Beams

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by

resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of
the external loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending
moment.
Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the
loads applied to them
Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced
concrete beams that are entirely in compression. These beams are known as prestressed
concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected
tension under loading conditions

Slabs

A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of

steelreinforced concrete, typically between 10 and 50 centimetres thick, are most often
used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported
on foundations or directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a
building. In high rises buildings andskyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung
between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight
ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This
improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations
run across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design
A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction.
A two way slab has structural strength in two directions

ARCHES:

The arch may be said to have originated with the idea of placing a considerable number
of blocks in a concentric arrangement. The wedge-shaped blocks, called voussoirs, hold
each other firmly in place and prevent each other from slipping. The voussoirs at the top,
or crown, of the arch convert the downward pressure into lateral (sideways) pressure,
or thrust, which is transmitted from the upper voussoirs down around the opening and
finally into the ground through the wall or pier on which the arch rests. Not only can
considerable distances be spanned in this way, but arches can carry a much heavier load
than a horizontal lintel.
 The arch is, however, not without its peculiar weakness. The lateral thrust is strongest at
the haunches of the arch (the part midways between the crown and the springing).
The keystone, and the other voussoirs at the crown, presses out against the voussoirs at
the haunches, which may buckle and allow the crown to fall if they are not properly
buttressed. The lateral thrust at the haunches can be counteracted by the thrust of arches
placed to either side, as in an arcade, but, unless the arcade is circular, the lateral thrust of
the arches at the end must finally be counteracted by the sheer mass of an abutment.

Types of arches:
Arches are constructed in four basic shapes that frame and support doors, windows,
porches, and other wall openings:
 Flat arch
 Triangular arch
 Round arch
 Pointed arch
Flat arch:

An arch having a horizontal intrados with voussoirs radiating from a centre below,
often built with a slight camber to allow settling is called a flat or jack arch.

French arch: A flat arch with voussoirs inclined to the same angle at each side of the
centre. The mortar joints do not, therefore, radiate to a common centre. Not, technically, a
proper arch, and of weak form.
Triangular arch:

It is a primitive form of arch consisting of two stones laid diagonally to support each
other over an opening. Hence, the span is limited by the size of the available material.

VAULTS:

A vault is a ceiling of brick, stone, or concrete built in the principle of the arch. A tunnel
vault, or barrel vault, is a tunnel-like, semi-cylindrical extension of an arch, which may
be thought of as an unbroken series of arches pressed together, one behind the other. It
cannot be lighted except at the ends without being structurally weakened, because, as in
an arch, continuous abutment must be applied to absorb the thrust carried down along the
haunches to the walls supporting it. However, arches may be introduced in the supporting
walls and transverse ribs may be inserted in the vault to concentrate thrust at a few
strongly buttressed points, thereby permitting a reduction of weight and thrust in the
segments of vaulting between the ribs.

If a barrel vault is intersected at right angles by another barrel vault of the same size,
a cross vault, or groin vault, is formed. This is a very efficient form of vaulting allowing
full illumination from the sides. Groin vaults also allow a great saving in material and
labour over the simple barrel vault; thrust is concentrated along the groins (the four
diagonal edges formed along the points where the barrel vaults intersect), so the vault
need only be abutted at its four corners.

Barrel or Tunnel Vault

Groin Vault (from above)

Groin Vault (from below)

Types of vaults:
Barrel Vault:A barrel vault is the simplest of the vaults and is the base design for many
vaults that have a more intricate design. It consists of an on-going series of semi-circular
arches. One is directly behind another, causing it to look like a half of a barrel. In some
instances, it is described as resembling a tunnel.

Groin Vault:A groin vault is created by two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. The
arches of groin vaults are round or pointed. It is also known as a cross vault.

Rib Vault:A vault reinforced by masonry ribs is known as a rib vault. When this type of
vault has two masonry ribs dividing it into four sections, it is called a quadripartite rib
vault. A vault divided by three masonry ribs that make six sections is called a sexpartite
rib vault.

DOMES:
Domes are curved architectonic structures with no angles or corners, similar to the upper
half of a sphere. Despite their apparent fragility, domes are strong structures and have
been used in buildings since ancient times, according to PBS Online. In Europe, the
earliest domes were made of stone. The Roman Pantheon, built almost 2,000 years ago, is
a good example of early dome engineering. Indigenous peoples in Ethiopia and other
places have used curved bows to create their huts, creating a primitive yet effective dome
TYPES OF DOMES:
Geodesic Dome:
The geodesic dome was invented in the 1950s by American engineer and architect
Buckminster Fuller, according to PBS Online. This type of dome is structured on
triangles and other geometric shapes instead of the arches. The Epcot Centre in Orlando,
the Caspary Auditorium in New York and the Eden Project in England are examples of
geodesic domes.
Monolithic Dome:
The monolithic dome is made of one solid piece of material. Its construction begins with
a circular concrete foundation, where a canvas "air form" is attached to the slab. The
canvas is then inflated using special fans, thus forming the shape of the dome. After that,
the interior is covered with a layer of polyurethane foam insulation . A steel bar is
enclosed in the foam to give support to the dome. Finally, a special mix of concrete is
spread over the interior of the building, reports the Architecture Week website.
Bow Dome:
The bow dome is made of wood bows, which can be substituted by aluminium, and
canvas. This type of dome is rather archaic, yet efficient. It represents the first habitation
built by humans, according to website Simply Different. There are different types of bow
domes, which depend on how the bow is placed. Half sphere or unibow is the most
common, but has some disadvantages, which include the almost horizontal roof angle at
the top, not ideal under snow, for instance. Cross-tie, peak-tie and bell are other types of
bow dome, more appropriate for regions with lots of rainfall or snow.

Trusses

a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and
reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the
members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torsional forces) are
explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated
as revolutes.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional
plane, while a space truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions.
Characteristics of trusses
A truss is composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and
design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the
lengths of the sides are fixed.[1] In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-
sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape.

There are two basic types of truss:

The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most
often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their web
configuration. The chord size and web configuration are determined
by span, load and spacing.
The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom
chords. It is often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal
plate-connected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected
with metal connector plates.

Space frame truss

A space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends.
A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members which meet at
four joints.[3] Large planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common
edges and they are also employed in the base structures of large free-standing power line
pylons

Vaults
A Vault (] The parts of a vault exert a thrust that require a counter resistance. When vaults
are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However, when the
vault is built above ground, various replacements are employed to supply the needed
resistance. An example are the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous
vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are
employed.French. voute, Italian. volta,) is an architectural term for an arched form used
to provide a space with a ceiling or roof

The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel vault) which
is generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is a continuous arch, the length being
greater than its diameter. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while
rings of voussoirs are constructed and the rings placed in position. Until the topmost
voussoir, the keystone, is positioned the vault is not self-supporting.

Portal frames
Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing simple structures,
primarily using steel or steel-reinforced precast concretealthough they can also be
constructed using laminated timber such as glulam. The connections between
the columns and the rafters are designed to be moment-resistant, i.e. they can carry
bending forces.
Because of these very strong and rigid joints some of the bending moment in the rafters is
transferred to the columns. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the
span can be increased for the same size rafters. This makes portal frames a very efficient
construction technique to use for wide span buildings.
Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and other
places where large, open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is acceptable.
Generally portal frames are used for single story buildings but they can be used for low
rise buildings with several floors where they can be economic if the floors do not span
right across the building (in these circumstances a skeleton frame, with internal columns,
would be a more economic choice). A typical configuration might be where there is
office space built against one wall of a warehouse.
Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution, for
reasons of economy and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal cladding with
cavity masonry work to the bottom 2m of the wall to provide security and impact
resistance. The lightweight cladding would be carried on sheeting rails spanning between
the columns of the portal frames.

Space frames

A space frame is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking

struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional span, and are
often used to accomplish long spans with few supports. They derive their strength from
the inherent rigidity of the triangular frame; flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.
Space frames are double layered grids, excellent in appearance with large column free
spaces. All type of elegant shape could be made by these systems using variety of grids.
Two-way actions of space frames provide both economy and enormous spanning
capability.
Larger portable stages and lighting gantries are also frequently built from space frames
and octet trusses

APPLICATION
Space frame is used for commercial and industrial buildings, auditoriums, airport
hangers, sport stadium, sky lights, mosque, lighting towers, petrol pumps, canopies,
exhibition hall, atrium, toll naka, LPG bottling plants.
SALIENT FEATURES
1) Enormous Spanning Capability.2) Light Weight
3) High Aesthetics
4) High Resale Value
5) Higher Safety Factor
6) Extension With Additional Unit
. Configuration of space frame build systems:
• Generally square inverted pyramid modules connected at the top and bottom layers
provide the most commonly used Space Frame structures

• Pipes, spherical node, cone, bolt and sleeve are the common components
• There are various types of connection nodes patented by various companies in the
world. Two popular nodes are solid spherical nodes per Mero system Germany and
hollow spherical node per Unibat
• Polycarbonate sheets, fiberglass reinforced plastic sheets or glazing used for covering,
to provide aesthetically beautiful sky light systems . However, colour-coated steel sheets.
aluminium sheets and asbestos sheets are also used

• Latticed Space Frame Structures, particularly for roofs are similar to two-way concrete
slab or flat plates. These latticed structures, single layer or double layer, include 3-
dimensional Space Grid Structures, Domes, Barrel Vaults, Hyperbolic Parabloid Shell
Structures, etc.

Applications: Malls, Food courts, Transport terminals, Schools, Pools, Arenas,

Entertainment, Hospitals, Hotels, Corporate & Commercial Buildings, Convention
centers

Benefits:
Minimum structure weight
Long clear spans & cantilevers
Accommodates concentrated loads
Suits irregular supports or plan geometry
Variable depth for roof drainage is built in
Pre-assembly allows project acceleration
Pre-finished to avoid site painting & inspection
All service lines can run through frame
Frame can be a feature without ceiling
Simple modification or dis-assembly for re-use

Rigid frames structures

􀂙 Rigid frame structures are built at the site which may or may not be poured
monolithically.
􀂙 Rigid frame structures provide more stability.
􀂙 Rigid frame structures resist rotations more effectively

Advantages
Rigid frame structures feature positive and negative bending moments
throughout the structure due to interaction of walls, beams and slabs.
Braced frame structures resist

Braced frame structures resist lateral forces by the bracing action of diagonal members.
􀂙 Braced frame structures are used toresist sideway forces.
􀂙 Buildings are braced by inserting diagonal structural members into the rectangular
areas of a structural frame.
Advantages
To stabilize the frame against earthquakes and strong winds.
Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of bracing and columns.
More efficient than a rigid frame.

Portal structural frames

. 􀂙 It resembles like a door. Multi-story, multi-bay portal frames are commonly used for
commercial and industrial construction.
􀂙 The members are usually made up of curved laminates and the members are thickened
in the region of the knee or eaves joint to allow for the large moment.

Advantages of Frames:
Optimum use of floor space.
􀂙 Easy construction.
􀂙 Rapid construction.
􀂙 Economical for high rise buildings.
􀂙 Erected by steel and/or reinforced concrete

Disadvantages
􀂙 Generally, frames are flexible structures and lateral deflections control the design
process for buildings with greater than about 4 stories. The concrete frames are 8 times
stiffer than steel frames of the same strength.
􀂙 Span lengths are limited when using normal reinforced concrete (generally less than
about 13 m, but up to about 15 m).