STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

UNIT-II

SUBMITTED BY:
SUBMITTED TO:
DIVYA.Y
ADAM SHARIFF
18CO1C4033
ELEMENTS:
1.BEAMS .

2.SLABS.

3. ARCHES.

4..CATENARIES.

5.VAULTS.

6. DOMES, CURVED MEMBRANE

7. TRUSSES,PORTAL FRAMES, SPACE FRAMES.

1.Beams
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a
result of the external loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these
loads is called a bending moment.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural

elements, but smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine
frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that
are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
Types of beams
Generally beam are five types:

that is given below

1. Simply supported beam

2. Fixed beam

3. Overhanging beam

4. Continuous beam

5. Cantilever beam
2.Slabs
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal
slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 10 and 50 centimetres thick, are
most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for
exterior paving.
 -For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the
strength-to-weight ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is
modulated.

-Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray.
this improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The
corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.

- A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.

-A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.

- A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction. A two way slab has
structural strength in two directions.
3.Arch

-ARCH An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports structure and weight
above it. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick
architecture and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were the
first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.

-An arch is a pure compression form. It can span a large area by resolving forces into
compressive stresses and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses. This is sometimes
referred to as arch action.
-As the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the
base, called thrust.
- As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases. In order to
maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be
restrained, either with internal ties, or external bracing, such as abutments.
types of arches:-
1. fixed arch.
2. two-hinged arch.
3. three hinged arch.
4. pointed arch.
5. parabolic arch.
6. arch with circular form.etc…
4. catenaries
A catenary is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own
weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U‐like shape, superficially similar
in appearance to a parabola .

. It also appears in the design of certain types of arches and as a cross section of the
catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two parallel circular rings. The
catenary is also called the "alysoid", "chainette", or, particularly in the material sciences,
"funicular".

Mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function. The
surface of revolution of the catenary curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface, and is the
only minimal surface of revolution other than the plane. Catenaries and related curves are
used in architecture and engineering, in the design of bridges and arches, so that forces do
not result in bending moments.
-Mathematically, the catenary curve is
the graph of the hyperbolic cosine
function. The surface of revolution of
the catenary curve, the catenoid, is a
minimal surface, and is the only minimal
surface of revolution other than the
plane. Catenaries and related curves are
used in architecture and engineering, in
the design of bridges and arches, so that
forces do not result in bending moments.
5.vaults
VAULT A Vault is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space with a
ceiling or roof. The parts of a vault exert lateral thrust that require a counter resistance.
When vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However,
when the vault is built above ground, various replacements are employed to supply the
needed resistance.

- An example is the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous vaults.
Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are employed.

-The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel vault) which is
generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is a continuous arch, the length being
greater than its diameter.
6.dome
DOMES A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of
a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage
extending into prehistory. A dome can be thought of as an arch which has been
rotated around its central vertical axis.

Thus domes, like arches, have a great deal of structural strength when properly built
and can span large open spaces without interior supports. Corbel domes achieve their
shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the
previous, lower, one until they meet at the top.
These are sometimes called false
domes. True, or real, domes are
formed with increasingly
inward‐angled layers of voussoirs
which have ultimately turned 90
degrees from the base of the dome to
the top. The optimal shape for a
masonry dome of equal thickness is a
catenary curve, similar to the curve of
a parabola
8.trusses
TRUSSES In architecture, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units
constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as
nodes.
External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and
result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments
(torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are
treated as revolute.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional
plane, while a space truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions.
The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are generally in compression, the
bottom beams are called bottom chords and are generally in tension, the interior
beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels.
portal frames
Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing structures, primarily
using steel or steel‐ reinforced precast concrete although they can also be constructed
using laminated timber such as glulam. The connections between the columns and the
rafters are designed to be moment‐resistant, i.e. they can carry bending forces.

"They were first developed in the 1960s, and have now become the most common
form of enclosure for spans of 20 to 60 m" Because of these very strong and rigid
joints, some of the bending moment in the rafters is transferred to the columns. This
means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the span can be increased for the
same size rafters.
-For warehouses and industrial buildings, sloping roof made of purlins and ac sheet roofing
between portals is provided.
-For assembly halls, portals with R.C slab roof cast monolithically is used.
-Portal frames are designed for the following loads:
roof load
wind load
While designing, care should be taken for proper
joints
foundation
bracing
space frames
SPACE FRAMES In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure is
a truss‐like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric
pattern.

Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space
frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments)
are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and
tetrahedral built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the
horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is
composed of interlocking tetrahedral in which all the struts have unit length. More technically
this is referred to as an. isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss
 If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is
not present, the behaviour of the structure depends
completely on the bending rigidity of the blue node. If the
red bar is present, and the bending rigidity of the blue
node is negligible compared to the contributing rigidity of
the red bar, the system can be calculated using a rigidity
matrix, neglecting angular factors Types Within the
meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly
different between them:

-Space plane covers.

-Barrel vaults. Usually these types of space frames do not need to use tetrahedral modules or
pyramids as a part of its backing.
Spherical domes. The structure built in this way, in most cases, requires the use of tetrahedral
modules or pyramids shaping backing modules, and even, these domes would need some support
by his cover.
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