➢ 1t is denoted by 𝑥𝑚

➢
➢ It has no unit
Relation between susceptibility ( χm ) and relative permeability( μr )
Consider a material ( say an iron core) in an air solenoid, then the total magnetic field,
B=B0 +Bm
Total MF= External MF + MF due to material

Classification of magnetic materials.

On the basis of their behavior in external magnetic fields, Faraday classified the various
substances into three categories:
 1. Diamagnetic substances.
Diamagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetisation in the opposite
direction of the magnetising field. Such substances are feebly repelled by magnets and
tend to move from stronger to weaker parts of a magnetic field.
Examples. Bismuth, copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silicon, nitrogen (at 5TP), water, sodium
chloride, etc.
2. Paramagnetic substances.
Paramagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetisation in the direction
of the magnetising field. Such substances are feebly attracted by magnets and tend to
move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field.
Examples. Manganese, aluminium, chromium, platinum, sodium, copper chloride, oxygen (at
5TP), etc.
3. Ferromagnetic substances.
Ferromagnetic substances are those which develop strong magnetisation in the direction
of the magnetising field. They are strongly attracted by magnets and tend to move from
weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field.
Examples. Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium and alloys like alnico.
DIAMAGNETISM
▪ Diamagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised opposite to the direction of
external magnetic field.
▪ Diamagnetic substances move from stronger to the weaker part of the external magnetic
field, i.e.,a magnet would repel a diamagnetic substance.(in non-uniform magnetic field)
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and negative for diamagnetic materials.
▪ Relative permeability, μr is positive and less than one for diamagnetic materials. μr < 1
▪ When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, the field lines are
repelled or expelled and the field inside the material is reduced.

▪ The resultant magnetic moment of an individual atom of a diamagnetic substance is zero.

▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the diamagnetic substance develops a net magnetic
moment opposite to the direction of applied field and hence repulsion.
▪ Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, diamond, gold, lead, mercury, silver,
silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride.
▪ Super conductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are completely
expelled.

Super conductors
These are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits both perfect conductivity
and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are completely expelled. χ = –1 and μr = 0.
The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect.
PARAMAGNETISM
▪ Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised in the direction of external
magnetic field.
▪ Paramagnetic substances move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic
field, i.e., they get weakly attracted to a magnet.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and positive for paramagnetic materials.
▪ Relative permeability is positive and greater than one for diamagnetic materials. μr > 1
▪ When a paramagnetic material placed in an external field, the field lines gets concentrated
inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.

▪ The individual atoms of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent magnetic dipole

moment of their own.
▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the individual atomic dipole moments align in the same
direction and a net magnetic moment in the direction of applied field and hence attraction.
• The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material varies inversely with absolute
temperature.

Where C is called curie temperature and this equation is called curie’s law.

Xm -T graph for a paramagnetic material.

▪ Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium, chromium, lithium,
magnesium, oxygen (at STP), copper chloride, platinum, tungsten, niobium.

FERROMAGNETISM
▪ Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when placed in an
external magnetic field.
▪ Ferromagnetic substances have strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic
field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get strongly attracted to a magnet.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is large and positive for ferromagnetic materials. χ >> 1
▪ Relative permeability is greater than one and large. µr >> 1
▪ When a ferromagnetic material placed in an external field, the field lines get highly
concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.
▪ The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material possess a dipole
moment as in a paramagnetic material.
▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the individual atomic dipole moments align in the same
direction and a net magnetic moment in the direction of applied field and hence attraction.
▪ The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough temperature, a
ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet.
On rising the temperature, ferromagnetic behavior decreases and above a certain temperature
(Curie point) the ferromagnetic behavior vanish and the substance attain paramagnetic
behavior. The susceptibility above the curie temperature, TC (ie, in paramagnetic phase) is
given by
▪ Some ferromagnetic materials are iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, Fe2O3.

Hard ferromagnets and Soft ferromagnets

The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation persists, even when the external field
is removed are called hard magnetic materials or hard ferromagnets. Such materials are used
to make permanent magnets.
Eg: Alnico (an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt & copper), lodestone

The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on the removal of the
external field are called soft ferromagnetic materials.
Eg: Soft iron.