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Magnetic Properties

Magneticfield
>Magnetic field isa force which is generated due to energy
change in avolume of space.
>A magnetic field is produced by an electrical charge in
motion e.g. current flowing in aconductor, orbital movement
and spin of electrons.
The magnetic field can be described by imaginary lines as
shown in the figure below for a magnet and a current loop.
Magnetic lines of force

Current
 \f a
(solenoimagnet
Magnet
d) ic field,
ic field
of n turns H, is
Strength
Magnetic and length I, generated
by a
flux density, B: It is H= nl/l cyli ndr ical coil
strength within a the (A/m )
>u, called the
subst ance
B- uH subjected to a magnitudefieldH
of the field
(Tesla or
which materialpercanmeabibelity, is the Weber/m?)
a
>In
vacuum B= uH. u ismagnet iz measure
ed. of the
degree to
universal constant. u, =4n xthe permeability of and
permeability. 107(H/m). 4, =u,vacuum
Bo =lloH
B= uH
is the isa
relative

vMagnetic moments
Being amoving charge,
field having a magnetic electrons produce asmall magnetic
moment along the axis of rotation.
>The spin of electrons also
along the spin axis. producesa magnetic moment
>Magnetism
moments.
in a material arises due to
alignment of magnetic
Magnetic moment MagnetiCmoment

Electron
Electron
spin
 MagneticDipole and Monopole
>Analogous to electric dipole, a magnetic dipole can be
defined as two monopoles of opposite and equal strength
separated by a certain distance.
>A magnetic monopole, however, is not observed in nature.
>If there are Nmonopoles each located at a point given by a
vector , then the magnetic dipole moment can be defined as
avector, k
u=)miai
i=1

>Two monopoles of strength +m and-m separated by

distance l, willgive a dipole k= mã, mã, = m(, - ,) = ml
>Abar magnet can be thought of consistingof two opposite
and equal poles at its two ends.

Magnetization
> With the application of a magnetic field magnetic moments
in amaterial tend to align and thus increase the magnitude of
the field strength.
>This increase is given by the parameter called magnetization,
M, such that B=u,H +uM.
M=zmH.
Xm is called magnetic susceptibility.
Xm A,-1
 Magnetism
º Depending on theexistence and alignment of magnetic
application of magneticfield. three
moments with or without defined.
can be
types of magnetism

Magnetism

Paramagnetism
Diamagnetism
Ferromagnetism

Diamagnetism
>Diamagnetism isaweak form of magnetism which
only when an external field is applied.
arises
>It arises due to change in the orbital
motion of electrons on
application of a magnetic field.
There is no magnetic dipoles in the absence of a
field and when a magnetic field is applied the dipolemagnetic
are aligned opposite to field direction. moments
The magnetic susceptibility, Xm u,-1) is negative i.e. Bina
diamagnetic material is less than that of vacuum.
H=0 H

Diamagnetic materials:
AI,O,, Cu, Au, Si, Zn
 tic
ee
Paramagnetism
º In aparamagnetic material the cancellation of magnetic
moments between electron pairs is incomplete and hence
magnetic moments exist without any external magnetic field.
However, the magnetic moments are randomly aligned and
hence no net magnetization without any external field.
>When a magnetic field is applied all the dipole moments are
aligned in the direction of the field.
>The magnetic susceptibility is small but positive. i.e. B in a
paramagnetic material is slightly greater than that of vacuum.
H =0 H

Paramagnetic materials:
Al, Cr, Mo, Ti, Zr

Ferromagnetism
> Certain materials posses permanent magnetic moments in
the absence of an external magnetic field. This is known as
ferromagnetism.
>Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials
arise due to uncancelled electron spins by virtue of their
electron structure.
The coupling interactions of electron spins of adjacent atoms
cause alignment of moments with one another.
-The origin of this coupling is attributed to the electron
structure. Ferromagnetic materials like Fe (26 [Ar] 4s23d9)
have incompletely filled d orbitals and hence unpaired electron
spins.
 Antiferromagnetism
results in anti paralle!
spins no net
the coupling of electron
cancel each other and
º If spinswvill
alignment then
will arise. one such
magnetic monentantiferronagnetism. MnOis
W

as
ºThis is known
example. magnetic momentsand the
MnO, 02 ions have nonetaligned anti parallel to each
>In Mn2* ions are
spin moments of
other in adjacent atoms.
O Mn2+

V
Ferrimagnetism
Certain ionic solids having a general formula MFe,O4, where
>
is any metal, show permanent magnetism, termed
M spin moments.
ferrimagnetism, due to partial cancellation of
both 2+ and 3+ states as
FIn Fe,O, Fe ions can exist in coupling
Fe2*02- (Fes(O)% in 1:2 ratio. The antiparallel
B) moments cancels
between Fe (Half in A sites and half in
same direction and
each other. Fe2 moments are aligned in
result in anet magnetic moment.
Tetrahedral
Oxygen
Fe3+
tttt
Tetrahedral Fe
Asite Fe2+ tttt

OCtahedral Fe
B site
 LDomains
Ferromagnetic materials exthibit small-yolume regions in
which magnetic moments are aligned in the same
These regions are called domains. directions.
>Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries. The
direction of magnetization changes across the
boundaries.
>The magnitude of magnetization in the material is
of magnetization of all the domains. vector sum
Domains

Domain
wall

felemag
Magnetization and Saturation
>When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material,
domains tend to align in the direction of the field by domain
boundary movement and hence, the flux density or magnetization
increases.
>As the field strength increases domains which are
oriented to field direction growat the expense of the favorably
oriented ones. All the domains are aligned to the fieldunfavorably
direction at
high field strengths and the material reaches the saturation
magnetization, M,.
Ms
The initial slope of the B-H or
M

Curve at H=0 is called initial 3

permeability,4, which is a
material property.
H
HE0
 Hysteresis
\f the field is reduced from saturation by magnetic reversal, a
hysteresis develops.
>As the field is reversed the favorably oriented domains tend to
align in the newdirection. When Hreaches zero some of the
domains still remain aligned in the previous direction giving rise
toa residual magnetization called remanence, ,.
M
Me

M
H,, the reverse filed strength at
which magnetization is zero, is
called Coercivity
+H

Hard and Soft magnets

>Based on their hysteresis characteristics ferro and
ferrimagnetic materials can be classified as hard and soft
magnets.
ºSoft magnets have a narrow hysteresis curve and high initial
permeability and hence easy to magnetize and demagnetize. It
is just opposite for the Hard magnets.
Hard

B
Soft

BHmak
H
 Hardand Soft magnets
,The magnetic hardness is expresses by aterm term called energy
productwhich is the area of the largest rectangle that can be
drawnin the second quadrant (red-hatched).
Conventional hard magetic materialslike steel, Cunife(Cu-
alloys, valuesinthe
N-Fe) Alnico (A-Ni-Co) alloy have BHmax materials
range of 2-80 kJ/m. High-energy hard
magnetic m
Nd,Fe,B, SmCo, exhibit BHmay >80 kJ/m².
like permanent magnets in
Hard magnets are used in all
applications such as power drills, motors, speakers.
magnets like Fe, Fe-Si are useful when rapid
>Soft is required as in
magnetization and demagnetization
transformer cores.
should be low for this purpose as
defects
>Impurity and other
domain wall movement through which
they may hinder the
domains align.

Magnetic anisotropy
crystalline materialare not
crystallographic
magnetic properties ofa same inall
The properties are notthe
isotropic ie. direction in which
direction. preferred direction is the
happens to be a [0001]
>Therealways easier. Forexample, ForFe itis[100]as
magnetizationis in Co.
magnetizationdirection Co- HCp
preferred diagramsbelow. (emu/cm³)
Magnetization
shown in the Fe - BCC
1400 (0001) (0001| Easy

<100>
1200

(emu
Magnetization
E1600 <110 <111> Hard
1000 [1070)
A111> Medium 800

51200 <110> 600

a 400 (1070) Hard
L
800 o 200 8000 10000
Easy
<100> 4000 6000
400 2000 Magnetic field (Oe)
1000
800
400 600
200Magnetic field (Oe)
 Effect of Temperature
>The atomic vibration increases with increasing temperature
and this leads to misalignment of magnetic moments. Above a
certain temperature all the moments are misaligned and the
magnetism is lost. This temperature is known as Curie
temperature, Tc.
>Ferro and ferrimagnetic materials turn paramagneticatbove
curie point. For Fe Tc = 768°C, Co- 1120 °C, Ni 335 °C.

omagnetization
Saturation

Below T Above T
Temperature T

Superconductivity
Superconductivity is disappearance of electrical resistance
below a certain temperature.
The temperature belowwhich superconductivity is attained is
known as the critical temperature, To:
The superconducting behavior is represented in a
form in the figure below. graphical
resistivity

I Nornal etal
Eiectric

Superconductor

OK
Temperature (K)
Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer (BCS) Theory
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer - BCS
theory, Noble prize for Physics in 1972
>The temperature dependence of metals arises out of
srattering of electrons due to atomic vibrations which increase
with temperature.
>Cooper pair - Below Tç two electrons can pair through the
lattice phonon which causes a slight increase in the positive
charge around an electron and since thermal energy to scatter
is low, this pair can move through the lattice.

Motion of Cooper pair

through the lattice

BCS Theory contd..

pair of
> Thus the charge carrier in a superconductor is a
electrons instead of a single electron.
superconductors like
>BCS theory applies well to conventional
Al(Te =1.18 K), Nb,Ge (T =23 K).
number of ceramic
High temp. superconductors - Recently a
Superconductors such as YBa,Cu,0, have been discovered
whose Te is much higher.
Material T (K)
Aluminum 1.18

Nb-Ti alloy 10.2

Nb,Al 18.9

Nb,Ge 23.0

YBa,Cu,O, 92

TI,Ba,Ca,Cu,010 125
 Superconductivity and Magnetism
The Meissner effect
ºAmaterial in its superconducting state will
applied magnetic field I(Fig. b). This is expell all of
ºA magnet placed| over a Meisnner effect.
superconductor thus a
phenomenon known as magnetic levitation. will
an
float,

(a)
Messner effect. (a) (b) T<Tc
Above Tc , normal
penetrates. (b) below Tç, Conducting state,
expelled.
Superconducting, the magnetic magnet
field is ic fluX

lf the field isTypes of Superconductors

come back to increased, some of the
field He (Fig. c) - conducting state superconduct
normal
above ing
a critical materials
These are
rIn another class of materials the superconductors. Ex.magnetic
Type I
Al,Pb
critical value of the applied field field begins to intrude above
turns intO anormal (Hc)and at a higher field ait
here unlike conductor (Fig. d). The (H)
Type IItransition
Type I. These are called
Ex. Nb.Sn, YBa,Cu,0, is gradual
Induced
field superconductors.
(c) Type I nduced
field
(d) Type ll
Superconducting
state

Superconducting.
state Normal
State

Normal
Applied field. H-e Ho Mixed state state

H -- Hc:
Hc2
 Applications
Superconductors are used in
UMaglevtrains which can reach very high
velocity
OMRI Scan machines (Medical science, Brainimaging)
OHigh eficiency electric generators
DEnergy storage
DSuperconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)
OThe Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for generating high
velocity particles travelling at speed of light

Key Words
Magnetism; Magnetic properties; Diamagnetism;
Paramagnetism; Ferromagnetism; Ferrimagnetism;
Antiferromagnetism; Hysteresis; Soft and Hard magnets;
Meissner effect.
Curie point; Superconductivity;BCS theory;
References
http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/High School/Magneti
sm/magnetismintro.htm
htp://www.ee.ucla.edu/~ijudy/classes/magnetics/
http://media.wiley.com/product datalexcerpt/22/07803103/0780
310322.pdf
http://phy.ntnu.edu.tw/~changmc/Teach/SS/SS note/chap11.pdf
http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2001/accel
ors/superconductivity/superconductivity.htm
http://katzgraber.org/teaching/SS07/files/burgener.pdf
http://chabanoiscedric.tripod.com/NSCHSS.PDF