UNIT 2-ASS

BEAM
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span and
external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but smaller
structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural
systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
Types of beams
Generally beam are five types: that is given below
1. Simply supported beam
2. Fixed beam
3. over hanging beam
4. Continuous beam
5. Cantilever beam
Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their cross-section), their length, and their material.
In contemporary construction, beams are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, wood, composites,
or cased fluids (inflatable beams). One of the most common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-
flange beam (also known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column"). This is
commonly used in steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam profiles are the C-channel,
the hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the angle.
Beams are also described by how they are supported. Supports restrict lateral and/or rotational
movements so as to satisfy stability conditions as well as to limit the deformations to a certain allowance.
A simple beam is supported by a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other end. A beam with
a laterally and rotationally fixed support at one end with no support at the other end is called
a cantilever beam. A beam simply supported at two points and having one end or both ends extended
beyond the supports is called an overhanging beam.
Structural characteristics
Moment of inertia

The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its angular
motion about that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has overall, but how
far each bit of mass is from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the more rotational inertia the
object has, and the more force is required to change its rotation rate.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and universal beam (B). The universal beam flange
sections are three times further apart than the solid beam's upper and lower halves. The second moment
of inertia of the universal beam is nine times that of the square beam of equal cross section (universal
beam web ignored for simplification)

Stress in beams
Internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to
them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller
radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam length at the
bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. The same
original length of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as
the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis
(dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are
some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken
by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a
compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are
stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly
released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal
moment, and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on
highway bridges.
The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation. Europe has
superseded Euler-Bernoulli equations with the Perry Robertson formula. Other mathematical methods for
determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the "slope deflection method".
Engineers are interested in determining deflections because the beam may be in direct contact with
a brittle material such as glass. Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging
beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and
high second moment of area) produces less deflection. Mathematical methods for determining the beam
forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the
"moment distribution method", the force or flexibility method

CONCRETE SLAB
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of steelreinforced
concrete, typically between 100 and 500 millimeters thick, are most often used to construct floors and
ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on
thesubsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. These can either be "ground-bearing" or
"suspended" slabs. In high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung
between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
On the technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to "r.c.slab" or simply "r.c."
hod and the direct stiffness method.
Design
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all cases
the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:

 Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves
strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations run across the short
dimension, from side to side.
 A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
 A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design

 A one way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction because the
moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When the ratio of the length of long
direction to short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab.

 A two way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions. If the ratio of the lengths
of long and short side is less than two then movement in both direction should be considered in design.

Construction

 A concrete slab may be prefabricated or in situ. Prefabricated concrete slabs are built in a factory
and transported to the site, ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams. They
may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. It is vital that the
supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions, or the slabs may not fit.
 In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork - a type of boxing into which the
wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the rebars are positioned within the
formwork before the concrete is poured in. Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to
hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it
completely envelops the reinforcement. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of
sidewalls pushed into the ground. For a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a tray, often
supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.
 The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial
building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour. On low-budget sites,
for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common. After the
concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently.
 In some cases formwork is not necessary - for instance, a ground slab surrounded by brick or block
foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the base.
ARCH
An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports structure and weight above it. Arches appeared as
early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick architecture and their systematic use started with
the Ancient Romans who were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.
An arch is a pure compression form. It can span a large area by resolving forces into compressive
stresses and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses. This is sometimes referred to as arch action. As the forces
in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base, called thrust. As the rise, or
height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases.[4] In order to maintain arch action and prevent
the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties, or external bracing,
such as abutments.
Fixed arch vs. hinged arch
The most common true arch configurations are the fixed arch, the two-hinged arch, and the three-hinged
arch.

 The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel construction, where
the spans are short. Because it is subject to additional internal stress caused by thermal
expansion and contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate.

 The two-hinged arch is most often used to bridge long spans. This type of arch has pinned
connections at the base. Unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate, allowing the
structure to move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction caused by
changes in outdoor temperature. Because the structure is pinned between the two base
connections, which can result in additional stresses, the two-hinged arch is also statically
indeterminate, although not to the degree of the fixed arch

 The three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged arch, but at the mid-
span as well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the three-hinged arch to move in
two opposite directions, and compensate for any expansion and contraction. This type of arch is
thus not subject to additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-hinged arch is
therefore said to be statically determinate.[6] It is most often used for medium-span structures,
such as large building roofs.
Another advantage of the three-hinged arch is that the pinned bases are more easily developed
than fixed ones, allowing for shallow, bearing-type foundations in medium-span structures. In the
three-hinged arch, "thermal expansion and contraction of the arch will cause vertical movements at
the peak pin joint but will have no appreciable effect on the bases," further simplifying the
foundation design.

Types of arches
Arches have many forms, but all fall into three basic categories: Circular, pointed, and parabolic. Arches can
also be configured to produce vaults and arcades.[5]

 Arches with a circular form, also referred to as rounded arch, were commonly employed by the
builders of ancient, heavy masonry arches. Ancient Roman builders relied heavily on the
rounded arch to span large, open areas. Several rounded arches placed in-line, end-to-end,
form an arcade, such as the Roman aqueduct

 Pointed arches were most often used by builders of Gothic-style architecture. The advantage to

using a pointed arch, rather than a circular arch, is that the arch action in a pointed arch
produces less thrust at the base. This innovation allowed for taller and more closely spaced
openings, typical of Gothic architecture.

 Vaults are essentially "adjacent arches [that] are assembled side by side." If vaults intersect,
complex forms are produced with the intersections. The forms, along with the "strongly
expressed ribs at the vault intersections, were dominant architectural features of Gothic
cathedrals."

 The parabolic arch employs the principle that when weight is uniformly applied to an arch, the
internal compression resulting from that weight will follow a parabolic profile. Of any arch type,
the parabolic arch produces the most thrust at the base, but can span the largest areas. It is
commonly used in bridge design, where long spans are needed.
 Force distribution in different types of arches

CATENARY
In physics and geometry, a catenary is the curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its
own weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U-like shape, superficially similar in
appearance to a parabola (though mathematically quite different). It also appears in the design of certain
types of arches and as a cross section of the catenoid—the shape assumed by a soap film bounded by two
parallel circular rings.
The catenary is also called the "alysoid", "chainette", or, particularly in the material sciences, "funicular".
Mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function. The surface of
revolution of the catenary curve, the catenoid, is a minimal surface, and is the only minimal surface of
revolution other than the plane. Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering, in
the design of bridges and arches, so that forces do not result in bending moments.
Inverted catenary arch

Catenary arches are often used in the construction of kilns. To create the desired curve, the shape of a
hanging chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then used as a guide for the
placement of bricks or other building material.
The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, United States is sometimes said to be an (inverted) catenary, but
this is incorrect. It is close to a more general curve called a flattened catenary, with equation y = A cosh(B 
x ), which is a catenary if A B = 1 .

Catenary bridges

In free-hanging chains, the force exerted is uniform with respect to length of the chain, and so the chain
follows the catenary curve. The same is true of a simple suspension bridge or "catenary bridge," where the
roadway follows the cable.
A stressed ribbon bridge is a more sophisticated structure with the same catenary shape. However in
a suspension bridge with a suspended roadway, the chains or cables support the weight of the bridge, and
so do not hang freely. In most cases the roadway is flat, so when the weight of the cable
is negligible compared with the weight being supported, the force exerted is uniform with respect to
horizontal distance, and the result is a parabola, as discussed below (although the term "catenary" is often
still used, in an informal sense). If the cable is heavy then the resulting curve is between a catenary and a
parabola
VAULT
A Vault is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space with a ceiling or roof. The parts
of a vault exert lateral thrust  that require a counter resistance. When vaults are built underground, the
ground gives all the resistance required. However, when the vault is built above ground, various
replacements are employed to supply the needed resistance. An example is the thicker walls used in the
case of barrel or continuous vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are
employed.
The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel vault) which is
generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is a continuous arch, the length being greater than its
diameter. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while rings of voussoirs are constructed
and the rings placed in position. Until the topmost voussoir, the keystone, is positioned the vault is not self-
supporting. Where timber is easily obtained, this temporary support is provided by centering consisting of
a framed truss with a semicircular or segmental head, which supports the voussoirs until the ring of the
whole arch is completed. With a barrel vault, the centering can then be shifted on to support the next
rings.
Vault types
Dome

Amongst the earliest known examples of any form of vaulting is to be found in the neolithic village
of Khirokitia on Cyprus. Dating from ca. 6000 BCE, the circular buildings supported beehive
shaped corbel domed vaults of unfired mud-bricks and also represent the first evidence for settlements
with an upper floor. Similar Beehive tombs, called tholoi, exist in Crete and Northern Iraq. Their
construction differs from that at Khirokitia in that most appear partially buried and make provision for
a dromos entry.
The inclusion of domes, however, represents a wider sense of the word vault. The distinction between the
two is that a vault is essentially an arch which is extruded into the third dimension, whereas a dome is an
arch revolved around its vertical axis.
Barrel vault
A barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault and resembles a barrel or tunnel cut lengthwise in half. The
effect is that of a structure composed of continuous semicircular or pointed sections.
The earliest known examples of barrel vaults were built by the Sumerians, possibly under
the ziggurat at Nippur in Babylonia, which was built of fired bricks cemented with clay mortar.

Groin vault
A groin vault or groined vault (also sometimes known as a double barrel vault or cross vault) is produced
by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults. The word groin refers to the edge between the
intersecting vaults. Sometimes the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round. In comparison with
a barrel vault, a groin vault provides good economies of material and labor. The thrust is concentrated
along the groins or arises (the four diagonal edges formed along the points where the barrel vaults
intersect), so the vault need only be abutted at its four corners.
Rib vault
The intersection of two or three barrel vaults produces a rib vault or ribbed vault when they are edged
with an armature of piped masonry often carved in decorative patterns; compare groin vault, an older form
of vault construction. While the mechanics of the weight of a groin vault and its transmission outwards to
the supporting pillars remained as it had been, the new use of rib vaults demonstrates the skill of the
masons and the grandeur of the new ideas circulating at the introduction of Gothic architecture in the end
of the eleventh century. This technique was new in the late eleventh century, for example in the roofs of
the choir side aisles at Durham Cathedral. Ancestors of the Gothic rib vault in the Romanesque vaults can
be found at Caen and Durham, both sites of early Gothic constructions, and elsewhere.
DOMES
A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures
made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory. A dome can be
thought of as an arch which has been rotated around its central vertical axis. Thus domes, like arches, have
a great deal of structural strength when properly built and can span large open spaces without interior
supports. Corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly
farther than the previous, lower, one until they meet at the top. These are sometimes
called false domes. True, or real, domes are formed with increasingly inward-angled layers
of voussoirs which have ultimately turned 90 degrees from the base of the dome to the top. The optimal
shape for a masonry dome of equal thickness is a catenary curve, similar to the curve of a parabola. This
shape provides for perfect compression, without any of the tension or bending forces against which
masonry is weak. Hemispherical domes, by contrast, generate significant horizontal thrusts at their
haunches

TRUSSES
In architecture, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those
forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either
tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the
joints in a truss are treated as revolute.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space
truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top
chords and are generally in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords and are generally
in tension, the interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels.
Characteristics of trusses

A truss consists of straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are
composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest
geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both
the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape.
Planar truss

Planar roof trusses

The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof consisting
of rafters and a ceiling joist, and in other mechanical structures such as bicycles and aircraft. Because of the
stability of this shape and the methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss composed
entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss.  The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes
two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss.
A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to form roofs and bridges.
The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient
structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost
as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords and greater
material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency.
Space frame truss
A space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends.
A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members which meet at four joints. Large
planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common edges and they are also employed in
the base structures of large free-standing power line pylons
 SIMPLE TETRAHEDRON
Truss types

There are two basic types of truss:

 The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for
roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their web configuration. The
chord size and web configuration are determined by span, load and spacing.
 The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is
often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal plate-connected
wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates.
Pratt truss

 The Pratt truss was patented in 1844. The design uses vertical members

for compression and horizontal members to respond to tension. The continued popularity of the Pratt
truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal
members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more
efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads (which are compounded
by the length of the member) will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with
a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading.
The Southern Pacific Railroad bridge in Tempe, Arizona is a 393 meter (1,291 foot) long truss bridge
built in 1912.[17] The structure is composed of nine Pratt truss spans of varying lengths. The bridge is still
in use today.
The Wright Flyer used a Pratt truss in its wing construction, as the minimization of compression
member lengths allowed for lower aerodynamic drag.

Statics of trusses

A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which is
supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate.
Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node
that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following conditions must
hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as all moments acting about the node equal
zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the compression or tension forces.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the
application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces.
In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In
mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability:

Where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and r is the number of
reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2-dimensional structure.
When , the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member
forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations, once we
know the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the
minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as
a whole fails. While the relation (a) is necessary, it is not sufficient for stability, which also depends on
the truss geometry, support conditions and the load carrying capacity of the members.
Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures
may survive even when some of the members fail. Their member forces depend on the
relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.

Bowstring truss
Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for arched truss bridges, often confused
with tied-arch bridges.
Thousands of bowstring trusses were used during World War II for holding up the curved roofs of
aircraft hangars and other military buildings. Many variations exist in the arrangements of the
members connecting the nodes of the upper arc with those of the lower, straight sequence of
members, from nearly isosceles triangles to a variant of the Pratt truss.
King post truss
Main article: King post

One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of two angled supports leaning
into a common vertical support.

The queen post truss, sometimes queenpost or queenspost, is similar to a king post truss in that the

outer supports are angled towards the center of the structure. The primary difference is the horizontal
extension at the center which relies on beam action to provide mechanical stability. This truss style is
only suitable for relatively short spans

Lenticular truss
 The Waterville Bridge in Swatara State Park in Pennsylvania is a lenticular truss
Lenticular trusses, patented in 1878 by William Douglas, have the top and bottom chords of the truss
arched, forming a lens shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular
truss extending above and below the roadbed.
Town's lattice truss

American architect Ithiel Town designed Town's Lattice Truss as an alternative to heavy-timber bridges.

His design, patented in 1820 and 1835, uses easy-to-handle planks arranged diagonally with short
spaces in between them.

Vierendeel truss
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular
openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending
moments. As such, it does not fit the strict definition of a truss; regular trusses comprise members that
are commonly assumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that no moments exist at the
jointed ends.. Its use for bridges is rare due to higher costs compared to a triangulated truss.
The utility of this type of structure in buildings is that a large amount of the exterior envelope remains
unobstructed and can be used for fenestration and door openings. This is preferable to a braced-frame
system, which would leave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.

Simple load transfer diagram in trusses

PORTAL FRAMES
Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing structures, primarily using steel or steel-
reinforced precast concrete although they can also be constructed using laminated timber such as glulam.
The connections between the columns and the rafters are designed to be moment-resistant, i.e. they can
carry bending forces. "They were first developed in the 1960s, and have now become the most common
form of enclosure for spans of 20 to 60 m"
Because of these very strong and rigid joints, some of the bending moment in the rafters is transferred to
the columns. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the span can be increased for the
same size rafters. This makes portal frames a very efficient construction technique to use for wide span
buildings.
Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and other places where large,
open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is acceptable.
Generally portal frames are used for single-story buildings but they can be used for low-rise buildings with
several floors where they can be economic if the floors do not span right across the building (in these
circumstances a skeleton frame, with internal columns, would be a more economic choice). A typical
configuration might be where there is office space built against one wall of a warehouse.
Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution, for reasons of economy
and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal cladding with cavity masonry work to the bottom
2m of the wall to provide security and impact resistance. The lightweight cladding would be carried on
sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the portal frames.
Portal frames can be defined as two-dimensional rigid frames that have the basic characteristics of a rigid
joint between column and beam.
The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in the beam, which allows the
frame to act as one structural unit.
The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column results in rotational movement at the foundation,
which can be overcome by the introduction of a pin/hinge joint.
For warehouses and industrial buildings, sloping roof made of purlins and ac sheet roofing between portals
is provided. For assembly halls, portals with R.C slab roof cast monolithically is used.
Portal frames are designed for the following loads:

 roof load
 wind load
While designing, care should be taken for proper

 joints
 foundation
 bracing
SPACE FRAMES

In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid

structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span
large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent
rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads
along the length of each strut. The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square
pyramids and tetrahedral built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the
horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedral in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred to as an
isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the lengths
of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.

If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is not present, the
behaviour of the structure depends completely on the bending rigidity of the blue node. If the red bar is
present, and the bending rigidity of the blue node is negligible compared to the contributing rigidity of the
red bar, the system can be calculated using a rigidity matrix, neglecting angular factors
Types

Within the meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly different between them:

 Space plane covers.

 Barrel vaults. Usually these types of space frames do not need to use tetrahedral modules or
pyramids as a part of its backing.
 Spherical domes. The structure built in this way, in most cases, requires the use of tetrahedral
modules or pyramids shaping backing modules, and even, these domes would need some support by
his cover.