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Hole’s Essentials of Human

Anatomy & Physiology
David Shier
Jackie Butler
Ricki Lewis
Created by Lu Anne Clark
Professor of Science, Lansing Community College
Chapter 11
Lecture Outlines*
*See PowerPoint image slides for all figures and tables
pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes”.
 Chapter 11
Endocrine System
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❖ Introduction
A. The endocrine system is made up of the
cells, tissues, and organs that secrete
hormones into body fluids.
B. The body has two kinds of glands,
exocrine (secretes products into ducts) and
endocrine (secrete products into body
fluids to affect target cells).
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❖ General Characteristics of the

Endocrine System
A. The endocrine system’s function is to
communicate with cells using chemicals called
hormones.
B. Endocrine glands and their hormones
regulate a number of metabolic processes
within cells, and the whole body.
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C. Their actions are precise, they only affect

specific target cells.
D. Endocrine glands include the pituitary
gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands,
adrenal glands, pancreas, and other
hormone-secreting glands and tissues.
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❖ Hormone Action
A. Hormones are steroids, amines, peptides,
proteins, or glycoproteins
B. They can influence target cells even if
they are present only in minute
concentrations.
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C. Steroid Hormones
1. Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble
and can pass through cell
membranes.
2. Receptors for steroid hormones
are located in the target cell's
nucleus.
3. The hormone-receptor complex
binds with the DNA and activates
specific genes that, in turn, direct the
synthesis of specific proteins.
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D. Nonsteroid Hormones
1. Nonsteroid hormones combine with
receptors in target cell membranes; the
receptors have a binding site and an
activity site.
2. The hormone-receptor complex (as
first messenger) triggers a cascade of
biological activity.
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3. The hormone-receptor complex

generally activates a G protein, which
then activates the enzyme adenylate
cyclase that is bound to the inner cell
membrane.
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4. This enzyme removes two

phosphates from ATP to produce
cyclic AMP (the second messenger),
which in turn activates protein
enzymes that activate proteins.
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5. These activated proteins induce

changes in the cell.
6. Not all nonsteroid hormones use
cAMP; others use diacylglycerol (DAG)
or inositol triphosphate.
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E. Prostaglandins
1. Prostaglandins are locally produced
lipids that affect the organ in which they
are produced.
2. Prostaglandins produce a variety of
effects: some relax smooth muscle,
others contract smooth muscle, some
stimulate secretion of other
hormones, and others influence blood
pressure and inflammation.
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Control of Hormonal Secretions

A. Hormone levels are very precisely
regulated.
B. Control Mechanisms
1. Release of tropic hormones from the
hypothalamus controls secretions of the
anterior pituitary.
2. The nervous system influences
certain endocrine glands directly.
3. Other glands respond directly to
changes in the internal fluid
composition.
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C. Negative Feedback Systems

1. Commonly, negative feedback
mechanisms control hormonal
releases.
2. In a negative feedback system, a
gland is sensitive to the
concentration of the substance it
regulates or which regulates it.
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3. When the concentration of the

regulated substance reaches a certain
level (high or low), it inhibits the gland
from secreting more hormone until the
concentration returns to normal.
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Location of Major Endocrine Glands

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❖ Pituitary Gland
A. The pituitary gland is attached to the base
of the brain and has an anterior lobe
(anterior pituitary) and a posterior lobe
(posterior pituitary).
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B. The brain controls the activity of the

pituitary gland.
1. Releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus control the secretions of
the anterior pituitary.
a. The releasing hormones are
carried in the bloodstream directly
to the anterior pituitary by
hypophyseal portal veins.
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2. The posterior pituitary releases

hormones into the bloodstream in
response to nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus.
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C. Anterior Pituitary Hormones

1. The anterior pituitary consists
mostly of epithelial tissue arranged around
blood vessels and enclosed in a capsule
of collagenous connective tissue.
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2. Growth hormone (GH) stimulates

body cells to grow and reproduce; it also
speeds the rate at which cells use
carbohydrates and fats.
a. Growth hormone-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus
increases the amount of GH released, GH
release-inhibiting hormone
inhibits its release.
b. Nutritional status affects the
release of GH; more is released when
nutrients are insufficient.
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3. Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk

production following the birth of an
infant.
a. The effect of PRL in males is
less-well understood, although it may
cause a deficiency of male sex
hormones.
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4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

controls the secretion of hormones from
the thyroid gland.
a. Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH) from the
hypothalamus regulates the release
of TSH.
b. As blood concentrations of
thyroid hormones increases,
secretions of TRH and TSH
decrease.
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5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) controls the secretion of
hormones from the adrenal cortex.
a. It is regulated by
corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH) from the hypothalamus, and
stress can also increase its release.
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6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

and luteinizing hormone (LH) are
gonadotropins affecting the male and
female gonads (testes and ovaries).
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D. Posterior Pituitary Hormones

1. The posterior lobe consists of nerve
fibers and neuroglial cells that support
nerve fibers arising in the
hypothalamus.
2. Neurons in the hypothalamus
produce antidiuretic hormone and
oxytocin, which are stored in the
posterior pituitary.
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3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

produces its effect by causing the
kidneys to conserve water.
a. The hypothalamus regulates
the secretion of ADH based on the
amount of water in body fluids.
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4. Oxytocin plays a role in childbirth by

contracting muscles in the uterine wall,
and in milk-letdown by forcing milk into
ducts from the milk glands.
a. Stretching of the uterus in the
latter stages of pregnancy stimulates
release of oxytocin.
b. Suckling of an infant at the
breast stimulates release of
oxytocin after childbirth.
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Thyroid Gland
A. The thyroid gland is located below the
larynx and consists of two broad lobes
connected by an isthmus.
B. Structure of the Gland
1. The thyroid consists of secretory
parts called follicles filled with
hormone-storing colloid.
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C. Thyroid Hormones
1. The follicular cells produce two
iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine
(T4) (also called tetraiodothyronine)
and triiodothyronine (T3), that
together regulate energy metabolism.
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a. These two hormones increase

the rate at which cells release energy
from carbohydrates, enhance protein
synthesis, and stimulate the
breakdown and mobilization of lipids.
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b. These hormones are essential

for normal growth and
development.
c. The hypothalamus and
pituitary gland control release of
thyroid hormones.
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2. Extrafollicular cells of the thyroid

secrete calcitonin, which lowers blood
levels of calcium and phosphate
ions when they are too high.
a. Calcitonin increases the rate
at which calcium is stored in bones
and excreted in the urine.
b. Calcitonin secretion is
regulated by negative feedback
involving blood concentrations of
calcium.
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Parathyroid Glands
A. The four, tiny parathyroids are located on
the posterior of the thyroid.
B. Structure of the Glands
1. Parathyroid glands consist of tightly
packed secretory cells covered by a thin
capsule of connective tissue.
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C. Parathyroid Hormone
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
increases blood calcium ion
concentration and decreases phosphate
ion concentration.
2. PTH stimulates bone resorption by
osteoclasts, which releases calcium into
the blood.
3. PTH also influences the kidneys to
conserve calcium and causes increased
absorption of calcium in the
intestines.
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4. A negative feedback mechanism

involving blood calcium levels
regulates release of PTH.
D. Calcitonin and PTH exert opposite effects
in regulating calcium ion levels in the blood.
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❖ Adrenal Glands
A. The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys
enclosed in a layer of fat.
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B. Structure of the Glands

1. The pyramid-shaped glands consist
of an inner adrenal medulla and an
outer adrenal cortex.
2. The adrenal medulla is made up of
modified postganglionic neurons that
are connected to the sympathetic
nervous system.
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3. The adrenal cortex makes up most

of the adrenal glands and consists of
epithelial cells in three layers—an outer,
middle, and an inner zone.
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C. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

1. The adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine into the
blood stream.
2. The effects of these hormones
resemble those of the sympathetic division
neurotransmitters of the same name,
except that they last up to 10 times
longer when they are secreted as
hormones.
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3. The are used in times of stress and

for “fight or flight.”
4. Release of medullary hormones is
regulated by nervous impulses from the
central nervous system.
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D. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

1. The cells of the adrenal cortex
produce over 30 different steroids, some
of which are vital to survival, the most
important of which are aldosterone,
cortisol, and the sex hormones.
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2. Aldosterone
a. Aldosterone, a
mineralocorticoid, causes the kidneys to
conserve sodium ions and thus
water, and to excrete potassium
ions.
b. Aldosterone is secreted in
response to decreasing blood volume
and blood pressure as a result of
changes in the kidney.
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3. Cortisol
a. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid,
influences the metabolism of glucose,
protein, and fat in response to
conditions that stress the body
and require a greater supply of energy
in the bloodstream.
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b. A negative feedback
mechanism involving CRH from the
hypothalamus and ACTH from the
anterior pituitary controls the
release of cortisol.
c. Stress, injury, or disease can
also trigger increased release of
cortisol.
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4. Adrenal Sex Hormones

a. Sex hormones, produced in
the inner zone, are mostly of the male
type, but can be converted to
female hormones in the skin, liver, and
adipose tissues.
b. These hormones supplement
those released by the gonads and
may stimulate early development of
reproductive organs.
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❖ Pancreas
A. The pancreas secretes hormones as an
endocrine gland, and digestive juices to the
digestive tract as an exocrine gland.
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B. Structure of the Gland

1. The pancreas is an elongated organ
posterior to the stomach.
2. Its endocrine portions are the islets
of Langerhans that include two cell
types—alpha cells that secrete
glucagon, and beta cells that secrete
insulin.
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C. Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets

1. Glucagon increases the blood levels
of glucose by stimulating the
breakdown of glycogen and the
conversion of noncarbohydrates into
glucose.
a. The release of glucagon is
controlled by a negative feedback
system involving low blood glucose
levels.
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2. Insulin decreases the blood levels of

glucose by stimulating the liver to form
glycogen, increasing protein synthesis,
and stimulating adipose cells to store
fat.
a. The release of insulin is
controlled by a negative feedback
system involving high blood glucose
levels.
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3. Insulin and glucagon coordinate to

maintain a relatively stable blood
glucose concentration.
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❖ Other Endocrine Glands

A. Pineal Gland
1. The pineal gland, near the upper
portion of the thalamus, secretes
melatonin, which is involved in the
regulation of circadian rhythms of the
body.
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B. Thymus Gland
1. The thymus gland, lying between
the lungs under the sternum,
secretes thymosins that affect
production and differentiation of T
lymphocytes that are important in
immunity.
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C. Reproductive Glands
1. The ovaries produce estrogen and
progesterone.
2. The placenta produces estrogen,
progesterone, and a gonadotropin.
3. The testes produce testosterone.
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D. Digestive Glands
1. The digestive glands secrete
hormones associated with the
processes of digestion.
E. Other Hormone Producing Organs
1. The heart secretes atrial natriuretic
peptide affecting sodium and the
kidneys secrete erythropoietin for
blood cell production.
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❖ Stress and Health

A. Factors that serve as stressors to the
body produce stress and threaten
homeostasis.
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B. Types of Stress
1. Stress may be physical,
psychological, or some combination of
the two.
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2. Physical stress threatens the

survival of tissues, such as extreme cold,
prolonged exercise, or infections.
3. Psychological stress results from
real or perceived dangers, and
includes feelings of anger,
depression, fear, and grief;
sometimes even pleasant stimuli
cause stress.
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C. Response to Stress
1. Responses to stress are designed to
maintain homeostasis.
2. The hypothalamus controls the
general stress syndrome, which
involves increased sympathetic activity
and increased secretion of cortisol,
glucagon, growth hormone, and
antidiuretic hormone.