DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-1
Magnetization, permeability and susceptibility – Definitions &
relations and Classification of magnetic materials
 ELECTRONIC AND PHOTONIC MATERIALS

• Introduction
Magnetic materials
• Magnetic materials are the materials, which get magnetized in a magnetic
field. These materials are having the ability to create a self magnetic field in
the presence of external magnetic field.

Important magnetic materials

• Diamagnetic,
• Paramagnetic,
• Ferromagnetic,
• Antiferromagnetic
• and Ferrimagnetic materials.
2
Angular momentum of an atom
1. Orbital angular momentum of the electrons
This corresponds to permanent orbital angular magnetic dipole
moments.
2. Electron spin angular momentum
This corresponds to electron spin magnetic moments.
3. Nuclear spin angular momentum
This corresponds to nuclear magnetic moments.

Basic Definitions
Magnetic dipole
Any two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance ‘d’ constitute a
magnetic dipole

3
Magnetic dipole moment
If m is the magnetic pole strength and l is the length of the
magnet, then its dipole moment is given by µm = m × l
When an electric current of ‘i’ amperes flows through a circular wire
of 1 turn having an area of cross section ‘a’ m2, then it is said to have a
magnetic moment of,

Fig. Magnetic moment

µm = i × a, Unit: ampere (metre)2

4
Magnetic Flux
Total number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular through a
given area. Unit: weber.

Magnetic flux density or Magnetic Induction (B)

Number of magnetic lines of force passing through an unit area of cross
section. B = Φ/A Tesla

Magnetic field strength or Magnetic field intensity (H)

Magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength at any point in a
magnetic field is equal to  1  times the force acting on a unit north pole placed at
 
the point.
5
Magnetization or Intensity of Magnetization (M)
Intensity of magnetization (M) is defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume. It is expressed in ampere/metre.

Magnetic susceptibility
It is the measure of the ease with which the specimen can be magnetized by the
magnetizing force. It is defined as the ratio of magnetization produced in a sample to
the magnetic field intensity. i.e. magnetization per unit field intensity. χ = M/H

Magnetic permeability
It is the measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the
material. It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density in the sample to the applied
magnetic field intensity.

µ = µ0µr = B/H

6
 Relative permeability
It is the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space.

i.e. µr = 0

Relation between µr and χ

When a magnetic material is kept in a magnetic field (H), then two types of
lines of induction passes through the material.

One is due to the magnetic field (H) and the other one is due to self-
magnetization of the material itself.

Total flux density (B) in a solid can be given as,

B = µ0(H+M) (1)

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 B
 ( or ) B  H (2)
H
Equating (1) and (2), we get,

µH = µ0(H+M) = µ0H+µ0M

µ0µrH = µ0H+µ0M [    0  r ]
0 H 0 M M
r    1 i .e.  r  1  
0 H 0 H H

Bohr Magneton (µB)

Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment produced by one unpaired electron
in an atom.

1 Bohr magneton = eh/4лm

1µB = 9.27×1024 ampere metre 2
8
Thank you

9
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-2

Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas and Concepts of ferromagnetic

domains: Discussion how domain change with magnetization
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas
Certain metals like iron, cobat, nickel and certain alloys exhibit high degree of
magnetisation.

These materials show the spontaneous magnetization i.e., they have a small amount
of magnetization (atomic magnetic moments are aligned) even in the absence of an
external magnetic field.

This indicates that there is a strong internal field within the material which makes
the atomic magnetic moments align with each other. This phenomenon is known as
Ferromagnetism.

Ferromagnetic materials
The materials which exhibit the ferromagnetism are called Ferromagnetic materials.

2
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas
Properties

All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction
between the dipoles.

They have permanent dipole moment. They are strongly attracted by the magnetic
field.

They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of magnetic field. This property of
Ferromagnetic materials is called as spontaneous magnetisation.

They exhibit hysteresis (lagging of magnetisation with applied magnetic field).

On heating, they lose their magnetisation slowly.

The dipole alignment is shown in Fig.

The magnetic susceptibility is very high and it depends on temperature. 3

18PYB101J Module-2 Lecture-2
Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas

4
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas
Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism
Weiss proposed the concept of domains in order to explain the properties of
ferromagnetic materials.
Principle
The group of atomic dipoles (atoms with permanent magnetic moment)
organised in tiny bounded regions in the ferromagnetic materials are called magnetic
domains.
Explanation
 Ferromagnetic material contains a large number of domains. In each domain,
the magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in same direction.
 Thus, the domain is a region of the Ferromagnetic material in which all the
magnetic moments are aligned to produce a net magnetic moment in one direction
5
only. Thus it behaves like a magnet18PYB101J
with itsModule-2
own Lecture-2
magnetic moment and axis.
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas
In a demagnetized ferromagnetic material, the domains are randomly oriented as
shown in Fig. a. so that the magnetization of the material as a whole is zero.

The boundaries separating the domains are called domain walls. These domain
walls are analogous to the grain boundaries in a poly crystalline material.

However, the domain walls are thicker than the grain boundaries. Like grain
growth, the domain size can also grow due to the movement of domain walls.

When a magnetic field is applied externally to a ferromagnetic material, the

domains align themselves with field as shown in Fig. b. This results in a large net
6
magnetization of the material.
18PYB101J Module-2 Lecture-2
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas

Process of Domain Magnetisation

We know that in an unmagnetised specimen, the domains are randomly oriented
and the net magnetization is zero.
When the external magnetic field is applied, domains align with the direction of
filed resulting in large net magnetization of a material.
There are two possible ways in which the domains are aligned in the external field
direction.
(a) By the motion of domain walls
 Fig. a. shows an unmagntised specimen in which domains are randomly aligned.
When a small magnetic field is applied, the domains with magnetisation direction
parallel or nearly parallel to the field, grow at the expenses of others shown in fig. 7b.
Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas

8
 Ferromagnetism: Basic Ideas
This domain growth occurs due to the movement of domain walls away from the
minimum energy state.

(b) By rotation of domains

As the magnetic field is increased to a large value (i.e., near saturation) further
domain growth becomes impossible through domain wall movement.

Therefore, most favourably oriented and fully grown domains tend to rotate so as to
be in complete alignment with the field direction, as shown in fig. c.

9
Thank you

10
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module II- Lecture-3

Hard and soft magnetic materials: Discussion considering magnetization and

application, Energy product-Explanation
 Classification of Magnetic Materials

• The permanent magnetic moment is mainly due to the spin magnetic

moment of the electrons. Generally, every two electrons in an energy state
of an atom will form a pair with opposite spins.

• If all the electrons are paired, their spin magnetic moments will be
cancelled and so their net magnetic moment is zero.

• Whereas if there are unpaired electrons in an atom, the spin magnetic

moment of these unpaired electrons interact with the spin magnetic moment
of the unpaired electrons of the adjacent atom, in a parallel manner resulting
in enormous permanent magnetic moment.
 So, magnetic materials are broadly classified into two categories, as
follows.

 Those not having any permanent magnetic moment – diamagnetic

materials, and

 Those having permanent magnetic moment, para, ferro, antiferro

and ferrimagnetic materials.
Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials
The magnetic materials are classified into two types, namely, hard and soft
magnetic materials, depending upon the direction of magnetization by an
applied magnetic field.

Soft magnetic materials

The materials, which are easily magnetized and demagnetized, are said to be
soft magnetic materials. In soft materials, the domain walls move easily and
reversibly so that magnetization changes by large amounts for small changes
in the magnetic field.

The soft magnetic material is prepared by heating the pure materials to a

temperature at which sufficient movement of the atoms is possible for them
to settle into an ordered lattice, followed by slow cooling.
Properties
The soft magnetic materials have the following properties
 The nature of the hysteresis loop of a soft magnetic materials is very steep

 The hysteresis area is very small and hence the hysteresis loss is also small.

 The materials have a large value of susceptibility and permeability.

 The resistivities of these materials are very high and hence they have low
eddy current loss.

 These materials are free from irregularities like strain or impurities.

 The magnetostatic energy of a soft magnetic material is very small.

Fig. Hysteresis loop of a soft magnetic
material

Examples
(i) Iron and silicon alloys( silicon steel)
(ii) Nickel-Iron alloy, and
(iii) Iron-cobalt alloy
Applications
(i) Iron-silicon alloy are used in electrical equipment and magnetic cores of
transformers operating at power line frequencies. Silicon steel is also
extensively used in large alternators and high frequency rotating machines.

(i) Nickel alloys are used in high frequency devices such as high –speed relays,
wide band transformers and inductors. They are also used to manufacture small
motors and synchros. They are also used for precision current and voltage
transformers, and inductive potentiometers.
Hard Magnetic Materials
 The materials, which are very difficult to magnetize, are said to be hard magnetic
materials. In hard magnetic materials, the rotation of domain wall is very difficult.

 The hard magnetic materials are prepared by heating magnetic materials to the
required temperature and then suddenly cooling them by dipping in a cold liquid. In a
hard magnetic material, the impurities are purposely introduced, to make them hard.
Properties
The properties of hard magnetic materials are listed as follows:
 The nature of the hysteresis curve is very broad and has a large area.
 Since the area of the hysteresis curve is large, the hysteresis loss is also large.
 These materials have low value of susceptibility and permeability.
 The coercivity and retentivity are large.
 The eddy current loss is very large.
 These materials have large amount of impurities and lattice defects the
magneto static energy is very large.
Examples
Carbon steels, tungsten steel, chromium steel, alnico, etc.,

Applications
The carbon steel is used as magnets for toys, compass needle,
latching relays and certain types of meters.

The tungsten steel finds use in d.c meter magnets and in other
devices where comparatively large size is permissible.

Chromium steel is the best permanent magnet.

Fig. Hysteresis loop of a hard magnetic
material
 Comparison between soft and hard
magnetic materials
Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials
Definition: Materials, which are Definition: Materials, which are
easy to magnetize and difficult to magnetize and
demagnetize are called soft demagnetize are called hard magnetic
magnetic materials. materials.
The nature of the hysteresis loop is The nature of the hysteresis loop is
very steep very broad
These materials have small These materials have large hysteresis
hysteresis loss due to small loss due to large hysteresis loop area.
hysteresis loop area.
These materials have a large value These materials have low value of
of susceptibility and permeability. susceptibility and permeability.
 Comparison between soft and hard
magnetic materials
Soft Magnetic Materials Hard Magnetic Materials
The coercivity and retentivity are The coercivity and retentivity are
small. large.
The eddy current loss is small due The eddy current loss is more due to
to their high resistivity. their small resistivity.
These materials are free from These materials have large amount of
irregularities like strain or impurities and lattice defects.
impurities.
Its magneto static energy is very Its magneto static energy is very
small. large.
Examples: Iron and silicon alloys( Examples: Carbon steels, tungsten
silicon steel), Nickel-Iron alloy and steel, chromium steel, alnico, etc.
Iron-cobalt alloy,etc.
 Hysteresis Loop
Hysteresis Definition
Hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material behind
the magnetizing force H.

In above figure, the specimen is assumed to be unmagnified, and the current is starting
from zero in the center of the graph. As H increases positively, B follows the red dotted curve
from origin to saturation point a, indicated by Bmax.
 Hysteresis Loop
As H decreases to zero, the flux follows the curve ab and drops to Br which indicates the
retentively or residual induction. This point represents the amount of flux remaining in the
core after the magnetizing force is removed.

When H starts in the negative direction, the core will lose its magnetism, as shown by
following the curve from point b to c. The amount of magnetizing force required to
completely demagnetize the core is called the coercive force and is designated as –Hc in the
figure.

As the peak of the negative cycle is approached, the flux follows the portion of the curve
labeled cd. Point –Bmax represents saturation in the opposite direction from Bmax . From point
d, the –H value decreases to point e, which corresponds to a zero magnetizing force. Flux –
Br still remains in the core.
 Hysteresis Loop
A coercive force of +Hc is required to reduce the core magnetization to zero. As the
magnetic force continues to increase in the positive direction, the portion of the loop from
point f to a is completed. The periodic reversal of the magnetizing force causes the core flux to
repeatedly trace out the hysteresis loop.
 Energy Product-Explanation

The product of retentivity (Br) and coercivity (Hc) is known as energy product. It

represents the maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen.

Therefore, for permanent magnets the value of energy product should be very high

as shown in Fig.
THANK YOU
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I Lecture-4

Solving Problems
1. The magnetic field strength of copper is 106 ampere/metre. If the magnetic
susceptibility of copper is -0.8×10-5, calculate the magnetic flux density and
magnetisation in copper.

Given data
Magnetic field strength H = 106 ampere/metre
Susceptibility of copper = -0.8×10-5
B
2. A magnetic field of 1800 ampere/metre produces a magnetic flux of 3×10-5 Weber in
an iron bar of cross sectional area 0.2 cm2. Calculate permeability.
3. A magnetic field strength of 2×105 amperes/metre is applied to a paramagnetic
material with a relative permeability of 1.01. calculate the values of B and M.

Hints:
M = H(µr-1)
B = µ0(M+H)

Ans: 0.2537 Wbm-2

 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-7

Ferrimagnetic materials: Basic ideas, Ferrites- Explanations of

regular spinel and inverse spinel structures
Ferrimagnetic Materials (Ferrites)
Ferrimagnetic materials are also called as Ferrites. Ferrites are the modified structures of
iron with no carbon and are composed of two or more sets of different transition metals.
These materials have anti parallel magnetic moments of different magnitudes, giving rise to
large magnetic moment in the presence of external magnetic field.

Properties
The susceptibility () is very large and positive. It is represented by,
 = C / (T),
When T<TN, they behave as ferrimagnetic materials.

2
Mechanically, they have pure iron character. They have low tensile strength and are brittle
and soft.

In these, all valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding and they are bad conductors
with high resistivity of 1011  m.

Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process by mixing, compacting and

then sintering at high temperatures followed by age hardening in magnetic fields.

They are soft magnetic materials and so they have low eddy current losses and hysteresis
losses.

3
 Structure of Ferrites

The general chemical formula of a ferrite molecule is M2+Fe23+O42-, where M2+

represents a divalent metal ion such as Zn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Cd2+ etc.,

Ferrites crystallize in the form of a cubic structure. Each corner of a ferrite unit cell
•
consists of a ferrite molecule

Therefore, in a ferrite unit cell there are eight molecules. Therefore in a ferrite unit
cell, there are eight divalent metal ions, 16 ferric ions and 32 Oxygen ions.

 If only the oxygen ions in ferrite crystal are considered, it is found that they
constitute a close packed face centered cubic structure.

In these arrangement it is found that for every four O2 ions there are 2 octahedral
sites (surrounded by 6 O2 ions) and one tetrahedral site (surrounded by4 O2 ions).

4
The metal ions are distributed over these tetrahedral sites (A sites) and octahedral sites (B
sites). Thus in ferrites the number of octahedral sites is twice the number of tetrahedral sites.
Normally there are two types of structures in ferrites.
Regular spinel and
Inverse spinel

i) Regular spinel structure

In this type, each divalent metal ion occupies 1 tetrahedral site and each trivalent metal ion
occupies 1 octahedral site. Totally in an unit cell, there will be 8 tetrahedral (8 A) sites and 16
octahedral (16B) sites.
Hence, the sites A and B combined to form a regular spinel ferrite structures as shown in
Fig.
The schematic representation of zinc ferrite molecule as shown in Fig.

Fig. Regular spinel structure

5
Inverse spinel structure

In this type half of the B sites (8sites) are occupied by divalent metal ions and the
remaining half of the B sites (8 sites) and all the A sites are occupied by the trivalent metal
ions, as shown in Fig.

The schematic representation of a ferrous ferrite molecule is shown in Fig.

6
 The anti parallel alignment of a ferrous ferrite molecule in inverse spinel structure is
explained by the calculation of its magnetic moment. In a ferrous ferrite molecule, there
are one ferrous ion and 2 ferric ions.
 When the Fe atom is ionized to form the Fe2+ ions, there are 4 unpaired 3d electrons left
after the loss of two 4s electrons.
When the Fe atom is ionized to form the Fe3+ ions, there are 5 unpaired 3d electrons left
after the loss of two 4s electrons and one 3d electron. It is shown in the following
electronic configuration

Table 3d electronic configuration of Fe2+ and Fe3+

No. of Ionic magnetic

Ion 3d electronic configuration
electrons moment

Fe 2+ 24      4µB


Fe 3+ 23      5µB

7
 Since each unpaired 3d electron has a magnetic moment of one B, the Fe2+ ion has a
moment of 4B, and Fe3+ ion has a moment of 5B.
 If parallel alignments of ferrous and ferric ions are considered, the total dipole moment =
4 + (25)=14 B. This observed value doesn’t coincide with the experimental value.
 Consider anti parallel alignment of ferrous and ferric ions in inverse spinel structure.
 If one ferrous ion and one ferric ion are in one direction and another ferric ion is in
opposite direction then the dipole moment is, 51) + 4  (51) = 4B
 This observed value is in good agreement with the experimental value and hence this
confirms the anti parallel alignment of dipoles in ferrites.

Applications of Ferrites
 Ferrite is used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the
receiver.
 Ferrites are used as cores in audio and TV transformers.

8
 Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits. Ferrites are used
to produce low frequency ultra sonic waves by magnetostriction principle.
 Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices. Examples for non-
reciprocal microwave devices are Gyrator, Isolator and Circulator.
 Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic gyration devices.
Ferrites can also be used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave
signals.
 Ferrite core can be used as a bitable element.
The rectangular shape ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift register.
Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets.
 The permanent magnets (hard ferrites) are used in instruments like galvanometers,
ammeter, voltmeter, flex meters, speedometers, wattmeter, compasses and recorders.

9
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module II- Lecture-8

Concept of Magnetic bubbles, Discussion on Magnetic thin films

 Magnetic bubbles
Definition

 It is a tiny movable magnetized cylindrical volume in a thin magnetic material

that along with other like volumes can be used to represent a bit of information (as
in a computer).

 A thin wafer of Ferromagnetic Garnet reveals its magnetic domain alignment

as light and dark serpentine patterns when viewed between crossed polarizer. These
domains can be flipped by an external magnetic field, changing the pattern structure
Fig. Formation of Magnetic bubbles
Fig. Serpentine patterns of magnetic bubbles

Faraday effect- the rotation of the plane of

polarization (plane of vibration) of a light beam by a
magnetic field.
 Working
 The magnetic bubble apparatus consists of a thin (8-12μm) single crystal film of
Ferromagnetic Garnet (FMG) sandwiched between a pair of crossed Polaroids.

 The FMG crystals are magnetically anisotropic, that is, they have a strong tendency to
orient themselves in fixed directions under the influence of an external magnetic field.
 The preferred or "easy" axis of orientation is perpendicular to (in or out of) the
crystal surface. With no external magnetic field, the domains in the crystal orient
up or down in roughly equal amounts.

 Polarized light passing through the crystal will have its plane of polarization
rotated by due to interaction with the magnetic field of the domains (an effect
called Faraday rotation).

 For the 'up' domains, the light will be crossed with respect to the exiting Polaroid
therefore appearing dark, and for 'down' domains uncrossed (or vice versa) so
appearing bright.

 The domains appear as serpentine patterns of alternating bright and dark.

Application of an external magnetic field (provided by a built-in electromagnet)
flips the domains to one preferred orientation.

 As the field is increased, the serpentine patterns gradually disappear and isolated
magnetic bubble may be available.
Applications and Advantages of Magnetic bubbles
Applications
A memory device is formed by lining up tiny electromagnets at one end with detectors
at the other end. Bubbles written in would be slowly pushed to the other, forming a sheet
of Twisters lined up beside each other. Attaching the output from the detector back to the
electromagnets turns the sheet into a series of loops, which can hold the information over
long duration.
Bubble memory is a non-volatile memory. Even when power was removed, the
bubbles remained, just as the patterns do on the surface of a disk drive. Better yet, bubble
memory devices needed no moving parts: the field that pushed the bubbles along the
surface was generated electrically, whereas media like tape and disk drives required
mechanical movement.
Finally, because of the small size of the bubbles, the density was theoretically much
higher than existing magnetic storage devices. The only downside was speed; the bubbles
had to cycle to the far end of the sheet before they could be read.
Advantages of bubble memories
The future growth of distributed process systems will be greatly impacted by
magnetic-bubble memories. These microprocessor-based systems demand high-density
mass storage at low cost. Magnetic-bubble memories satisfy all of these requirements with
definite advantages over the existing magnetic storage technologies. MBM's advantages
over moving-head disks or floppy disks are low access time (the time necessary to retrieve
the desired data), small physical size, low user entry cost, no maintenance, and higher
reliability.
The advantages of MBM's over random-access memories (RAM's) are nonvolatility,
potentially lower price per bit, and more bits per chip. The RAM has the advantage of
much better access time, higher transfer rate, and simpler interfacing.
 In summary, the main MBM advantages are the low price, nonvolatility, and high-
density storage in a small physical space. Because magnetic bubble memories are a solid-
state, nonvolatile technology, they are ideally suited for portable applications as well as
providing memory for traditional processing systems. Industrial applications include
memory for numerical control machines and various types of process control. Solid-state
bubble memories are more reliable in harsh environments; they are affected much less by
shock, vibration, dirt, and dust than electromechanical magnetic memories. Innovative new
products include data terminals, calculators, word processing, voice storage, and
measurement equipment.
 Magnetic Thin Film

Magnetic thin films are a sheet of magnetic material with

thicknesses of a few micrometers or less, used in the electronics
industry. Magnetic films can be single-crystal, polycrystalline,
amorphous, or multilayered in the arrangement of their atoms. Both
ferro and ferrimagnetic films are used. The ferromagnetic films are
usually transition-metal-based alloys. For example, permalloy is a
nickel-iron alloy, the ferri magnetic films, such as garnets or the
amorphous films, contain transition metals such as iron or cobalt and
rare earths.
Properties

Thin films have different magnetic properties from their bulk counterparts. This is due to
the artificial confinement of the electrons realized in the two-dimensional film geometry. The
magnetic thin films are having the following properties compare to the bulk.

 Much lower resistivity

 High magnetic saturation induction

 Optical absorption of the thin films is much higher.

 Much higher saturation flux density, and

 Can have much lower hysteresis loss

 Magnetism of thin film

The thickness of a thin film is usually on the order of magnitude

of a typical domain wall in the bulk material, up to 100 nm. In
principle, there are three possibilities for establishing a domain
structure. If the film is thick enough, the domain structure in Fig.a is
possible. In the case of only two easy directions perpendicular to the
film plan, the structure of Fig.b could be established. This domain
structure is important for magneto-optical applications.
Fig. Possible domain structures in magnetic thin film
 In many cases we have to deal with in-plane magnetization as represented in
Fig.c The spontaneous magnetization of metallic ferromagnets is so larger than the
magnetocrystaline anisotropy energy. If the thickness of the film is below the
domain wall width, the rotation of the magnetic moments from one domain to the
neighbor domain direction will be occur in-plane as a Neel-type domain wall.
Because of the comparatively high wall energy, thin films often appear uniformly
magnetized in the film plane, and magnetization reversal can be achieved by
coherent rotation.
 Magnetic thin film processing

Various techniques are used for the fabrication of thin films, depending on the material

and the specific applications. These techniques can be divided into physical vapor deposition

(PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical deposition, thermal spraying and

electro-surfacing. Among these various methods, sputtering (PVD) is the most important

deposition technique for magnetic thin films. For example, magnetic films like FeAlSi,

CoNbZr, CoCr, FeNiMo, FeSi, CoNiCr and CoNiSi for recording process can be fabricated

with this technique.

In common sputtering system positive ions are accelerated from a plasma to a target
that is a negative potential with respect to the plasma as shown in Fig. The ions
reach the target surface with than energy given by the potential drop between the
target and the plasma. The target surface is considered as the source of material from
which films are grown. In addition to the sputtered materials liberated from the
bombarded surface, which eventually condenses as a film, there are numerous other
events that can occur at the target surface that may influence the growth of films
profoundly. These includes secondary electron emission, secondary positive and
negative ion emission, emission of radiation, reflection of incident particles, heating,
chemical dissociation or reaction and others
Fig. Principle of sputtering
Applications of magnetic thin films
 The ferrimagnetic properties of the thin films are advantageous in magneto optic
applications where a low overall magnetic moment can be achieved without a
significant change in the Curie temperature.
 The change in electrical properties, such as the electrical resistance, with a magnetic
field is used in sensor elements.
 Magnetic thin film transducers have a wide range of applications, both in the area of
sensors as well as actuators.
 It can be used in audio, video and computer memories.
 The most important usage of these films is magnetic read and writes heads.
 Magnetic materials thin films have long been used in data recording and storage
media.
 Magnetic thin film materials are used extensively in insulators.
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module II- Lecture-9

Elementary ideas of Spintronics, Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR)

 Spintronics
A revolutionary new class of semiconductor electronics based on the spin
degree of freedom of an electron (as opposed to the charge degree of freedom) to
process electronic data.

Spintronics refers to devices that utilize the spin properties of electrons for their
functionality. Because spins can be manipulated faster and at lower energy cost than
charges, spintronics has the potential advantages of increasing data processing
speed and decreasing electric power consumption.

One of the major technological breakthroughs of spintronics is in data storage

industry.
The discovery of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect, used in read-head

sensors in hard drives has allowed increasing the storage density to ~ 1

Tbyte/inch2 and more. This field received a special recognition with a Nobel

prize for Physics in 2007.

Currently, there is an increased activity from materials research perspective to

understand and develop spintronics devices using new interesting materials like,

carbon nanotubes, graphene, topological insulators and also organic

semiconductors (OSs) for technological applications

Advantages of spintronic devices
 Spintronic devices offer the possibility of enhanced functionality, higher speed,
and reduced power consumption.
 Information is stored into spin as one of two possible orientations.
 Spin lifetime is relatively long, on the order of nanoseconds.
 Spin currents can be manipulated.
 Spin devices may combine logic and storage functionality eliminating the need
for separate components.
 Magnetic storage is nonvolatile
 Binary spin polarization offers the possibility of applications as qubits in
quantum computers.
 Giant magnetoresistance (GMR)

It is a quantum mechanical effect, a type of magnetoresistance effect,

observed in thin film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and
nonmagnetic metal layers.

The effect manifests itself as a significant decrease in electrical

resistance in the presence of a magnetic field..
 Giant magnetoresistance (GMR)

In the absence of an applied magnetic field, the direction of

magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers is antiparallel due to a weak anti-
ferromagnetic coupling between layers, and it decreases to a lower level of
resistance when the magnetization of the adjacent layers align due to an applied
external field.

The spins of the electrons of the nonmagnetic metal align parallel or

antiparallel with an applied magnetic field in equal numbers, and therefore suffer
less magnetic scattering when the magnetizations of the ferromagnetic layers are
parallel.
 Magnet
Non Magnetic Metal
Magnet
Non Magnetic Metal

Fig. Schematic representation of layered structure for GMR

 A schematic of the layered structure and the alternating orientation
of the magnetization in the ferromagnetic layer .

The effect was first observed in films made of alternating layers of

iron and chromium, but since then other layered materials composed of
alternating layers of cobalt and copper have been made that display much
higher magnetoresistive effects.

The magnitude of the change in the resistance depends on the

thickness of the iron layer and it reaches a maximum at a thickness of 7 nm.
Thank you
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I Lecture-4

Solving Problems
1. The saturation magnetic induction of nickel is 0.65 weber/metre2. If the density
of nickel is 8906 kg/m 3 and atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the magnetic moment
of nickel atom in Bohr magneton.
Solution

We know that B = Nµ0µm

N = ρN/M

N is the number of atoms per unit volume (atoms/m3)

Substituting the given values, we have

2. A paramagnetic material has bcc structure with a cube edge of 2.5 × 10−10 m. If
the saturation value of magnetization is 1.8 × 106 ampere/metre. Calculate the
average magnetisation contributed per atom in Bohr magneton.
3. Magnetic field intensity of a paramagnetic material is 104 ampere/metre. At
room temperature its susceptibility is 3.7×10-3. Calculate the magnetization of the
material.

Hint: M = χH
Ans: 37 ampere/metre
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-13

Tunnel Magnetoresistance and Colossal Magnetoresistance

 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR)

Tunnel magnetoresistance is a quantum mechanical effect which occurs when two

ferromagnets are separated by a few atomic layers of insulator. The conductance
of such a tunneling junction can vary dramatically depending on whether the
ferromagnets are aligned in parrallel or antiparallel. The effect is termed "tunnel
magnetoresistance" (TMR) and the relative change in the resistance of the
junction, is called ‘optimistic’ magnetoresistance ratio.

Fig. Schematic representation of layered structure for Tunnel Magneto resistance (a) Parallel state (b) Antiparallel State 2
 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR)

TMR is a consequence of spin-dependent tunneling. TMR can be understood in

terms of Julliere's model, which is based on two assumptions. First, it is assumed
that spin of electrons is conserved in the tunneling process.

It follows that tunneling of up- and down-spin electrons are two independent
processes, so the conductance occurs in the two independent spin channels.

According to this assumption, electrons originating from one spin state of the first
ferromagnetic film are accepted by unfilled states of the same spin of the second
film. If the two ferromagnetic films are magnetized parallel, the minority spins
tunnel to the minority states and the majority spins tunnel to the majority states. 3
 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR)

In this parallel state the possibility of electron tunneling between the two
ferromagnetic electrodes through the insulator layer becomes larger, resulting in
larger tunneling current.

However, the two films are magnetized antiparallel the identity of the majority- and
minority-spin electrons is reversed, so the majority spins of the first film tunnel to
the minority states in the second film and vice versa.

In this antiparallel state the electron with opposite spin orientation with respect to
the magnetization of the ferromagnetic electrode cannot be tunneled successfully.
Then the tunneling electron current become smaller compared to the case for the
same directions of the magnetizations.
4
 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR)

Second, it is assumed that the conductance for a particular spin orientation is

proportional to the product of the effective density of states of the two
ferromagnetic electrodes.

The schematic representation of TMR with parallel state of ferromagnetic films and
antiparallel state of ferromagnetic films are shown in Fig.

By sputter depositing ferromagnetic film on top of antiferromagnetic layer, the

orientation of the magnetization of thin films can be "pinned" by the exchange
coupling between the moment of the anitiferromagnetic layer and the thin
ferromagentic layer.
5
 Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR)

The thickness of the ferromagentic layer must be thinner than the exchange length
of the material. The magnetization of the other ferromagnetic layer can be easily
changed by applying external field if the film is made of soft magnetic thin film.
By this configuration, the magnetic resistance changes sensitively depending on the
external magnetic field, thus can be used as high sensitive magnetoresistive devices
such as magnetic random memory (MRAM).

6
 Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)

 It is a property of some materials, mostly manganese-based perovskite oxides,

that enables them to dramatically change their electrical resistance in the presence
of a magnetic field.
 The magnetoresistance of conventional materials enables changes in resistance
of up to 5%, but materials featuring CMR may demonstrate resistance changes by
orders of magnitude.
 Colossal Magnetoresistance has been predominantly discovered in manganese-
based perovskite oxides.
 This arises because of strong mutual coupling of spin, charge and lattice degrees
of freedom.
7
 Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)

 Hence not only high temperature superconductivity, but also new

magnetoelectronic properties are increasingly discovered in materials with
perovskite structures.
 The perovskite like material LaMnO3 has manganese in the Mn3+ valence
state. If the La3+ is partially replaced with ions having a valence of 2+, such
as Ca, Ba, Sr, Pd or Cd, some Mn3+ ions transform to Mn4+ to preserve the
elcetrical neutality.
 The result is a mixed valence system has been shown to exhibit very large
magnetoresistive effects.

8
Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)

9
 Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)

Applications of CMR and GMR materials

 The understanding and application of CMR offers tremendous opportunties for
the development of new technologies such as read/write heads for high-capacity
magnetic storage, sensing elements in magnetometers and spintronics.

 The largest technological application of GMR is in the data storage industry.

 On-chip GMR sensors are available commercially from Non-Volatile
Electronics.
 Other applications are as diverse as solid-state compasses, automotive sensors,
non-volatile magnetic memory and the detection of landmines.
10
 Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)

Read sensors that employ the GMR effect available for detecting the fields from
tiny regions of magnetization.

It is expected that the GMR effect will allow disk drive manufacturers to
continue increasing density at least until disk capacity reaches 10 Gb per square
inch.

11
Thank you

12
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-14

Garnets - Introductory ideas and Explanation and Magnetoplumbites

 Garnets
Garnet is a group of minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as
gemstones and abrasives. Garnets species are found in many colors including red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, black, pink and colorless

Garnets general formula X3Y2(SiO4)3

X site is usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+) and Y site
by trivalent cations (Al3+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Mn3+, V3+) in an octahedral/tetrahedral
framework with [SiO4]4− providing the tetrahedra.

They crystallize in the isometric system, having three axes that are all of equal
length and perpendicular to each other.

Garnets do not show cleavage, so when they fracture under stress, sharp irregular
pieces are formed.
Examples:
Pyralspite garnets - Aluminium in Y site
Almandine : Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
Pyrope : Mg3Al2(SiO4)3
Spessartine : Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Ugrandite group - calcium in X site

Andradite : Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3
Grossular : Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
Uvarovite : Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3

Less common species

Calcium in X site
Goldmanite : Ca3V2(SiO4)3
Kimzeyit : Ca3(Zr,Ti)2[(Si,Al,Fe3+)O4]3
Morimotoite : Ca3Ti4+Fe2+(SiO4)3
Schorlomit : Ca3(Ti4+,Fe3+)2[(Si,Ti)O4]3
 Hydroxide bearing - calcium in X site
Hydrogrossular : Ca3Al2(SiO4)3-x(OH)4x
Hibschite : Ca3Al2(SiO4)3-x(OH)4x (where x is between 0.2 and 1.5)
Katoite : Ca3Al2(SiMagnesium or manganese in X site
Knorringite : Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3
Majorite : Mg3(Fe,Al,Si)2(SiO4)3O4)3-x(OH)4x (where x is greater than 1.5)

Applications of Garnets:
Gadolinium gallium garnet, Gd3Ga2(GaO4)3, which is synthesized for use in magnetic
bubble memory.
 Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), Y3Al2(AlO4)3, is used for synthetic gemstone. When
doped with neodymium (Nd3+), these YAl-garnets are useful as the lasing medium in
lasers.
Mixed with very high pressure water, garnet is used to cut steel and other materials in
water jets.
Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media.
 Magnetoplumbites

Magnetoplumbites belong to a family of ferrites (barium, strontium or calcium

hexaferrites) that is important in at least four areas of modern technologies like
permanent magnets, high density magnetic recording, microwave and magnetic-optic
applications.
Magnetoplumbites are hexagonal ferrites having the general formula MFe12O19 ,
where M is usually Barium (Ba), Strontium (Sr),Calcium (Ca) or Lead (Pb). The
structure can be described as a hexagonal structure with stack of oxygen and lead
ions, with the iron sites coordinated only by oxygen. There are three octahedral sites,
a tetrahedral site and a five-coordinated trigonal bipyramidal site.
 Magnetoplumbites

The most important hexagonal ferrites are barium ferrite (BaFe12O19) and Strontium
ferrite (SrFe12O19). The barium ferrite structure containing ten oxygen layers in its
elementary unit cell, and it is constructed from four building blocks, labeled as S,S*,
R and R* in the Fig.
The S and S* blocks are spinels with two oxygen layers and six Fe3+ ions. Four of
the Fe3+ ions are in octahedral sites and having their spins aligned parallel to each
other and the other two are in tetrahedral sites with the opposite spin direction to the
octahedral ions. The S and S* blocks are equivalent but rotated 180o with respect to
each other. The R and R* block consists of three oxygen layers, with one of the
oxygen anions in the middle layer replaced by a barium ion.
 Magnetoplumbites
Each R block contains six Fe3+ ions, five of which are in octahedral sites with three
up - spin and two down - spin, and one of which is coordinated by five O2+ anions
and has up-spin. The net magnetic moment per unit cell is 20μB.
 Magnetoplumbites

Magnetoplumbites are magnetically hard unlike the cubic ferrites with typical
coercivities of around 200KA/m. Also, they are easy to produce by ceramic
processing methods, and can be powered and formed easily into any required shape.

They are subclassified into six subclasses namely; M, W, Y, Z, X and U type

according to their crystal structure and arrangement of respective S, R and T blocks.
Table shows the subclasses of magnetoplumbites with their chemical formulae.
Where, A represents Ba, Pb or Sr and M is a divalent transition metal ion.
 Magnetoplumbites

Table: Subclasses of Magnetoplumbites

Sl.
Magnetoplumbites Chemical formula
No.

M-type AFe12O19
1

Y-type A2M2Fe12O22
2

W-type AM2Fe16O27
3

X-type A2M2Fe28O46
4

U-type A4M2Fe36O60
5

Z-type A3M2Fe24O41
6
 Magnetoplumbites

Applications of Magnetoplumbites
Barium hexaferrite is used in hybrid microwave devices, monolithic microwave
integrated circuits and future replacement for yttrium iron garnet due to its high
uniaxial anisotropy and large resistivity.
Magnetoplumbites are used in magnetic recording media due to their high quality
magnetic behavior.
M-type compound of these system are used in developing glass ceramic.
Magnetoplumbites can be used as a substrate material for catalyst support.
After doping with proper ions like Eu2+, it can be used as luminescent materials in
lighting tubes.
Magnetoplumbites can also be used as interface coating on high temperature
ceramic matrix composites.
Thank you
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module 2 Lecture-15

Multiferroic Materials
Multiferroic Materials
Multiferroic Materials
Multiferroics
 Types of Multiferroics

Multiferroics can be divided into two groups:

1. Type-I Multiferroics
2. Type-II Multiferroics

Type-I Multiferroics:
This type of multiferroics are older, more numerous and are good ferroelectrics.
Above room temperature, the critical temperatures of the magnetic and ferroelectric
transitions can be well.
In these materials, the coupling between magnetism and ferroelectricity is
unfortunately weak. Different origin of ferroelectricity and magnetism in type-I
multiferroic are mostly due to different active subsystems of a material.
 Types of Multiferroics

Type-I Multiferroics:
There is a certain coupling between breaking time reversal symmetry, breaking
spatial inversion symmetry, ferroelectric order parameter, magnetic order parameter
in such type-I multiferroics.
In these materials, ferroelectricity can have a number of possible microscopic
origins.
For example: BiFeO3 with the ferroelectric transition temperature Tc higher then
the Neel transition temperature TN.
 Types of Multiferroics

Type-II Multiferroics:
Due to the recent discovery of a novel class of multiferroics, there is the biggest
excitement as ferroelectricity exists only in a magnetically ordered state and is
caused by a particular type of magnetism.
A nonzero electric polarization occurs in the low temperature phase. For example
CuFeO2 with Tc = TN .
The magnetic and/or electric polarization of the barrier controls the current driven
through a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) with a multiferroic tunnel barrier.
 Types of Multiferroics

Type-II Multiferroics:
Multiferroic tunnel junctions is referred to the junctions with a multiferroic tunnel
barrier.
The use of a multiferroic material as a tunnel barrier and ferromagnetic materials
as leads in MFTJs would lead to 8 possible resistive states of such junctions.
Multiferroic Materials
Thank you
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J-Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves

and Optics

Module I Lecture-16

Solving Problems
1. The magnetic flux density within a bar of material is 0.63 Tesla at an H field of
5×105 A/m. Compute the following for this material: (a) Magnetic permeability,
(b) Magnetic susceptibility, (c) Type of magnetism that you suggest being
displayed by the material with reasons.

Sol.: (a) Magnetic permeability,

μ= B/H
= 0.63/5×105
μ = 0.126 × 10−5 H/m

χ = μr−1
= μ/μ0 -1= (0 .126 × 10−5/4 π × 10−7)-1
=1 .003185-1
χ = 0 . 003185
1. The magnetic flux density within a bar of some material is 0.63 Tesla at an H
field of 5×105 A/m. Compute the following for this material: (a) Magnetic
permeability, (b) Magnetic susceptibility, (c) Type of magnetism that you suggest
being displayed by the material with reasons.

(c) Type of magnetism: Paramagnetism since the magnetic susceptibility is positive and low
in magnitude.
2. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3300 A/m and flux density of
0.0044 Wb/m2. Calculate magnetizing field strength and relative permeability.

Sol.: From B = μ0( H+I ),

magnetizing field strength, H= (B/μ0) −I
= {(0.0044)/4π×10−7}−3300
=3503 .185−3300
H =203. 185 A/m

Relative permeability, μr= μ/μ0

= B/Hμ0
= 0 . 0044/{203. 185×4π×10−7}
μr =17 .24
3. The magnetic fled intensity in a piece of a magnetic material is 106 A/m. If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 1.5×10-3, compute flux density
and magnetization of material.

Hint: B=μ0( H+I )

Ans: B=1.257 T

Hint: Magnetization: I=χH

Ans: I=1500 A/m