ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Engineering Physics

Lecture Notes
Module 2
Electrical Conductivity in Solids and
Semiconductors

B.Tech ( I YEAR - I SEM)

(2022-23)

MODULE-2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

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Module 2

Electrical conductivity in solids and Semiconductors

Electrical conductivity in solids: Classical free electron theory – Limitations, Expression for elec-
trical conductivity in metals, Quantum free electron theory, Fermi –Dirac distribution, Density
of States in Metals, Expressions for thermal conductivity in metals, Wiedemann-Franz law
Semiconductors: Introduction to Semiconductors, Types of semiconductors and examples, Car-
rier concentration in intrinsic Semiconductor-Fermi level, Carrier concentration in extrinsic
Semiconductor-Fermi level, Hal effect, Problems.

Lecture 10: Classical free electron theory – Limitations

Lecture 11: Expression for electrical conductivity in metals

Lecture 12: Quantum free electron theory, Fermi –Dirac distribution

Lecture 13: Density of States in Metals

Lecture 14: Expressions for thermal conductivity in metals,

Wiedemann-Franz law

Lecture 15: Introduction to Semiconductors

Lecture 16: Carrier concentration in intrinsic Semiconductor-Fermi level

Lecture 17: Carrier concentration in extrinsic Semiconductor-Fermi level

Lecture 18: Hal effect, Problems

SYLLABUS
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Lecture-10
Classical free electron theory – Limitations

Classical Free Electron theory of Metals (Drude-Lorentz Theory)

Drude in the year 1900 proposed a simple theoretical explanation of electrical

conductivity of metals based on electron gas model. Later on Lorentz modified the
theory of Drude.

Classical free electron theory is based on the following postulates:

1. The valance electrons of atoms of metallic solids are free to move throughout the
volume of the metal as like gas molecules of a perfect gas enclosed in a container.

2. The free electrons can move randomly in all possible directions with different
velocities and obeys Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of velocities.

3. The free electrons collide with positive ions which are fixed to the lattice and with
other free electrons during their random motion. The collisions are elastic in nature
i.e. there is no loss of energy during collision.

4. The free electrons obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gasses. The mean
3
kinetic energy (KE) of a free electron is equal to that of gas molecule2 𝐾𝑇

5. When an electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated, and
therefore, accelerated electrons drift in opposite direction to the applied electric
field.

6. On the basis of this theory many properties of metallic solids can be explained as
bellow.

Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Velocity

Let 𝐶¯ be the R.M.S velocity of the free electron, then the

1 2
kinetic energy of the electron can be written as 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑐

where 𝐶¯ = root mean square velocity

CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY-LIMITATIONS MODULE-2 L-10

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3
But according to the classical free electron theory the mean 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝐾𝑇

1 3
𝑚𝐶¯2 = 2 𝐾𝑇
2

3𝐾𝑇
𝐶¯ = √ 𝑚

Mean collision time (𝜏𝑐 )

The mean time taken by an electron between two successive collisions is known as
mean collision time.

𝜆
𝜏𝑐 =
𝐶¯

𝑚
𝜏𝐶 = 𝜆√
3𝐾𝑇

Mean Free path (𝜆)

The mean distance traveled by an electron between two successive collisions is

known as mean free path.

𝜆 = 𝜏𝑐 𝐶 ̅

Drift Velocity ( Vd)

It is the m e a n velocity acquired by the free electrons of a metal in a particular

direction during the application of the electric
field.

−𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚

CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY-LIMITATIONS MODULE-2 L-10

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Relaxation time (𝜏𝑟 )

Under the influence of an external electric field, the free electrons attain a directional
motion. If electric field is switched off, the velocity start decreasing exponentially,
which tends to restore equilibrium state is called relaxation process.

If vo is the velocity at t = 0 at which the field is

switched off. The velocity at any time is given by
−𝜏𝑟 −𝜏𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑡

In the above expression

𝜏𝑟 = relaxation time

If 𝑡 = 𝜏𝑟 , t h e n 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −1

Relaxation time 𝜏𝑟 is defined as the time required to the electron to reduce its
velocity to 1/e of its initial value (OR) Time taken for the drift velocity to decay 1/e
times of its initial value.

Failures or Limitations of Classical free electron theory:

1. The phenomena such as photo electric effect, Compton Effect and Black body
radiation could notbe explained by classical free electro theory.

2. According to classical theory, the value of specific heat of a metals is given by

4.5R (R =Universalgas constant) whereas the experimental value is nearly 3R
(Dulang-Petit Law)

3. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or insulator could not be explained by

using this model.

𝐾
4. According to classical free electron t h e o r y 𝐿 = 𝜎𝑇 is constant (Wiedemann-
Franz L aw). This is not constant at low temperatures.

5. Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.

6. According to classical free electron theory, Resistivity 𝜌 = √𝑇 . But according to

experiments 𝜌 = 𝑇

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Lecture-11

Expression for electrical conductivity in metals

Expression for Electrical conductivity of metals (𝜎):

Let us consider a metal conductor of length “ l” and area of cross section “ A” as shown in figure.

The volume of the conductor can be written as “ Al”

If there are “ n” number of electrons per unit volume of the metal, then the total number of
electrons in the metal a r e g i v e n b y “ A l n ”

If “ e” is the charge of the electron, then the total charge “ q” due to all electrons in the
conductor isgiven by

q=Alne

Let t be the time taken by the electron to move from one end to other end, then the current can
be written as

𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡
𝐴𝑛𝑙𝑒 𝑙
𝐼= But 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑡
𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑

𝐽 = 𝐼 ⁄𝐴

Where J current density

EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS MODULE-2 L-11

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In a metal the current density “ J” is given by the equation

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)

Where n = number of electrons per unit volume,

e=electron charge

vd = drift velocity

If E is the applied electric field, then the electric force acting on a free electron is given by

𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸 − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)

From Newton’s II law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)

From equations (2) and (3)we can write 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸

𝑒𝐸
𝑎= 𝑚

𝑉𝑑
but a =drift velocity/collision time 𝑎= 𝜏𝑐

by equating above two equations, we can get

𝜏𝑐 𝑒𝐸
𝑉𝑑 = − − − − − − − − − −(4)
𝑚

from equations (1) and (4)

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽= 𝐸 − − − − − − − − − − − (5)
𝑚

But from microscopic form of ohms’ law

𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
On comparing Equations (5)&(6) 𝜎 = 𝑚

𝜎 is Conductivity

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The reciprocal of conductivity is known as Resistivity

1 𝑚
𝜌 = 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏

Conductivity may also be expressed in terms of mobility (𝜇 ) which is defined as drift velocity
𝑉
per unit electric field 𝜇 = 𝐸𝑑

From above equation and equation (1) 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇

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Lecture-12

Quantum free electron theory, Fermi –Dirac distribution

Quantum free electron theory:

Somerfield and Pauli applied quantum mechanics and modified the free electron theory.

Assumptions

1. The electrons are free to move within the metal like gaseous molecules. They are confined to
themetal due to surface potential.

2. The velocities of electrons obey Fermi-Dirac distribution because electrons are spin half (1/2)
particles.

3. The electrons would go into different energy levels and obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.

4. The motion of electron is associated with a wave called matter wave, according to the
de-Broglie hypothesis.

5. The electrons cannot have all energies but will have discrete energies according to the
equation.

Fermi energy:

The highest occupied quantum energy state in a system at

absolute zero temperature (0 K) is called Fermi energy level.

Fermi-Dirac Distribution:

In Quantum theory different electrons occupy different energy levels at 0 K. Electrons obey
Pauli’s exclusion principle. As the electrons receive energy they are excited to higher
levels.

The electrons obey Fermi-Dirac distribution law for occupation different energy levels.

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY, FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION MODULE-2 L-12

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The particles which obey Fermi-Dirac distribution law are called Fermions.

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function at a temperature T is given by

1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

EF= Fermi Energy, T-Absolute temperature, KB- Boltzmann Constant

Case (I): At T=0

(a) E> EF

1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = ≈0
1+𝑒 ∞
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 (0)

𝑓(𝐸) = 0 means that the energy levels above EF are empty

(b) E<EF

1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = = 1+0 ≈ 1
1+𝑒 −∞
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 (0)

𝑓(𝐸) = 1 means that the energy levels below EF are filled

Case (II): At T>0 and E =E f

1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 0 = = 1+1 = 2 ≈ 0.5
1+𝑒 0
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Fermi level is the state at which the probability of electron occupation is ½ at any temperature.

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY, FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION MODULE-2 L-12

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Lecture-13

Density of States in Metals

Expression for density of states for free electrons

The density of states (DOS) is essentially the number of different states at a particular energy
level that electrons are allowed to occupy.

Density of states is defined as the number of electronic states present in a unit energy range E,
E+dE.

𝑑𝑁
It is represented by 𝐷(𝐸) = 𝑑𝐸

Let us consider a free electron gas confined to K-space and contained within the surface of the
radius ‘K’.

The electrons are free to travel in the solid. Using the Schrödinger wave equation, we can
determine that the solution of electrons confined in a box with rigid walls, i.e. the Particle in a
box problem.

The standing waves for which the allowed values of ‘k’ are
expressible in terms of three nonzero integers, nx ny nz

Using de-Broglie’s particle-wave duality, we can assume that the

electron has wave-like properties and assign the electron a
2𝜋
wave number 𝑘 = 𝜆

then we can write the momentum of particle as 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘

𝑝2 ℏ2 𝑘 2
kinetic energy of can be written as 𝐸 = = − −(1)
2𝑚 2𝑚

Let us consider each position ink-space being filled with a cubic

2𝜋 3
unit cell volume of 𝑉 = ( 𝐿 )

The number of allowed ‘k’ values per unit volume of k-space is

1
(2𝜋)3

Let us consider a shell of thickness ‘dk’ extended between the radius ‘k’ and ‘k+dk’

The volume of the shell can be calculated by simply multiplying the surface area of the sphere,
4𝜋𝑘 2 by the thickness, dk is 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘

DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS MODULE-2 L-13

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1
Number of states in the shell of thickness dk is given 𝑑𝑁 = (2𝜋)3 4𝜋𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘

electron exhibits two possible spins, Hence

1
𝑑𝑁 = 2 4𝜋𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘 − − − − − −(2)
(2𝜋)3

2𝑚𝐸
from equation (1) we can write the equation for k as 𝑘 = √ − − − − − −(3)
ℏ2

differentiate equation (3) with respect to energy ‘E’

𝑑𝑘 1 2𝑚𝐸 1⁄2−1 𝑚
= ( ) 2 2
𝑑𝐸 2 ℏ2 ℏ

𝑑𝑘 1 2𝑚𝐸 −1⁄2 𝑚
= ( ) 2 2
𝑑𝐸 2 ℏ2 ℏ

1 2𝑚 1−1⁄2
𝑑𝑘 = ( 2 ) (𝐸)−1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℏ

1 2𝑚 1⁄2
𝑑𝑘 = ( ) (𝐸)−1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℏ2

Substitute dk value in equation (2)

2
1 2𝑚𝐸 1 2𝑚 1⁄2
𝑑𝑁 = 2 4𝜋 (√ ) ( ) (𝐸)−1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
(2𝜋)3 ℏ2 2 ℏ2

1 2𝑚 1+(1⁄2)
𝑑𝑁 = 3 4𝜋 ( 2 ) 𝐸𝐸 −1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
8𝜋 ℏ

1 2𝑚 3⁄2 1⁄2
𝑑𝑁 = 2 ( 2 ) 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ

𝑑𝑁 1 2𝑚 3⁄2 1⁄2
= ( ) 𝐸
𝑑𝐸 2𝜋 2 ℏ2

𝑑𝑁 1 2𝑚 3⁄2
𝐷(𝐸) = = 2 ( 2 ) 𝐸 1⁄2
𝑑𝐸 2𝜋 ℏ

This equation represents density of states in the energy range E, E+dE

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Density of states and effective mass of electron are related as 𝐷(𝐸) 𝛼 𝑚3⁄2

The density of states and Energy related as 𝐷(𝐸) 𝛼 𝐸 1⁄2

The relation is shown in the following Figure

The density of states and top of valence band are related as

1 2𝑚 3⁄2
𝐷(𝐸) = ( ) (𝐸𝑡 − 𝐸)1⁄2
2𝜋 2 ℏ2

Density of states and conduction band are related as

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2
𝐷𝑒 (𝐸) = 2 ( 2 ) (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1⁄2
2𝜋 ℏ

Density of states and valence band are related as

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2
𝐷ℎ (𝐸) = 2𝜋2 ( ) (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)1⁄2
ℏ2

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Lecture-14

Expressions for thermal conductivity, Weidemann-Franz Law

Expressions for thermal conductivity:

Thermal conductivity (K) of a material is equal to the amount of heat energy (Q) conducted per
unit area of cross section to the temperature gradient (dT/dx).

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝛼
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑇
𝑄=𝐾
𝑑𝑥

𝑄
𝑘=
𝑑𝑇
( )
𝑑𝑥

K is called thermal conductivity. The unit of ‘K’ is W/m/K.

In solids, the conductivity takes place by both free electrons and thermally excited lattice vibra-
tions known as phonon. So, Thermal conductivity is Ktotal = Kelectrons + Kphonons

Derivation:

Let us Consider a uniform solid HC with temperature of the hot end H as T 1 and the temperature
of the cold end C as T2 as shown in figure. Heat is flowing from H to C. Let A be the area of cross
section, which is at a distance equal to the mean free path λ of the electrons between the two
ends H and C. The kinetic energy of the electrons at the hot end H is greater than that of the
electrons at the cold end C.

Hot (H) Cold (C)

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Let Q be the amount of heat flowing through the rod from the end H to C whose length is 2λ.

𝐴(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑡
The heat conducted is 𝑄=
2𝜆

𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑡
𝑄=𝐾
2𝜆

Where K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, A is the area of cross section, t is the time for
conduction and 2λ is the length of the rod.

The Thermal conductivity per unit area per unit time is

2𝜆𝑄
𝐾 = (𝑇 --------(1)
1 −𝑇2 )

Let ‘n’ be the number of available conduction electrons and ‘v’ be the root mean square veloci-
ty.

Let us assume that the available free electrons in the metal are having an equal probability to
move in all six possible directions.

1
Therefore, an average of ‘6 𝑛𝑣 ‘electrons can travel in any one direction.

3
The average kinetic energy of an electron at hot end ‘H’ of temperature T1 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇1

3
The average kinetic energy of an electron at cold end ‘C’ of temperature T2 =2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇2

1
The number of electrons crossing the area at A per second =6 𝑛𝑣

The heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from hot end ‘H’ to cold end ‘C’

= Number of electrons x Average kinetic energy of electrons from H to C

1 3 1
= 𝑛𝑣 𝐾𝐵 𝑇1 = 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝑇1
6 2 4

1 3 1
Similarly, the heat energy transferred across A per second from C to H = 6 𝑛𝑣 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇2 = 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝑇2

The resultant heat energy transferred from H to C across unit area, per second is given by

1
𝑄 = 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )---(2)

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We know that, temperature gradient

𝑑𝑇 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
= ----(3)
𝑑𝑥 2𝜆

Substituting the values of Q and temperature gradient, in equation (1), we can get, Thermal
conductivity,

1
2𝜆 4 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐾=
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

1
𝐾 = 2 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝜆------(4)

3
From classical free electron theory, the electronic heat capacity of the metal is, Ce = 2 𝑅

Where R is gas constant and is equal to n kB. i.e. R=n kB

2
So that From above KB=3 Ce n

equation (4) becomes Thermal conductivity,

1
𝐾 = 𝑣𝜆𝐶𝑒 ------(5)
3

Thermal conductivity of a metal is determined either using eq. (4) or (5)

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Wiedemann-Franz law:

The ratio between the thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of a metal is directly

proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal when the temperature is not too low.

𝐾
𝛼𝑇
𝜎
𝐾
= 𝐿𝑇
𝜎
𝐾
Where 𝐿 = 𝜎𝑇 is a constant known as Lorentz number.

The value of ‘L’ is equal to 2.44 x 10-8 W K-2 at 293 K.

1
We know that the expression for Thermal conductivity 𝐾 = 2 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝜆-----(1)

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Electrical conductivity 𝜎 = -----(2)
𝑚

1
𝐾 2 𝑛𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝜆 𝑚𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝜆
= =
𝜎 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 2𝑒 2 𝜏
𝑚

Substituting λ = v τ in the above equation, we get

𝐾 𝑚𝑣𝐾𝐵 𝑣𝜏 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐾𝐵
= =
𝜎 2𝑒 2 𝜏 2𝑒 2
1 3
Kinetic energy can be written as 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2

𝐾 3𝐾𝐵 2
Therefore, = 𝑇
𝜎 2𝑒 2

𝐾 3𝐾𝐵 2
= =𝐿
𝜎𝑇 2𝑒 2

Substituting the value of KB and e in the above equation, we get

2
𝐾 3(1.38𝑋10−23 )
𝐿 = 𝜎𝑇 = = 1.11𝑋10−8 𝑊𝛺𝐾 −2 ----(3)
2(1.6𝑋10−19 )2

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The value of Lorentz number is not matching with experimental value (2.44 x 10-8 W K-2) due to
failure of classical theory.

According to quantum free electron theory, the expression for thermal conductivity is given by

𝑛𝜋2 (𝐾𝐵 )2 𝑇𝜏
𝐾= ------(4)
3𝑚

𝐾 𝑛𝜋2 (𝐾𝐵 )2 𝑇𝜏 𝑚 𝜋2 (𝐾𝐵 )2

𝐿= = = ----(5)
𝜎𝑇 3𝑚 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑇 3𝑒 2

3.142 (1.38𝑥10−23 )2
𝐿= = 2.44𝑥10−8 𝑊𝛺𝐾 −2
3(1.6𝑥10−19 )2

Equation (5) gives the correct value of Lorentz number and is in good agreement with the
experimental value.

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Lecture-15

Introduction to Semiconductors

Origin of Energy bands

In an isolated atom the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete sharp energy levels. When
two or more identical atoms are brought closure, then the outermost orbits of these atoms
overlap and interact with each other. As a result, complex band structure has been
formed which has shown in bellow Figure. The degree of overlap of electrons of adjacent
atoms is different for inner and outer most electrons. The electrons in the inner shells are
strongly bound to their nucleus while the electrons in the outer most shells are not strongly
bound to the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell are called valance electrons. The
complex band structure formed by the individual atoms leads to formation of valance,
conduction and forbidden bands.

Band Structure of isolated Sodium (Na) atom Sodium solid

Valence Band

The band formed by the energy levels of valence electrons is called valence band. It may be
partial or completely filled with the electrons.

Conduction Band

This is the lowest unfilled energy band. This is empty or partially filled by electrons. The
conduction of electrons can be possible in conduction band.

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS MODULE-2 L-15

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Forbidden Energy gap (or) band

The conduction band and valence band are separated by a region or gap known as
forbidden energy gap or forbidden band. No electron exists in this forbidden energy band.

Classification o f Materials

Based on the arrangement of band structure, the materials are classified into Insulators,
Conductors and Semiconductors.

Insulators

In case of insulators, the forbidden band is very large. Due to this reason, the free electrons
cannot jump from valence band to conduction band. In insulators, the forbidden energy gap
between Valence and conduction band is of the order of 10eV. In insulators no free electrons
are available in conduction band, hence insulators are not useful for the electrical conduction
mechanism. These materials have very high resistivity and almost zero conductivity.

Conductors

In case of conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap with each other. Hence
large number of electrons are available for electronic conduction.

These materials have very low resistivity and very high conductivity.

Semiconductors

In semiconductors, small forbidden energy gap is existing between valence band and
conduction band. The forbidden energy gap is ranging between 0.7 to 1.1 eV.

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The electrical properties of semiconductors lie between insulators and conductors. These
materials behave like insulators at low temperatures and conductors at high temperature.
These materials have two types of charge carriers namely electrons and holes.

The invention of semiconductors open a new branch of technology named as “Electronics”,

which leads to the development of ICs, Microprocessors, Computers and Supercomputers.
These materials play a vital role mostly in all advanced electronic devices.

Semiconductors are classified into two categories.

Intrinsic Semiconductors

Pure form of Semiconductor is known as Intrinsic Semiconductors.

Examples: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) etc...

In these semiconductors, the Fermi level exists exactly at the middle of the forbidden energy
gap at absolute temperature (T=0 K). Semiconductors behaves as an insulator at low
temperatures due to availability of less electrons. The conduction of electrons occurs at high
temperatures due to thermal excitation of electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band, hence they behave as conductors at high temperatures.

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In order to get in sight view of an intrinsic semiconductor, let us consider a Silicon solid. The
Silicon atom has four valence electrons in the valence band.

In order to gain stability in electronic configurations, the Si atoms in silicon solid, it participate in
forming four covalent bonds with four
neighbor Silicon atoms (shown in Figure).

If some energy is supplied, then covalent bonds breaks and the electrons will come out from the
bond and move freely in the solid. As a result, deficiency electron occurs and this deficiency or
vacancy is named as ‘hole’ (considered as positive charge). The electrons which come out of the
valence band and move freely without any constraints and have more energy, than these
electrons may freely from valence band to conduction band resulting in conduction mechanism.

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The number of conduction electrons will be equal to the number of vacant sites or hole in the
valence band. Hence, the number of holes in the valence band are equal to the number of
electrons in the conduction band. TheFermi energy level is at the middle of the forbidden gap.

Extrinsic semiconductors

In intrinsic (or) pure semiconductors, the carrier concentration of both electrons and holes at
normal temperatures is very low. Hence, high carrier concentration can be achieved by
adding (doping) suitable impurities into the intrinsic semiconductors.

If intrinsic semiconductors are doped by trivalent (mostly III Group elements) or pentavalent (V
Group elements) do-pants are known as Extrinsic semiconductors.

Based on the impurities present in the extrinsic semiconductors. They are classified into two
categories.

1. N-type semiconductor.

2. P-type semiconductor.

N-type Semiconductors:

When a pentavalent impurities (or) V group element are doped into a intrinsic semiconductor
are known as N-Type semiconductors.

Pentavalent elements examples: P, As, Sb etc…

The pentavalent element has five electrons in valence band. When pentavalent atom is doped

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in intrinsic semiconductor (Si solid), it forms four covalent bond with intrinsic atoms (Si) and the
fifth electrons is left free as shown in the above figure.

The extra free electrons are free to move anywhere in the crystal and is known as conduction
electrons which is donated by pentavalent impurity to the conduction band.

At a particular temperature, the number of electrons is more than the number of holes in N-
type semiconductor. Hence electrons are majority charge carriers whereas holes are the
minority charge carriers.

P-Type Semiconductors:

When a trivalent impurities (or) III group element are doped into an intrinsic semiconductor is
known as P-Type semiconductors.

The trivalent element has three electrons in valence band. These three valance electrons from
impurity atom participate in three covalent bond with three intrinsic atoms (Si) and in the fourth
bond one position is vacant. It means a trivalent impurity is creating a vacancy and to form
fourth bond it can easily accept electron, hence, the trivalent impurity is known as acceptor. In
this way the vacancies or holes by impurities will donate to valence band.

At a particular temperature, the number of holes is more than the number of electrons in P-type
semiconductors. Hence holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the minority
charge carriers.

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Lecture-16

Carrier concentration in intrinsic Semiconductors

Expression for concentration of electrons in conduction band:

For conduction band in a semiconductor, some lower energy states are filled with electrons at
room temperature. The concentration of electrons in conduction band is given by

𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝐸) 𝐷𝑒 (𝐸) 𝑑𝐸----(1)

Where 𝐷𝑒 (𝐸) = Density of states (or) Number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2
𝐷𝑒 (𝐸) = 2𝜋2 ( ) (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1⁄2 -----(2)
ℏ2

𝑓(𝐸)=Fermi Dirac distribution

1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 -----(3)
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

When E-EF >>> KBT

1 1 −(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
𝑓(𝐸) = ≃ =𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

substitute this in equation (1), then we can get

𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝐸) 𝐷𝑒 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸

−(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2

= ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ( ) (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2𝜋 2 ℏ2

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 ∞ −(𝐸−𝐸 𝐹)

= ( ) ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝐸 − 𝐸 )1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
𝑐
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝐸𝐶

Let 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑥 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝑥 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑥

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 ∞ −(𝐸𝐶𝐾+𝑥−𝐸𝐹)

= 2( 2 ) ∫ 𝑒 𝐵𝑇 (𝑥)1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ℏ 𝐸𝐶

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1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 −(𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸 𝐶) ∞ −𝑥

𝑛= ( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇 ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝑥)1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝐸𝐶

Let y=x/KBT dy = dx /KBT

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸𝑇𝐶 ) ∞ −𝑦

= 2 ( 2 ) 𝑒 𝐵 ∫ 𝑒 (𝑦𝐾𝐵 𝑇)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2𝜋 ℏ 𝐸𝐶

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸𝑇𝐶 ) (1⁄2+1)

∞
= 2( 2 ) 𝑒 𝐵 (𝐾𝐵 𝑇) ∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 (𝑦)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦
2𝜋 ℏ 𝐸𝐶

∞ 𝜋 1⁄2
Since, ∫0 𝑒 −𝑦 (𝑦)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦 = 2

1 2𝑚𝑒 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝐶 ) 𝜋 1⁄2

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝐾 𝑇)(3⁄2)
𝐵
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 2

12𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹 −𝐸𝑇𝐶 )

= 2−1⁄2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐵
4𝜋 ℏ2

1 2𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸𝑇𝐶 )

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐵
4 𝜋ℏ2
3⁄2

1 2𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 )

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
22 ℎ 2
𝜋 (2𝜋)

(−2+3) 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸𝑇𝐶 )

=2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐵
ℎ2

𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟑⁄𝟐 (𝑬𝑲𝑭−𝑬𝑻𝑪)

𝒏 = 𝟐( ) 𝒆 𝑩
𝒉𝟐

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Expression for concentration of holes in Valence band:

The concentration of holes in valence band is given by

𝑝 = ∫(1 − 𝑓(𝐸)) 𝐷ℎ (𝐸) 𝑑𝐸----(1)

Where D(E) = Density of states or Number of electrons/unit energy/unit volume

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2
𝐷ℎ (𝐸) = 2𝜋2 ( ) (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)1⁄2 -----(2)
ℏ2

and 𝑓(𝐸) =Fermi-Dirac distribution

𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1 1
1 − 𝑓(𝐸) = 1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
−( )
1+ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1+ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

When EF-E >>> KBT

1 1 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 − 𝑓(𝐸) ≃ ≃ =𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
−( ) −( )
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

substitute this in equation (1) we can get

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2

𝑝 = ∫(1 − 𝑓(𝐸)) 𝐷𝑒 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ( ) (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
2𝜋 2 ℏ2

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 𝐸𝑣 (𝐸−𝐸 𝐹)

𝑝= ( ) ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝐸 − 𝐸)1⁄2 𝑑𝐸
𝑣
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 −∞

Let 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 = 𝑥

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑣 − 𝑥

𝑑𝐸 = −𝑑𝑥

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 𝐸𝑣 (𝐸𝑣 −𝑥−𝐸 𝐹)

𝑝 = 2( 2 ) ∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝑥)1⁄2 (−𝑑𝑥)
2𝜋 ℏ −∞

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1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉−𝐸𝑇𝐹) ∞ 𝐾−𝑥𝑇

𝑝= ( ) 𝑒 𝐵 ∫ 𝑒 𝐵 (𝑥)1⁄2 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝐸𝑣

Let y=x/KBT

dy = dx /KBT

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉−𝐸𝑇𝐹) ∞ −𝑦

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐵 ∫ 𝑒 (𝑦𝐾𝐵 𝑇)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝐸𝑣

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉−𝐸𝑇𝐹) (1⁄2+1)

∞
= 2( 2 ) 𝑒 𝐵 (𝐾𝐵 𝑇) ∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 (𝑦)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦
2𝜋 ℏ 𝐸𝑣

∞ 𝜋 1⁄2
since ∫0 𝑒 −𝑦 (𝑦)1⁄2 𝑑𝑦 = 2

1 2𝑚ℎ 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾

𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
(3⁄2) 𝜋
1⁄2
= 2( 2 ) 𝑒 𝐵 𝑇 (𝐾𝐵 𝑇)
2𝜋 ℏ 2

1 2𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾

𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
= 2−1⁄2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
4𝜋 ℏ2

1 2𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉−𝐸𝑇𝐹)

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐵
4 𝜋ℏ2
3⁄2

1 2𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 (𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )

= ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
22 ℎ 2
𝜋 (2𝜋)

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉−𝐸𝑇𝐹)

= 2(−2+3) ( ) 𝑒 𝐵
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾

𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑝 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
ℎ2

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Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor:

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentrations of electrons and holes are equal. Therefore,
we can write

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
𝑛 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
𝑝 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

n=p

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹−𝐸𝑇𝐶 ) 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑉 −𝐸𝑇 𝐹)

2( ) 𝑒 𝐵 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐵
ℎ2 ℎ2
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 ) (𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑁𝐶 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑁𝐶 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= (𝐸 −𝐸 )
𝑁𝑉 𝐹 𝐶
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝐶 (𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 )
−
= 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑉
𝑁𝐶 (𝐸𝑉 −2𝐸𝐹 +𝐸𝐶 )
=𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑉
applying logarithm on both sides
𝑁𝐶 (𝐸𝑉 − 2𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝐶 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔 =
𝑁𝑉 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝐶
𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝐸𝑉 − 2𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝐶
𝑁𝑉
𝑁𝐶
2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁𝑉

𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝐶
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 2 𝑁𝑉

at absolute temperature (T=0K)

𝐸𝑉 +𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝐹 = 2

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Lecture-17

Carrier concentration in extrinsic Semiconductor-Fermi level

Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of
holes in the valence band are not equal. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels
in conduction band and valence band are not equal. Therefore, the Fermi level for the extrinsic
semiconductor lies close to the conduction or valence band.

Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

In n-type semiconductor pentavalent impurity is added. Each pentavalent impurity donates a

free electron. The addition of pentavalent impurity creates large number of free electrons in
the conduction band.

At room temperature, the number of electrons in the conduction band is greater than the
number of holes in the valence band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by
the electrons in the conduction band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy
levels by the holes in the valence band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is
represented in terms of Fermi level. Therefore, the Fermi level in the n-type semiconductor
lies close to the conduction band.

𝑁
The Fermi level for n-type semiconductor is given as 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 𝐶
𝐷

Where EF is the fermi level, EC is the conduction band, KB is the Boltzmann constant. T is the
absolute temperature;

NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band. N D is the concentration of donor
atoms.

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Fermi level in p-type semiconductor:

In p-type semiconductor trivalent impurity is added. Each trivalent impurity creates a hole in
the valence band and ready to accept an electron. The addition of trivalent impurity creates
large number of holes in the valence band.

At room temperature, the number of holes in the valence band is greater than the number of
electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation of energy levels by the
holes in the valence band is greater than the probability of occupation of energy levels by the
electrons in the conduction band. This probability of occupation of energy levels is
represented in terms of Fermi level. Therefore, the Fermi level in the p-type semiconductor
lies close to the valence band.

𝑁
The Fermi level for p-type semiconductor is given as 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑉
𝐴

Where NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.

NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms.

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Carrier concentration in extrinsic Semiconductor

Carrier concentration in N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

Let ND be the Donor level concentrations and the its energy is Ed. The energy level diagram of
n-type semiconductors is as shown in figure.

At very low temperatures, all the Donor levels are filled with electrons. With the increase of
temperature, more and more atoms get excited and then density of electrons in the conduc-
tion band increases.

Density of electrons in the conduction band is by

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
𝑛 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
---------------(1)
ℎ2

the number of vacancies per unit volume in the Donor level can be written as

1
𝑁𝑑 (1 − 𝑓(𝐸)) = 𝑁𝑑 [1 − 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ]
1+ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹
𝑁𝑑 (1 − 𝑓(𝐸)) = 𝑁𝑑 [1 − (1 − 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
)] = 𝑁𝑑 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
-------(2)

but the number of electrons in conduction band are equal to the number of vacancies in the
Donor level

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2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹 −𝐸𝑇𝐶 ) 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹

2( ) 𝑒 𝐵 = 𝑁 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑑
ℎ2

take logarithm on both sides in the above equation

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝐹 −𝐸𝑇𝐶 ) 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐵 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑁 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑑
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 ) 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁 ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑑
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 ) 𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( 2
) )+ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑑 ) +
ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

(𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 ) 𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2

− = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑑 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

(𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑁𝑑
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2( )
ℎ2

𝑁𝑑
2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑑 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑑 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
)---------(3)
2 2
2( )
ℎ2

At absolute zero ( T=0K)

𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = 2

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substitute the equation (3) in equation (1) we can get

𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑑 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ⁄ −𝐸𝐶
2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3 2
2( 2 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 ( ( ℎ ) )
𝑛 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑑 −2𝐸𝐶 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔( )
3⁄2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2(
ℎ2
)
= 2( ) 𝑒 ( )
ℎ2

𝑁𝑑
𝑙𝑜𝑔√( 3⁄2
)
3⁄2 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐶 2𝜋𝑚 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ( ) 2(
ℎ2
= 2( ) 𝑒 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸2𝐾

𝑑 −𝐸𝐶 ) 𝑁𝑑 1⁄2
= 2( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
ℎ2 1⁄2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄4
2 ( )
ℎ2

𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟑⁄𝟒 (𝑬𝟐𝑲

𝒅 −𝑬𝑪 )
𝒏 = (𝟐𝑵𝒅 )𝟏⁄𝟐 ( ) 𝒆 𝑩𝑻
𝒉𝟐
This equation represent the electron carrier concentration in the conduction band.

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Carrier concentration in P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

Let Na be the Acceptor level concentrations (or) the number of acceptor atoms per unit vol-
ume of the material and Ea is the energy of acceptor level. The energy level diagram of P-type
semiconductors is as shown in figure.

At very low temperatures, all the Acceptor levels are empty. With increase of temperature, the
electrons move from valence band and occupy the vacant sites in the acceptor energy levels,
thereby leaving holes in the valence band.

The density of holes in the valence band is given by

(𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
𝑝 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
--------(1)
ℎ2

the density of acceptor level is given by

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎
1
𝑁𝑎 𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑁𝑎 [ 𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝐹 ] = 𝑁𝑎 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
--------(2)
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

the density of holes in the valence band is equal to the density of acceptors atoms

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑣−𝐸𝑇𝐹 ) 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎

2( ) 𝑒 𝐵 = 𝑁 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑎
ℎ2

take logarithm on both sides in the above equation

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝐾𝑣 −𝐸𝑇𝐹) 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐵 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑁 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑎
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 ) 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁 ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑎
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹 ) 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑎

𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( 2
) )+ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑎 ) +
ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

(𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹 ) 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑎 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2

− = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑎 ) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2 ( ) )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

(𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝑎 ) 𝑁𝑎
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2( )
ℎ2

𝑁𝑎
2𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 ) = −𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
)---------(3)
2 2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎
At absolute zero ( T=0K) 𝐸𝐹 = 2

substitute the equation (3) in equation (1) we can get

𝐸 +𝐸 𝐾 𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝑉 − 𝑣 𝑎 + 𝐵 𝑙𝑜𝑔( )
2 2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2( 2 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 ( ℎ )
𝑝= 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

2𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑎

+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔( )
3⁄2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2(
ℎ2
)
= 2( ) 𝑒 ( )
ℎ2

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝑁𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔√( 3⁄2
)
3⁄2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 2𝜋𝑚 ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ( ) 2(
ℎ2
𝑝 = 2( ) 𝑒 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒
ℎ2

2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄2 (𝐸2𝐾

𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 ) 𝑁𝑎 1⁄2
= 2( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
ℎ2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄4
21⁄2 ( )
ℎ2

1⁄2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄4 (𝐸2𝐾
𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 )
𝑝= (2𝑁𝑎 ) ( ) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
ℎ2

This equation represent the hole carrier concentration in the valence band.

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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Lecture-18

Hall Effect:

If a magnetic field is applied in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of

the charges, the moving charges accumulate such that opposite charges lie on opposite
faces of the conductor. This distribution of charges produces a potential difference
across the material that opposes the migration of charges further. This creates a
steady electrical potential as long as the charges are flowing in the material and the
magnetic field is on. This effect is called Hall effect.

Consider a rectangular slab of a semiconductor material in which a current I is flowing

in the positive x-direction. Let the semiconducting material be of n-type, which means
that the charge carriers are electrons. Let a magnetic field B be applied along the z-
direction as shown in the
figure.

Under the influence of the magnetic field, the electrons experience the Lorentz force
(FL) FL = -Bev ------------ (1)

Applying the Fleming’s left hand rule, we see that the force is exerted on the electrons
in the negative y-direction.

The electrons are therefore deflected downwards. As a result, the density of the elec-
trons increases in the lower end of the material, due to which its bottom edge be-
comes negatively charged. On the other hand, the loss of electrons from the upper end
causes the top edge of the metrical to become positively charged. Hence a potential

HALL EFFECT MODULE-2 L-18

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

VH, called the Hall voltage appears between the upper and lower surfaces of the semi-
conductor material which establishes an electric field EH called the Hall field across the
conductor in the negative y-direction.

The field EH, exerts an upward force FH on the electrons given by FH = -eEH ------- (2)

Now as the deflection of electrons continues in the downward direction due to the
Lorentz force FL, it also contributes to the growth of Hall field. As a result, the force FH
which acts on the electron in the upward direction also increases.

These two opposing forces reach equilibrium at which stage, FL = FH

Using eqns. (1) & (2), above equation becomes

-B e v = -e EH

EH = B v ------------ (3)

If d is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the slab, then,

EH = V H / d

V H = EH d = B v d ------------ (4)

Let w be the thickness of the material in the z-direction. Its area of cross section
normal to the direction of I is = wd.

The current density J = I/wd ------------ (5)

But, we know that J= n e v = ρ v ------------ (6)

Therefore, ρ v = I/wd or v = I / w d ρ ------------ (7)

Comparing equations (4) & (7) we get V H = BI/new

HALL EFFECT MODULE-2 L-18

 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Hall coefficient (RH) :

For a given semiconductor, the Hall field EH depends upon the current density J and the
applied field B. EH α J B

EH = RH J B

where RH is called the Hall Coefficient

Therefore, RH = EH / J B

=Bv/nevB

RH = 1/ne

Note:1. Positive value of RH indicates that the charge carriers are holes.

2. Negative value of RH indicates that the charge carriers are electrons.

Application of Hall Effect

1. Hall Effect is used to find whether a semiconductor is N-type or P-type.

2. Hall Effect is used to find carrier concentration.

3. Hall Effect is used to calculate the mobility of charge carriers (free electrons and
holes).

4. Hall Effect is used to measure conductivity.

5. Hall Effect is used to measure a.c. power and the strength of magnetic field.

6. Hall Effect is used in an instrument called Hall Effect multiplier which gives the
output proportional to the product of two input signals.

HALL EFFECT MODULE-2 L-18